Against the backdrop of global efforts to combat climate change and China’s implementation of the dual-carbon strategy (carbon peaking and carbon neutrality), advancing the green and low-carbon transition of the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) industry represents a critical pathway toward achieving sustainable and high-quality development. Carbon footprint, as an important evaluation indicator, is crucial for the green manufacturing upgrade and international competitiveness enhancement of the TCM industry. This study systematically explores the connotation of green manufacturing of TCM and its intrinsic relationship with carbon footprint accounting. It also reviews current carbon footprint accounting policies, standards, and research advancements both domestically and internationally, particularly within the pharmaceutical sector. Based on life cycle assessment (LCA) theory and focusing on the unique characteristics of the TCM industry, this paper deeply reveals the key issues currently faced by carbon footprint accounting: weak data foundation and high uncertainty, ambiguous system boundaries and allocation rules, and the difficulty of general models in adapting to the spatio-temporal coupling characteristics of “energy-quality-efficiency” in TCM. Therefore, it is urgent to promote the localization and reconstruction of LCA theory, build a dynamic accounting model covering the entire chain from “medicinal materials-processing-preparation”, establish an industry-specific database, develop intelligent data collection technology, and promote the coordination of standard systems and policies. This research lays a theoretical foundation for constructing a novel evaluation paradigm for TCM green manufacturing-characterized by low carbon emissions, high product quality, and high operational efficiency and contributes to serving the dual-carbon strategy and the sustainable development of the TCM industry.

Objective To investigate the chemical constituents from Sanghuangporus vaninii and their activity against tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)-induced human rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast synovial cells (MH7A). Methods Isolation and purification were carried out by using various separation techniques such as silica gel, ODS column chromatography, and semi-preparative high-performance liquid chromatography. The structures of isolated compounds were elucidated through comprehensive spectroscopic analyses, such as UV, IR, HRESIMS, NMR, carbon spectrum calculation and ECD. Meanwhile, the activity of sesquiterpene compounds in inhibiting the proliferation of MH7A cells induced by TNF-α was evaluated by the CCK-8 method and the levels of inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-1β were detected by ELISA. Results A total of nine compounds were isolated from 95% ethanol extract of S. vaninii and were identified as (4S,5S,6R)-2-methyl-5,6-dihydroxy-[R-6-(4-hydroxymethyl)-3-cyclohexene]-furan-2(5H)-one (1), phellilane D (2), phellilane C (3), (＋)-γ-ionylideneacetic acid (4), elgonene A (5), (3E)-4-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-but-3-en-2-one (6), 3,4-dihydroxybenzoate (7), (E)-4-(4-hydroxyphenyl)but-3-en-2-one (8), protocatechualdehyde (9), respectively. The bioactivity results showed that compounds1 ,3 and4 significantly inhibited the proliferation of TNF-α-induced MH7A cells within 20 μmol/L, and the inhibition rates were (38.9 ± 1.32)%、(46.21 ± 0.86)% and (36.59 ± 1.51)% at 20 μmol/L, respectively. Furthermore, the ELISA results showed they effectively reduced the production of IL-6 and IL-1β on TNF-α-induced MH7A cells. Conclusion Compounds1 —5 were identified as bisabolane type sesquiterpenoids and6 —9 were identified as phenols. Compound1 was a new sesquiterpenoid and named as phellilane Q, Compound7 was first isolated from S. vaninii. Compounds1 ,3 and4 significantly suppressed the proliferation of TNF-α-induced MH7A cells and demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects.

Objective This study aimed to explore the bioactive constituents of Rosa odorata Sweet var. gigantea (Coll. et Hemsl.) Rehd. et Wils. fruits that intervene in the gastritis-cancer transformation process. Methods The transformation of human gastric mucosal epithelial cells (GES-1 cells) was induced by N-methyl-N′-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG) to obtain human gastric mucosal epithelial dermatitis-cancer transformation model cells (MC cells)., The activity screening was conducted on the different polar fractions from the 60% ethanol extract of R. odorata var. gigantea fruits. Active fractions were isolated and purified using multiple chromatographic techniques, including silica gel column chromatography, ODS column chromatography, Sephadex LH-20 column chromatography, and preparative high-performance liquid chromatography (preparative HPLC). The chemical structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated based on physico-chemical properties and spectroscopic data. The CCK-8 assay was utilized to evaluate the anti-proliferative activity of the isolated monomeric compounds against MC cells. Results A total of 18 compounds were isolated and identified from the active fractions of R. odorata var. gigantea fruits, namely: (2R,3R)-3-[(1'S,2'R,6'S)-2',6'-dihydroxy-1'-(galloyl)cyclohexyl]-2,3-dihydroxypropanoic acid (1), microphyllose A (2), caffeic acid (3), 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (4), 5-galloylquinic acid (5), ethyl vanillate (6), procyanidin B2 (7), 3-O-galloylquinic acid (8), gallocatechin gallate (9), 6-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose (10), methyl gallate (11), 3,4,5-tri-O-galloylquinic acid (12), ethyl gallate (13), 3,5,4'-trihydroxystilbene (14), quercitrin (15), quercetin (16), luteolin (17), and betulinic acid (18). The results of the activity assay indicated that compounds1 , 9 ,14 —18 with an inhibition rate exceeding 50% exhibited the following IC₅₀ values: 93.47, 81.79, 37.44, 81.58, 86.01, 44.02, and 66.12 μmol/L. Conclusion Compound1 is a novel compound, designated as gugongguoic acid A. Compound2 was isolated from the genus Rosa for the first time. Compounds5 ,9 ,11 ,13 ,15 , and17 were isolated from this plant species for the first time. All 18 compounds exhibited inhibitory activity against MC cell proliferation. Among them, compounds1 , 9 ,14 —18 showed inhibition rates greater than 50%, which represent potential bioactive constituents for intervening in the gastritis–cancer transformation process.

Objective To investigate the chemical constituents from the leaves of Musa × paradisiaca and their inhibitory activities on cell proliferation in vitro. Methods The compounds were isolated and purified using various chromatographic techniques, including silica gel, MCI gel CHP-20P, reversed-phase ODS, Sephadex LH-20 column chromatographies, and semi-preparative HPLC. Their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic methods such as NMR and MS. The inhibitory activities of all compounds on cell proliferation in vitro were evaluated using the CCK-8 assay. Results A total of 19 compounds were isolated from the leaves of Musa × paradisiaca and identified as di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (1), myristic acid (2), pentadecanoic acid (3), linoleic acid (4), dibutyl phthalate (5), ethyl 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzoate (6), dihydroactinidolide (7), MF-EA-705β (8), butyl 2-ethylhexyl phthalate (9), n-tetratriacont-20,23-dienoic acid (10), 3-hydroxystigmasta-5,22-dien-7-one (11), 3-hydroxystigmast-5-en-7-one (12), luffarin X (13), 6-hydroxystigmasta-4,22-dien-3-one (14), 6-hydroxystigmast-4-en-3-one(15), (3S,5R,6S,7E)-5,6-epoxy-3-hydroxy-7-megastigmen-9-one (16), ethyl p-hydroxybenzoate (17), p-diethoxybenzene (18), and methyl (9Z,12Z,15Z)-octadeca-9,12,15-trienoate (19). Among them, compounds2 , 5 ,7 ,11 ,13 ,15 , and17 exhibited certain anti-proliferative activities against human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG₂, cervical cancer Hela, breast cancer MCF-7, and malignant melanoma A375 cell lines, with median inhibition concentration (IC₅₀) values ranging from 40.26 to 97.75 μmol/L. Specifically, compounds7 and11 showed selective inhibitory activity against A375 cells (IC₅₀ = 43.0 and 50.0 μmol/L, respectively), which was slightly weaker than that of the positive control cisplatin (IC₅₀ = 40.13 μmol/L). In contrast, compounds2 and15 demonstrated stronger inhibitory effects against MCF-7 cells (IC₅₀ = 40.26 and 45.00 μmol/L, respectively) compared to cisplatin (IC₅₀ = 48.36 μmol/L). Conclusion Compounds1 and6 —19 were isolated from this genus for the first time, while compounds2 —5 were first identified from this specific plant. Furthermore, compounds2 ,7 ,11 , and15 exhibited selective inhibitory activities against specific tumor cell lines .

Objective This study aimed to systematically analyze the chemical constituents of the classical Chinese herbal formula Yinchen Wuling San (YCWLS) and identify its prototype components absorbed into the bloodstream using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with Orbitrap tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-Orbitrap-MS/MS). Methods The standard aqueous extract of YCWLS was prepared by decoction. UPLC-Orbitrap-MS/MS, combined with a self-built chemical database, was employed for qualitative analysis of the chemical constituents in the extract. A rat gavage administration experiment was conducted, and serum samples were collected. Prototype components absorbed into the bloodstream and metabolites were screened and identified by comparing the total ion chromatograms of blank serum and drug-containing serum. Results A total of 192 chemical constituents were identified in the aqueous extract of YCWLS, encompassing diverse structural types such as phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, coumarins, fatty acids, and nucleosides. Among these, 17 components were absorbed into the bloodstream in their prototype forms, including chlorogenic acid, 3-hydroxybenzyl alcohol, feruloyl putrescine, 2,5-dihydroxycinnamic acid, 2-methoxycinnamic acid, and 1-caffeoylquinic acid, etc. Conclusion This study comprehensively characterized the chemical composition group of the standard aqueous extract of YCWLS, elucidated its prototype components absorbed into the bloodstream and speculated its serum metabolites. The findings provide a crucial foundation for understanding the pharmacodynamic material basis and mechanism of action of this formula. Additionally, the methodology established herein offers a valuable reference for the modern research of other classical Chinese herbal prescription.

Objective To analyze the quality marker (Q-Marker) of charred Shanzha (Crataegi Fructus) before and after processing based on fingerprint and multivariate statistical analysis, and guided by the differential components, optimize the processing technology of charred Crataegi Fructus using thermal analysis technology combined with single factor-response surface methodology, while quantitatively analyzing the color, odor, and taste before and after processing. Methods The HPLC fingerprint of charred Crataegi Fructus was established and subjected to multivariate statistical analysis to identify differential components before and after processing. Network pharmacology was further applied to preliminarily predict the potential action mechanisms of these differential components. The pyrolysis characteristics of Crataegi Fructus powder were analyzed using thermal analysis, and the screened markers—chlorogenic acid, hyperoside, and isoquercitrin—were selected as indicator compounds. The weights of these indicators were determined using the AHP-CRITIC comprehensive weighting method. The optimal processing temperature and time were then optimized through single-factor experiments and response surface methodology. Finally, electronic sensory technology was employed to quantitatively analyze differences in color, odor, and taste between raw and charred Crataegi Fructus. Results The fingerprint of charred Crataegi Fructus exhibited 10 common peaks, among which four major chemical components were identified. The similarity of all tested samples exceeded 0.9. Multivariate statistical analysis effectively distinguished raw Crataegi Fructus from charred Crataegi Fructus. Based on the “Five Principles” of traditional Chinese medicine Q-Marker and supported by network pharmacological analysis, chlorogenic acid, rutin, isoquercitrin, and hyperoside were screened as Q-Marker reflecting the quality changes before and after processing. Using chlorogenic acid, isoquercitrin, and hyperoside among these Q-Marker as indicator compounds, the optimal processing parameters for charred Crataegi Fructus were optimized to 238 ℃ for 5.89 min. Electronic sensory evaluation revealed significant differences in color, odor, and taste between raw and charred Crataegi Fructus. Multivariate analysis of electronic nose data identified 11 sensors responding to compounds that serve as key indicators for discriminating between raw and processed products. Conclusion This study screened out the different components in the processing of charred Crataegi Fructus, and used them as the key index to optimize the processing technology of charred Crataegi Fructus, and determined the best processing technology. At the same time, the differences in color, odor and taste of charred Crataegi Fructus before and after processing were accurately quantified, which provided a scientific basis for the quality evaluation of charred Crataegi Fructus.

Objective Based on the supramolecular of traditional Chinese medicine (STCM) theory, this study systematically explored the material basis of Huangqi (Astragali Radix)-Ezhu (Curcumae Rhizoma) (AC) herb pair for synergistic anti-liver cancer, aiming to reveal the scientific connotation of its compatibility. Methods The STCM were separated by the centrifugation-dialysis method. The particle size and morphology were characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS) technology and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and the formation mechanism was analyzed by spectroscopic technology. The chemical composition was further analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Its anti-liver cancer activity in vitro was evaluated. Results The results showed that STCM existed in both the AC co-decoction and the physically mixed solution, but the STCM in the co-decoction (AC-STCM) had smaller particle size, more uniform distribution, and higher stability; its self-assembly process may be jointly driven by components such as calycosin, formononetin, and demethoxycurcumin through hydrogen bonding and π-π stacking interactions. AC-STCM exhibited significant inhibitory effects on HepG2 cells (P < 0.01), with its in vitro antitumor activity notably superior to that of the co-decoction and the physically mixed STCM (Mix-STCM) (P < 0.01), while the co-decoction itself also showed better antitumor effects than the physical mixture (P < 0.01). Conclusion During the decoction process, AC herb pairs self-assemble through non-covalent bonds to form a stable STCM system, which constitutes an important material basis for their synergistic anti-liver cancer effects. This study is the first to explain the scientific connotation of AC for synergistic anti-liver cancer from the perspective of STCM, which provides a theoretical basis and experimental basis for the modernization of the theory of compound compatibility of traditional Chinese medicine.

Objective To optimize the preparation process parameters of Anshen Dingzhi Pills (ADP, 安神定志丸) and explore its efficacy in alleviating cognitive impairment in sleep deprived model rats. Methods Single factor experiments were conducted on the ratio of powder to honey, drying time and drying temperature. The appearance characteristics, disintegration time limit and six index components (polygalaxanthone III, 3,6′-disinapoylsucrose, ginsenoside Rb₁, β-asarone, dehydrotumulosic acid and pachymic acid) were used as comprehensive evaluation indexes. The AHP-entropy weight method combined with the Box-Behnken design-response surface method (BBD-RSM) were used to optimize the best process parameters for the preparation of ADP. The improved multi-platform water environment method was used to induce a rat model of sleep deprivation. The efficacy of ADP on sleep deprivation rats with cognitive impairment was evaluated by motor function, learning and memory performance, hippocampal histopathological changes, serum levels of inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-6 and oxidative stress markers in brain tissue, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), reduced glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA). Results The optimal preparation process parameters for ADP was determined as follows, the ratio of honey to medicinal powder of 0.316:1, drying time of 14.0 h and drying temperature of 50 ℃. Pharmacological evaluation demonstrated that the prepared ADP significantly reduced escape latency in sleep deprived rats, increased the number of platform crossings, time spent in the target quadrant, and novel object recognition index. Additionally, it markedly alleviated neuronal structural damage in the hippocampal CA1 region, decreased serum levels of inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6) and effectively regulated the expression levels of oxidative stress (SOD, GSH and MDA) in brain tissue. Conclusion The optimized ADP preparation process is stable and has consistent quality, which can significantly improve the cognitive function and hippocampal nerve cell morphology of sleep-deprived rats, reduce the levels of inflammatory factors, alleviate oxidative stress damage, and also provide a scientific reference basis for the development of ADP preparations and clinical applications.

Objective To optimize the extraction process of the classic prescription Baizhu Powder (白术散), and verify its anti-inflammatory activity through cell anti-inflammatory activity experiments, providing a basis for the development of Baizhu Powder. Methods An HPLC detection method was established for the index components puerarin, daidzin, ginsenoside Rg₁, daidzein, ginsenoside Rb₁, and ammonium glycyrrhizinate. Taking the content of index components, paste yield and oil extraction volume as evaluation indicators, the comprehensive weights of each index were determined by analytic hierarchy process (AHP)-entropy weight method. Based on the single-factor experiment, the Box-Behnken design-response surface method (BBD-RSM) was adopted to optimize the Baizhu Powder extraction process. The anti-inflammatory activity of Baizhu Powder was investigated by inducing an inflammatory model of human normal colonic epithelial cells (NCM460) with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and the feasibility of the process was verified. Results The optimized extraction process of Baizhu Powder was 10 times the volume of water, soaking for 30 min, extraction time for 90 min, and extraction twice. Under these conditions, the average comprehensive score of the three batches of process validation was 0.974, and the RSD value was 1.94%. The pharmacodynamic verification results of Baizhu Powder indicated that the Baizhu Powder prepared by the optimized process could significantly reduce the levels of inflammatory factors interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in the LPS-induced NCM460 cell inflammatory model. The level of the anti-inflammatory factor IL-10 was increased, and there was no significant difference compared with the Baizhu Powder benchmark sample. Conclusion The Baizhu Powder extraction process optimized by AHP-entropy weight method combined with BBD-RSM is stable and reliable, which can provide a basis for the subsequent research and development of Baizhu Powder.

Objective To investigate the correlation between intrinsic components, visual color, and antioxidant activity during the “nine-steaming and nine-sun-drying” processing of Heshouwu (Polygoni Multiflori Radix, PMR), providing a reference for determining the processing degree and quality control. Methods A colorimeter was used to objectively quantify the color of samples at different steaming and sun-drying cycles. HPLC was used to establish fingerprints, HPLC-Q-TOF-MS was employed to analysis characteristic peaks. Alcohol-soluble extract content was determined according to the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2025 edition). Polysaccharide content was measured using the phenol-sulfuric acid method. Antioxidant activity was evaluated through DPPH radical scavenging capacity, ABTS radical scavenging assays, and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) method to determine total antioxidant capacity. Pearson correlation and regression analyses were conducted between the components, color values, and antioxidant activity. Cluster analysis, principal component analysis (PCA), and partial least squares regression (PLSR) were applied to determine the processing stages of “nine-steaming and nine-sun-drying” PMR, while entropy-weighted TOPSIS was used to identify its the optimal processing endpoint. Results During processing, the sample color gradually darkened, and chromaticity values decreased. Polysaccharide content increased progressively, while alcohol-soluble extract content first increased and then declined. A total of 26 chromatographic peaks were identified in the fingerprints, and the components of 25 of them were identified. Correlation analysis revealed significant relationships between intrinsic components, color values, and antioxidant activity. The processing stages were divided into initial, middle, and final phases, with the seven steaming and sun-drying cycle achieving the highest comprehensive score. Conclusion Significant changes in component content, color, and antioxidant activity occur during the processing of PMR, with notable correlations among them. The integrated “color-component-antioxidant activity” analysis enables objective discrimination of processing techniques and quality control in “nine-steaming and nine-sun-drying” PMR.

Objective This study investigated the effects of critical process parameters (CPPs, e.g., extraction temperature, time, and solid-liquid ratio) on the physical properties and the content of 12 effective components in both alcoholic and aqueous extracts of Guizhi Fuling Capsules (GFC, 桂枝茯苓胶囊). The correlations between physical properties and effective components were analyzed to provide a basis for process optimization and quality control. Methods A single-factor experimental design was adopted. Different process parameters such as extraction temperature (set control temperature of electric heating jacket), extraction time and solid-liquid ratio were set to prepare the corresponding alcohol extract and water extract, and the particle size, polydispersion index (PDI), ζ potential, conductivity, pH value, total solid content and refractive indexof each intermediate were determined. The contents of 12 effective components (gallic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, oxypaeoniflorin, ethyl gallate, benzoic acid, 1,2,3,4,6-O-pentagalloylglucose, cinnamaldehyde, amygdalin, albiflorin, paeoniflorin, cinnamic acid, paeonol) were quantified by UPLC. Correlations among CPPs, physical parameters, and effective components were analyzed via the chemometric analysis, including orthogonal partial least squares-discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA), Pearson correlation, grey relational analysis, and linear regression model analysis. Results The CPPs exert certain influences on the physical parameters and effective components of GFC alcoholic extracts and aqueous extracts. Specifically, for the alcoholic extraction process, when the temperature of the electric heating mantle is controlled at ≤ 200 ℃, with an extraction duration of 1.5 h and a solid-liquid ratio ranging from 1:6 to 1:8; and for the aqueous extraction process, when the electric heating mantle temperature is maintained at 200—250 ℃, extraction time is set to 1.5—2.0 h and the solid-liquid ratio is 1:6—1:8, the contents of most bioactive substances are relatively high. Furthermore, the chemometric analysis results indicated that ζ potential, conductivity, and total solids correlated well with the content of amygdalin in alcoholic extracts under different solid-liquid ratios (well-fitted, R² > 0.7). And in aqueous extracts under different temperatures, particle size and conductivity showed some correlation with cinnamic acid content, but with poor fitting. Conclusion Critical process parameters significantly influence the correlation between physical properties and effective components by modulating the solution microenvironment and dissolution behavior. Conductivity, ζ potential and total solid content can serve as important bases for the study of the “quantity-quality” transfer law in the process of traditional Chinese medicine manufacturing.

Objective To elucidate how Tongmai Yangxin Pill (通脉养心丸, TMYX) confers cardioprotective effects during myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury (MI/RI) through the regulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α)-mediated mitochondrial function. Methods A hypoxia-reoxygenation (H/R) model in cardiomyocytes was established. After intervention with TMYX, intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were measured using DCFH-DA and MitoSOX^TM red fluorescent probes. Cellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) content was quantified using an enhanced ATP assay kit. Changes in mitochondrial membrane potential were evaluated by JC-1 staining. Mitochondrial respiratory function was assessed using Seahorse XF cell mitochondrial stress test. Mitochondrial morphology and ultrastructural alterations were examined using MitoTracker staining and transmission electron microscopy. Western blotting and qRT-PCR were used to determine the expression levels of proteins and genes associated with mitochondrial fusion and fission [mitofusin 1 (Mfn1), mitofusin 2 (Mfn2), fission 1 (Fis1), dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1)], biogenesis [nuclear respiratory factor 1 (Nrf1), mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM), mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy number] and autophagy [Beclin1, PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1), Parkin, p62]. To further investigate the effects of TMYX on the above-mentioned functions of H9c2 cells after PGC-1α silencing expression through PGC-1α siRNA transfection experiment. Results Compared with model group, TMYX significantly enhanced mitochondrial ATP synthesis (P < 0.01), improved mitochondrial membrane potential (P < 0.01), reduced oxidative stress (P < 0.01), and promoted mitochondrial autophagy (P < 0.05, 0.01). After silencing PGC-1α, the protective effect of TMYX on mitochondrial function was significantly weakened (P < 0.05, 0.01). Conclusion TMYX could effectively improve mitochondrial dysfunction and morphological changes induced by MI/RI by regulating mitochondrial biosynthesis, dynamic balance and autophagy through PGC-1α. This study reveals PGC-1α as a core factor regulating mitochondrial function and its potential therapeutic value in MI/RI, providing new ideas for the treatment of MI/RI.

Objective To investigate the therapeutic effect and mechanism of tanshinone II_A on motor function recovery after brachial plexus root avulsion (BPA) using a rat brachial plexus root avulsion (BPA)-replantation model and an hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂)-induced oxidative damage model in NSC-34 cells. Methods A total of 60 SD rats were randomly divided into sham group, model group, tanshinone II_A low- and high-dose (10, 30 mg/kg) groups, with 15 rats in each group. After modeling, continuous administration was performed for eight weeks. Motor function recovery was evaluated using Terzis grooming test (TGT). The biceps brachii muscle was weighed and processed for hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining to assess morphological changes. Motor neuron survival in the spinal cord was determined by neutral red staining. Axonal regeneration was assessed by Fluoro-Gold retrograde labeling and immunofluorescence staining for choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and neurofilament 200 (NF200) in the musculocutaneous nerve. Immunofluorescence was performed to detect ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba1), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) expressions. Level of malondialdehyde (MDA) and activity of superoxide dismutase in the injured spinal cord were measured. The protein expressions of Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate l (Rac1), cell division control protein 42 (Cdc42), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and c-Jun in the injured spinal cord were detected by Western blotting. In vitro, control group, model group, tanshinone II_A group and Rac1 inhibitor group were established. NSC-34 cells were induced with 400 μmol/L H₂O₂ to cause oxidative damage. After intervention with tanshinone II_A or NSC 23766, cell viability was assessed using CCK-8 assay. Levels of MDA, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activity of SOD were measured, and the expressions of Rac1/JNK pathway-related proteins was analyzed by Western blotting. Results The BPA model was successfully established as evidenced by consistently 0 TGT scores in model group at 1 week post-surgery. Compared with model group, tanshinone II_A significantly improved the TGT scores (P < 0.05, 0.01), enhanced axonal regeneration (P < 0.01), increased motor neuron count (P < 0.01), mitigated muscle atrophy (P < 0.05, 0.01), and reduced the expressions of Iba1 and GFAP (P < 0.05, 0.01). Meanwhile, tanshinone II_A improved oxidative stress damage, including decreased nNOS positive motor neurons (P < 0.05, 0.01), reduced MDA level (P < 0.001), elevated SOD activity (P < 0.01), while up-regulating Rac1, Cdc42, JNK and c-Jun expressions in spinal cord tissue (P < 0.01, 0.001). In vitro, tanshinone II_A significantly increased viability of H₂O₂-injured NSC-34 cells (P < 0.01), elevated SOD activity (P < 0.01), decreased MDA and ROS levels (P < 0.01), up-regulated Rac1, Cdc42, JNK and c-Jun protein expressions (P < 0.05, 0.01, 0.001). Notably, these protective effects of tanshinone II_A were partially attenuated by co-administration of Rac1 inhibitor NSC 23766 (P < 0.05, 0.01). Conclusion Tanshinone II_A promotes motor function recovery following brachial plexus root avulsion by activating Rac1/JNK signaling pathway, which attenuates oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, thereby enhancing motor neuron survival and axonal regeneration.

Objective To investigate the therapeutic effect and mechanism of total triterpenoid from Cyclocarya paliurus (CPT) on high-fat diet (HFD)-induced metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) mice. Methods C57BL/6J mice were randomly divided into control group, model group, CPT (100 mg/kg) group, metformin (MET, 100 mg/kg) group and CPT + MET group. Except for the control group receiving regular feeding, all other groups were fed HFD for 12 weeks to establish MAFLD models. After successful establishment of MAFLD model, drugs were given eight weeks. During the experiment, the activity levels of mice were observed, their body weight and food intake were measured regularly. One week before the end of medication, the oxygen consumption (VO₂), carbon dioxide production (VCO₂) and energy consumption of mice were measured using indirect calorimetry. After the end of administration, glucose tolerance test and insulin resistance test were conducted to detect glucose tolerance. Liver weight was measured, and liver index was calculated. The levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), γ-glutamyl transpeptidase (γ-GT), triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), fasting blood glucose (FBG), fasting insulin (FINS) in serum were detected, and insulin resistance index (HOMA-IR) was calculated. The levels of TC and TG in hepatic tissues and feces, as well as the levels of total bile acids (TBA) in serum, hepatic tissues and feces were measured. Hematoxylin-eosin and oil red O staining were used to observe the pathological changes in hepatic tissues of mice. Five hepatic tissue and five colon content samples from each group were randomly selected for bile acid (BAs) metabolomics analysis. The mRNA expressions of cholesterol 7α-hydoxylase 1 (Cyp7a1), Cyp7b1, Cyp27a1, Cyp8b1, bile acid coenzyme A synthetase (Bacs), bile acid coenzyme a: amino acid N-acyltransferase (Baat), bile salt export pump (Bsep), recombinant Na⁺ taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide (Ntcp), farnesoid X receptor (FXR), small heterodimeric partner (SHP), fibroblast growth factor receptor 4 (FGFR4), sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c), stearyl coenzyme A desaturation enzyme 1 (SCD1), fatty acid synthetase (FASN), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα), carnitine palmitoyl transferase 1 (CPT1), lipoprotein lipase (LPL), microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTTP) in hepatic tissues and FXR, fibroblast growth factor 15 (FGF15), apical sodium-dependent bile acid transporter (Abst), intestinal bile acid-binding protein (Ibabp), organic solute transporter-α (Ost-α), Ost-β in ileum tissues were determined by qRT-PCR. Western blotting was used to detect the protein expressions of CYP7a1, Cyp7b1, Cyp27a1, Cyp8b1, FXR, SHP, FGFR4, SREBP-1c, SCD1, FASN, PPARα, CPT1, LPL, MTTP in hepatic tissues and FXR, FGF15, Abst in ileum tissues. Results Compared with model group, CPT and its association with MET significantly reduced the body weight, improved glucose tolerance, elevated insulin sensitivity, lowered liver weight and liver index, raised VO₂, VCO₂, VO₂/VCO₂, and daytime and nighttime energy consumptions and total energy consumption in mice (P < 0.01). CPT and its association with MET reduced ALT, AST, ALP, γ-GT, TC, TG, LDL-C, FINS, FBG, TBA levels in serum and TC and TG levels in hepatic tissue as well as HOMA-IR, elevated levels of HDL-C in serum and TC, TG, TBA in feces, reduced liver histopathological scores and lipid deposition (P < 0.01). CPT and its association with MET elevated hepatic tissue TBA level, lowered the contents of unconjugated BAs, primary BAs, secondary BAs and the ratio of primary BAs/secondary BAs in hepatic tissues, as well as the levels of unconjugated BAs and secondary BAs in colon contents, elevated the content of conjugated BAs and the ratio of conjugated BAs/unconjugated BAs in hepatic tissue, as well as the levels of conjugated BAs, primary BAs and the ratios of conjugated BAs/unconjugated BAs, primary BAs/secondary BAs in colon contents (P < 0.01). In addition, CPT and its association with MET elevated Cyp7a1, Cyp7b1, Cyp27a1, Bacs, Baat, FXR, SHP, Bsep, Ntcp, PPARα, CPT1, LPL, MTTP mRNA expressions and Cyp7a1, Cyp7b1, Cyp27a1, FXR, SHP, PPARα, CPT1, LPL, MTTP protein expressions in hepatic tissues, reduced the mRNA and protein expressions of Cyp8b1, FGFR4, SREBP-1c, SCD1, FASN in hepatic tissues, depressed FXR, FGF15, Asbt, Ibabp, Ost-α, Ost-β mRNA expressions and FXR, FGF15, Asbt protein expressions in ileum tissues (P < 0.01). The combination of CPT and MET showed better efficacy than CPT alone (P < 0.05, 0.01). Conclusion CPT may activate the hepatic FXR/SHP pathway by inhibiting intestinal FXR/FGF15 signaling, facilitating the synthesis of BAs in the hepatic intestinal circulation, repressing their ileal reabsorption, and boosting the excretion of BAs with feces. The activated hepatic FXR/SHP pathway restrains lipid synthesis by suppressing SREBP-1c/SCD1/FASN signaling axis, while activated hepatic FXR promotes lipid oxidation and lipid decomposition through activating the PPARα/CPT1 and LPL/MTTP signaling axes to treat MAFLD.

Objective To investigate the ameliorative effect of combination of schisandrin B (Sch B) and platycodin D (PD) on pulmonary fibrosis, and explore whether it acts by inhibiting Janus kinase 2 (JAK2)/signal transducer and activator of transcription 6 (STAT6) pathway and regulating the balance of macrophage M1/M2 polarization. Methods A rat model of pulmonary fibrosis was established by intratracheal instillation of bleomycin. The rats were randomly divided into control group, model group, prednisone (5 mg/kg) group, Sch B (10 mg/kg) group, PD (20 mg/kg) group and Sch B + PD group, with eight rats in each group. After 28 d of administration, lung index was measured. Pathological changes in lung tissue were observed using hematoxylin-eosin (HE), Masson and Sirius red staining. Levels of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), as well as hydroxyproline (Hyp) level in lung tissue were detected. Expressions of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and E-cadherin in lung tissue were assessed by immunofluorescence. The mRNA expressions of M1/M2 macrophage markers [inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), TNF-α, IL-1β, cluster of differentiation 206 (CD206), arginase 1 (Arg1) and IL-10] in lung tissue were measured by qRT-PCR. The expressions of JAK2/STAT6 pathway related proteins in lung tissue was determined by Western blotting. In vitro experiments, the effect of Sch B combined with PD on JAK2/STAT6 pathway were validated using an IL-4/IL-13-induced macrophage M2 polarization model. Results Compared with control group, lung index of rats in model group was significantly increased (P < 0.01), with a large amount of inflammatory cell infiltration in alveoli, increased alveolar diaphragmatic rupture and severe alveolar damage, levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6 in BALF and Hyp in lung tissue were significantly increased (P < 0.01); The expression of α-SMA in lung tissue was significantly increased (P < 0.01), while the expression of E-cadherin was significantly decreased (P < 0.01); The expression levels of iNOS, TNF-α, IL-1β, CD206 and Arg1 mRNA in lung tissue were significantly increased (P < 0.01), while the expression level of IL-10 mRNA was significantly decreased (P < 0.01); The expression levels of JAK2 and p-STAT6/STAT6 proteins in lung tissue were significantly increased (P < 0.01). Compared with model group, the combination of Sch B and PD could significantly reduce the lung index of rats (P < 0.01), improve pulmonary fibrosis pathological damage, inhibit the release of inflammatory factors and Hyp level in lung tissue (P < 0.01), reduce α-SMA expression (P < 0.01), partially restore E-cadherin expression (P < 0.01), significantly down-regulate iNOS, TNF-α, IL-1β, CD206, Arg1 mRNA expressions in lung tissue (P < 0.01), up-regulate IL-10 mRNA expression (P < 0.01), inhibit JAK2 and p-STAT6/STAT6 protein expressions (P < 0.01). The in vitro experimental results showed that compared with control group, the expression levels of CD206 and Arg1 mRNA in model group were significantly increased (P < 0.01), and the expressions of JAK2 and p-STAT6/STAT6 proteins were significantly up-regulated (P < 0.01); Compared with model group, the combination of Sch B and PD significantly inhibited the expressions of M2 polarization markers CD206 and Arg1 (P < 0.01), and down-regulated the expressions of JAK2 and p-STAT6/STAT6 proteins (P < 0.01). Compared with the group treated alone, the combination of Sch B and PD showed better efficacy (P < 0.05, 0.01). Conclusion The combination of Sch B and PD could synergistically alleviate pulmonary fibrosis, and its mechanism may be related to inhibiting the activation of JAK2/STAT6 pathway, thereby correcting the imbalance of M1/M2 macrophage polarization.

Objective To explore the effect and potential mechanism of harpagide on lipid metabolism and bone metabolism in atherosclerosis (AS) mice fed a high-fat diet. Methods AS model was constructed by feeding apolipoprotein E knock-out (ApoE^-/-) mice with high-fat diet for eight weeks, mice were randomly divided into model group, atorvastatin (2.6 mg/kg) group, and harpagide (20 mg/kg) group, with eight mice in each group. Additionally, eight C57BL/6N wild-type mice were included as control group and fed a standard diet. After nine weeks of drug intervention, micro-CT was used to analyze changes in bone microarchitecture. Infrared spectroscopy was employed to examine bone material composition. Hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining was applied to observe the morphology of femoral trabeculae, and tartrate resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) staining was used to quantify osteoclast numbers in the femur. Levels of total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), TRAP and C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (CTX-1) in serum were measured using biochemical assays. Western blotting was performed to detect protein expression levels of nuclear factor of activated T cells 1 (NFATc1), Fos proto-oncogene (c-Fos), cathepsin K, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1β (PGC-1β), estrogen-related receptor α (ERRα) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) in bone tissue. Results Harpagide significantly improved bone microarchitecture and bone material composition in AS mice (P < 0.05, 0.01), reduced levels of TC, LDL-C, HDL-C in serum and AS index (P < 0.05, 0.01), decreased levels of bone resorption markers CTX-1 and TRAP in serum (P < 0.01), down-regulated the expressions of bone resorption-related proteins c-Fos, NFATc1 and cathepsin K in bone tissue (P < 0.01). Additionally, harpagide suppressed the protein expression levels of PGC-1β, ERRα and PPARγ in bone tissue of AS mice (P < 0.05, 0.01). Conclusion Harpagide ameliorates dyslipidemia and suppresses bone resorption in AS mice, thereby exerting anti-osteoporotic effects. The mechanism may involve the inhibition of PPARγ/ERRα/PGC-1β signaling pathway.

Objective To explore the mechanism of Wutou Decoction (乌头汤) in treating knee osteoarthritis (KOA) by regulating Indian hedgehog factor (Ihh)-glioma associated oncogene homolog (Gli) signaling pathway. Methods Male SD rats were randomly divided into sham group, model group, celecoxib (24 mg/kg) group, Wutou Decoction low-, medium-, and high-dose (1.05, 2.10, 4.20 g/kg) groups, with 10 rats in each group. The improved anterior cruciate ligament resection technique was used to establish a KOA model, after eight weeks of drug intervention, mechanical pain threshold, thermal pain threshold and climbing ability were measured. ELISA was used to detect the levels of matrix metalloproteinase-3 (MMP-3), MMP-13 and type II collagen (Col II) in serum. The morphological changes of knee joint were observed by hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining. Micro computed tomography (Micro-CT) technology was used to analyze the changes in bone microstructure of knee joint. Western blotting was used to detect the expressions of Ihh, patched 1 (Ptch1), Gli and MMP-13 proteins in knee joint. Results Compared with sham group, rats in model group showed defects and thinning of cartilage surface layer, decreased and disordered cell arrangement, decreased cross-sectional and coronal bone trabeculae, sparse distribution, decreased bone density, thermal pain threshold and mechanical pain threshold were significantly reduced (P < 0.001), slope angle was decreased (P < 0.001), levels of MMP-3 and MMP-13 in serum were significantly increased (P < 0.05, 0.01), Col II level was significantly decreased (P < 0.05), and expression levels of Ihh-Gli signaling pathway related proteins in knee joint were significantly increased (P < 0.001). Compared with model group, the cartilage surface of rats in Wutou Decoction group was smooth, the number of cells was increased, and the morphology was intact. The knee joint cross-section and coronal bone trabeculae were increased, and the distribution was dense. The thermal pain threshold and mechanical pain threshold were significantly increased (P < 0.05, 0.001), slope angle was increased (P < 0.01, 0.001), levels of MMP-3 and MMP-13 in serum were significantly reduced (P < 0.05), level of Col II was significantly increased (P < 0.05), and expression levels of Ihh-Gli signaling pathway related proteins in knee joint were significantly reduced (P < 0.05, 0.001). Conclusion Wutou Decoction protects articular cartilage by inhibiting excessive activation of Ihh-Gli signaling pathway, reducing abnormal proliferation and differentiation of chondrocytes.

Objective To overcome the clinical limitations of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), address the inadequate understanding of individual differences and pathological mechanisms in the antidepressant combination of Xiaoyao Powders with SSRIs, achieve precise combination medication, and promote the transformation of depression treatment toward a “data intelligence-driven” model. Methods A systematic search was conducted in CNKI, VIP, and Wanfang databases using combined subject terms: “Xiaoyaosan + Paroxetine” “Xiaoyaosan + Escitalopram/Citalopram” “Xiaoyaosan + Fluoxetine” “Xiaoyaosan + Sertraline” and “Xiaoyaosan + Fluvoxamine”. The search period spanned from the establishment of each database to May 10, 2025. Literatures were screened based on inclusion and exclusion criteria, and key data were extracted. A database titled “Xiaoyao Powders combined with SSRIs for treating depression” was constructed after verification and cleaning. The Apriori algorithm was applied to mine the association rules between “administration regimens and adverse reactions”, with lift used to quantify the association strength. A hypernetwork of “administration regimens-depression types” was built on the basis of hypergraphs, and the PageRank algorithm was integrated to calculate node weights. A comprehensive efficacy factor was introduced to optimize hyperedge weights, enabling precise matching between depression types and optimal traditional Chinese medicine combination regimens. Results A total of 78 literature was valid and included, with the most study on Xiaoyao Powders with Fluoxetine (33) whereas the least study on Xiaoyao Powders with Fluvoxamine (1). When depression subtypes are not differentiated, the combination of Xiaoyao Powders with Fluoxetine exhibits the highest utilization frequency. Jiawei Xiaoyao Powders was the most used among the applicaitons of Xiaoyao Powders with SSRIs (21). Apriori algorithm analysis showed that the combination of Xiaoyao Powders with Paroxetine was associated with a wide range of adverse reactions but weak single-type associations. Strong associations were observed between the combination with Escitalopram/Citalopram and dry mouth or gastrointestinal reactions, as well as between the combination with Sertraline and diarrhea or nausea. Hypergraph analysis revealed that the “Xiaoyao Powders with Fluoxetine” node had the highest hyperdegree, treating seven depression subtypes; the “depression” node also had the highest hyperdegree, matching five combination regimens; the ranking of hyperedge weights clarified the optimal regimens for different depression types. For example, the “Xiaoyao Powders with Escitalopram/Citalopram” combination was prioritized for senile depression patients, while the “Xiaoyao Powders with Fluoxetine” regimen was preferred for postpartum depression patients. Conclusion The Apriori algorithm can accurately analyze the association characteristics between “combination regimens and adverse reactions”, while hypergraphs can effectively achieve high-order matching between “administration regimens and depression types”. The combination of the two methodologies provides a quantitative basis for the precision medication strategy of depression integrating “disease-symptom-medicine”, and lays a foundation for establishing a new evidence-based, quantitative, and predictable paradigm for the combinations of traditional Chinese and Western medicines.

Objective To explore the genetic causal relationship between gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) by Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis based on the theory of “gather in stomach and focus on lung”, and to predict potential Chinese herbal medicines that may intervene in GERD-related COPD. Methods The genome-wide association study (GWAS) datasets for GERD and COPD were obtained from the IEU Open GWAS database. A bidirectional two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis was applied to evaluate the causal relationship between the two conditions, followed by a series of quality control procedures. Subsequently, proximal genes of the instrumental variables were extracted using the Ensembl database, and functional enrichment analysis was performed to explore the potential mechanisms by which GERD influences COPD risk. Furthermore, protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis was conducted on these proximal genes to identify core genes involved in this process. Potential intervention chemical components and Chinese herbal medicines were predicted using the Comparative Toxicogenomics Database (CTD) and the Coremine Medical database, respectively, and statistical analysis was carried out on the medicinal properties and functions of the identified herbs. The CytoNCA plugin was used to screen core Chinese herbal medicines, and molecular docking of traditional Chinese medicine components with core genes to preliminarily verify the prediction results. Results Forward MR analysis indicated that GERD was causally associated with a significantly increased risk of COPD onset; quality control results confirmed the robustness of this finding. Reverse MR analysis did not reveal evidence supporting a causal effect of COPD on GERD. A total of 135 proximal genes of the instrumental variables were identified, which were primarily enriched in biological pathways such as the regulation of Nuclear Factor-Kappa B (NF-κB) signal transduction, the Interleukin-17 (IL-17) signaling pathway, the Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) signaling pathway, the Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase-Protein Kinase B (PI3K-Akt) signaling pathway, and natural killer cell-mediated cytotoxicity. The top five genes identified through PPI analysis were determined as core genes. Using the CTD and Coremine Medical databases, 163 chemical components and 167 Chinese herbal medicines were predicted. Statistical analysis of the medicinal properties of the herbs showed that among the Four Natures, cold and warm properties predominated, followed by neutral; among the five flavors, bitter, sweet, and pungent were most common; the primary meridian tropism was the lung meridian, followed by the liver, spleen, and stomach meridians; in terms of functions, tonifying deficiency and resolving phlegm, relieving cough and asthma were primary, followed by clearing heat, relieving exterior syndrome, and regulating qi. After calculation with CytoNCA, key herbs were screened out, including Mahuang (Ephedrae Herba), Baiguo (Ginkgo Semen), Banxia (Pinelliae Rhizoma), Chenpi (Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium), Sangbaipi (Mori Cortex), Gancao (Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma), Ganjiang (Zingiberis Rhizoma), Shengjiang (Zingiberis Rhizoma Recens), Huangqi (Astragali Radix), Renshen (Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma), Fuling (Poria), and Baizhu (Atractylodis Macrocephalae Rhizoma). Molecular docking demonstrated favorable binding affinity between the core genes and the key components of these Chinese herbal medicines. Conclusion Based on the theory of "accumulation in the stomach and its connection with the lungs," this study not only confirms from a genetic perspective that GERD is a risk factor for COPD, but also reveals that its potential mechanisms are closely associated with inflammatory and immune signaling pathways such as NF-κB, IL-17, TNF, and PI3K-Akt. The predicted Chinese herbal treatment strategies primarily focus on tonifying deficiency, resolving phlegm, relieving cough, and calming asthma.

Objective To systematically analyze the global patent landscape of berberine and its major derivatives, including berberine hydrochloride, dihydroberberine, and tetrahydroberberine, to identify technological development trends and research hotspots and provide references for innovative drug development, strategic patent layout, and the modernization of traditional Chinese medicine. Methods Based on global patent databases, patents related to berberine and its derivatives were retrieved and expanded by patent families. Keyword extraction and clustering analysis were applied to analyze diversified technological themes, application areas, and geographical distributions of different categories of berberine-related patent families. Results A total of 1 155 berberine, 494 berberine hydrochloride, and 65 dihydroberberine or tetrahydroberberine patent families were identified. China was the primary market for research and application. Patents mainly focused on pharmaceutical preparations and covered multiple indications, including metabolic syndrome, liver diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders. Conclusion Technological innovation in berberine and its derivatives remains active, with research hotspots concentrated on formulation optimization, expansion of therapeutic indications, and improvement of safety. Some enterprises have actively deployed patents in cocrystals, liposomes, nanoformulations, and compound preparations, indicating a continuous expansion from traditional active components of Chinese medicine toward modern pharmaceutical technologies and international applications.

Objective Drawing on bibliometric and visualization techniques, this study systematically maps the current landscape and emerging hotspots of polysaccharide–gut microbiota research, offering an evidence-based roadmap for future investigations. Methods China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), VIP, Wanfang and Web of Science (WOS) were searched for Chinese- and English-language publications on “gut microbiota AND polysaccharides”. CiteSpace, VOSviewer and Microsoft Excel were employed to visualize and quantify annual output, leading institutes, prolific authors, highly cited journals, keyword clusters and burst terms. Results A total of 1 684 Chinese and 872 English articles were retained. Over the past decade, the field exhibited an “ascend-descend” pattern, entering a rapid-growth phase after 2017. China (Nanchang University and Nanjing Agricultural University as hubs) and the USA dominate the output; China ranks first globally, benefiting from abundant traditional-Chinese-medicine polysaccharide resources and strong policy support. Chinese and English literatures evolved differently: Chinese papers initially focused on single polysaccharides (e.g., Astragali Radix or Lycium barbarum polysaccharides) modulating microbial abundance, then shifted to structure–activity relationships and veterinary/clinical applications, whereas English papers moved from gut-barrier function to ulcerative colitis mechanisms, with in vitro fermentation models advancing studies linking metabolic syndrome to short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). Keyword clustering and burst detection identified immunomodulation, structural characterization, metabolic syndrome and SCFAs as core topics, while “high-fat diet” and “precision regulation” emerged after 2022. Conclusion Interactions between polysaccharides and gut microbiota, their structure–activity relationships, and applications in metabolic diseases such as obesity constitute the central research agenda. Complementary Chinese-English collaboration will propel the field toward precision and clinical translation.

Objective To clone the SmABCG34 gene from the Salvia miltiorrhiza genome and analyze its bioinformatics and expression characteristics. Methods The SmABCG34 gene was cloned from the S. miltiorrhiza genome, and the Conservative Domain and physicochemical properties of the gene and its encoded protein were analyzed by Bioinformatics Online Website. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) was used to detect the tissue expression specificity of SmABCG34 gene and its response to stress induced by abscisic acid (ABA), trans-zeatin (tZ), and polyethylene glycol-6000 (PEG-6000). Results The CDS of the SmABCG34 gene is 4 347 bp in size and encodes 1 448 amino acids; This protein contains a typical NBD-TMD-NBD-TMD structure and belongs to the full-molecule transporter of the ABCG subfamily; subcellular localization shows that this protein was localizted to the cell membrane. Phylogenetic analysis showed that SmABCG34 was closely related to S. hispanica, with a protein homology of up to 91.23 %. The expression pattern analysis revealed that the SmABCG34 gene was expressed in the roots, stems, leaves and flowers of S. miltiorrhiza with the highest expression in the flowers, followed by the leaves. After treatment with ABA, tZ, and PEG-6000, compared to 0 h, the expression of the SmABCG34 gene was significantly upregulated at 12 h. Conclusion The SmABCG34 gene belongs to the ABCG subfamily and shows a significant response to hormone and stress treatments, providing a scientific basis for further exploration of the function of the SmABCG34 gene.

Objective To systematically define the composition and structural features of the AP2/ERF family in Oplopanax elatus and to characterize its transcriptional responses to methyl jasmonate (MeJA). Methods Using bioinformatics tools such as HMM, TBtools, and MAFFT to conduct genome-wide identification of AP2/ERF family members, phylogenetic inference, and analyses of protein physicochemical properties, gene structures, and promoter cis-acting elements. In vitro–cultured adventitious roots were treated with 75 μmol/L MeJA for 0–12 h, followed by RNA-seq to profile time-resolved expression patterns of AP2/ERF genes. Results We identified 167 AP2/ERF genes, classified into five subfamilies—ERF, DREB, AP2, RAV, and B3—distributed across 12 chromosomes. Members exhibited broad variation in protein properties (amino acid length, 100—699 aa; molecular mass, 11 410—76 697; isoelectric point, 4.45—11.22; instability index, 23.47—78.46; aliphatic index, 45.52—83.15; grand average of hydropathicity [GRAVY], -1.245 to -0.240). Promoter analysis revealed enrichment of cis-elements associated with light responsiveness, hormone signaling, and stress regulation. RNA-seq showed that MeJA treatment markedly upregulated root-expressed genes encoding enzymes in the triterpenoid saponin pathway. Thirty-two OeAP2/ERF members were MeJA-inducible, among which OeAP2/ERF4, OeAP2/ERF48, OeAP2/ERF131, and OeAP2/ERF143 maintained high expression levels in roots. Conclusion This work delineates the composition and structural characteristics of the AP2/ERF family in O. elatus and defines its time-resolved transcriptional responses to MeJA. Four root-preferential, positively MeJA-responsive transcription factors (OeAP2/ERF4, OeAP2/ERF48, OeAP2/ERF131, and OeAP2/ERF143) are prioritized as key candidates, providing a foundation for functional dissection of AP2/ERF-mediated regulation of triterpenoid saponin biosynthesis and for subsequent metabolic engineering.

Objective Light is one of the important ecological factors for the growth, development, and secondary metabolism of leaf-using medicinal plants. To conduct genome-wide identification and expression characterization analysis of the MYB transcription factor family (EpMYB) in Epimedium pubescens, and to deeply explore the biological functions of EpMYB in response to light factors. Methods Based on the published genome of E. pubescens, bioinformatics methods were used to identify members of the EpMYB gene family, and analyze their physicochemical properties, chromosomal distribution, phylogenetic evolution, gene structure, and cis-acting elements. Real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) was applied to analyze the expression characteristics of EpMYB in E. pubescens leaves under different light qualities. Results A total of 87 EpMYB genes (EpMYB1 to EpMYB87) were identified, which were subdivided into 14 subfamilies. The encoded amino acids ranged from 150 to 561 aa, with relative molecular weights of proteins from 17 857.76 to 61 369.56 and isoelectric points between 4.62 and 10.75. Gene structure analysis showed that all EpMYB genes contained similar conserved domains. Cis-element prediction indicated that light-responsive elements, methyl jasmonate, and auxin elements were widely distributed in the promoter regions of the EpMYB gene family. Genome-wide collinearity analysis revealed that whole-genome duplication and segmental duplication played crucial roles in the evolution of the EpMYB gene family, and strong purifying selection occurred after duplication. RT-qPCR analysis of the expression characteristics of 24 potential light-responsive EpMYB genes showed that the number of EpMYB genes significantly upregulated under yellow and blue light was much higher than that under red light. Blue light significantly upregulated the expression of 14 EpMYB genes such as EpMYB25, yellow light significantly upregulated seven EpMYB genes such as EpMYB16, and only EpMYB54 and EpMYB57 were significantly upregulated under red light. Conclusion Genome-wide identification and bioinformatics analysis of the EpMYB gene family in E. pubescens revealed that EpMYB genes respond more actively to blue light regulation, laying a foundation for further clarification of the functions of EpMYB genes in E. pubescens.

Objective This study focused on the root of Polygala tenuifolia by distinguishing the root, root bark (after removal of the heartwood), and heartwood from roots of different diameters, a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) fingerprint was established. Combined with chemical pattern recognition and multi-index component content determination methods, the quality differences were systematically evaluated to provide a scientific basis for the traditional “Quality Assessment Based on Morphological Characteristics” theory, specifically the principle that “thicker bark indicates better quality”. Methods P. tenuifolia samples were collected from Yulin, Shaanxi, and grouped according to root diameter (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 mm). The root, root bark, and heartwood samples were prepared separately. HPLC was used to establish fingerprints, calibrate common peaks, and identify the main components. The contents of seven indicator components, such as tenuifolin, were determined. Principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal partial least-squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) were performed using SIMCA 14.0 software, and cluster heat-map analysis was conducted on the Metware Cloud platform. Results HPLC fingerprints of 18 batches of samples were established, with 23 common peaks calibrated and seven of them identified. Similarity ranged from 0.748 to 0.943. PCA and OPLS-DA clearly distinguished three sample types (root, root bark, heartwood) and screened nine differential components, including 3,6′-disinapoyl sucrose and onjisaponin B. Overall, the content of active components followed the order: root bark > root > heartwood. 3,6′-disinapoyl sucrose showed significant differences between root bark and heartwood, while polygalaxanthone III varied markedly between root and root bark. The total content of indicator components increased with root diameter and bark thickness, but the individual content fluctuated irregularly with diameter, which may be related to the ratio of bark to heartwood. Conclusion The established HPLC fingerprint, combined with chemical pattern recognition and multi-index content determination, is stable and reliable. It can be used to systematically evaluate the quality differences of P. tenuifolia roots, root barks, and heartwoods of different diameters, providing a scientific reference for quality control and rational utilization of P. tenuifolia medicinal materials.

Objective To compare the contents of saponins, flavonoids and polysaccharides in the extracts of stems and leaves of Panax notoginseng from different sources and different processes (DRNJE) and to study their lipid-regulating effects. Methods The solvent gradient extraction method was used to remove protein by degreasing with petroleum ether, extracting flavonoids with ethyl acetate, extracting saponins with water-saturated n-butanol and adjusting the ratio of chloroform to n-butanol to 25∶4∶1. The contents of saponins, flavonoids and polysaccharides in the stem and leaf extracts of P. notoginseng were determined by ultraviolet spectrophotometer, and the contents of monomer saponins Rb₃, Rb₁ and Rc were simultaneously detected by HPLC. HepG2 cells induced by pancreatic lipase and oleic acid were used to study the lipid-regulating effect of DRNJE. Results After decolorization by macroporous resin/ion exchange, the contents of total saponins, monomer saponins and overall functional components of P. notoginseng stem and leaf extracts Y0729, J0801, J1020, Y1114, J1031 and R1001 were high. The inhibitory activity of lipase from high to low is: Y0729 > J1031 > J1020 > R1001 > Y1114 > J0801 > Q0901 > Q1001 > W1107 > W1101. According to the results of oil red O staining, DRNJE has lipid-regulating effect, among which Y0729, J1020, J1031 and R1001 have better effects. Conclusion After decolorization by macroporous resin/ion exchange, the extract of P. notoginseng stems and leaves has high content of saponins, flavonoids and polysaccharides, among which the extract of P. notoginseng stems and leaves with high saponin content has a significant effect on lipid regulation of HepG2 cells induced by lipase and oleic acid.

Chuanbeimu (Fritillariae Cirrhosae Bulbus) is a representative species of rare and endangered medicinal plants in China. Due to overharvesting of wild resources and habitat fragmentation and degradation, its wild populations are nearing depletion and are currently listed as a national second-level protected plant. Artificial propagation has become the core method to alleviate the crisis of wild Fritillariae Cirrhosae Bulbus resources and ensure the supply of medicinal materials for clinical use. However, challenges remain, including its high dependence on specific high-altitude habitats, narrow ecological adaptability, mixed seed sources and genetic degradation, long seedling cycles, frequent pest and disease outbreaks, and high seedling mortality rates. These issues still pose significant challenges to variety selection and large-scale cultivation of Fritillariae Cirrhosae Bulbus. This paper systematically reviews the current status of key areas such as genetic resource innovation and high-quality seed breeding, cultivation habitat adaptation optimization, pest and disease green control, and standardized harvesting and processing. It also outlines the recent research progress and technological breakthroughs in these fields. Based on this, the paper proposes a development strategy focused on genetic resource innovation and high-quality seed breeding, and the establishment of a comprehensive technical system for Fritillariae Cirrhosae Bulbus covering resource protection, genetic innovation, variety selection, quality control, and intelligent processing. This strategy aims to provide a theoretical foundation and technical support for the sustainable use of Fritillariae Cirrhosae Bulbus resources and promote high-quality industry development.

The solution environment involved in the pharmaceutical process of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is complex, with components coexisting in multiple states—including molecular, ionic, aggregated, and composite forms. This leads to diverse mass transfer patterns during manufacturing and poses challenges in controlling the uniformity and stability of the final preparations. This review summarizes existing analytical techniques for characterizing component states. By establishing the correlation between component states and the solution environment, a confined mass transfer mathematical model is developed to quantitatively describe component states and association coefficients in complex TCM solutions. Combined with strategies for modulating the solution environment and ultrasonic-assisted delamination techniques, this approach provides a methodological framework for resolving supramolecular assemblies in TCM systems. Furthermore, based on the intrinsic relationship among production parameters, component states, and mass transfer behavior, a new concept for regulating TCM preparation processes is proposed, aiming to enhance the orderliness and controllability of TCM production.

Lipidomics enables the systematic analysis of the composition, functions, and metabolic networks of lipid molecules in organisms. Its holistic analytical characteristics are highly consistent with the “multi-component, multi-target, and holistic regulation” mode of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), providing key technical support for elucidating mechanisms of TCM in treating liver diseases. This article systematically reviews the research achievements in the field of lipidomics applied to TCM for liver disease treatment over the past five years. It focuses on analyzing the regulatory effects of TCM on various liver disease-related metabolic pathways and key targets, organizes the lipid regulation mechanisms of different TCM therapeutic approaches, and summarizes the application value of lipidomics in analyzing the efficacy-related substances of TCM, validating the processing of Chinese medicinal materials, and elucidating the mechanisms of TCM formulation compatibility. The study aims to provide theoretical references and practical insights for enhancing research on mechanism of TCM in treating liver diseases through lipidomics, promoting clinical precision diagnosis and treatment, and advancing modernization of TCM theory.

Ferroptosis, as a new type of programmed cell death characterized by iron dependence and lipid peroxidation, is an important target for inhibiting proliferation, metastasis and reversing drug resistance of urinary tumors. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and its active compounds have unique advantages in the field of regulating ferroptosis due to their multi-target and low toxicity, mainly reflected in the synergistic intervention of key pathways of ferroptosis. Studies have shown that TCM plays an anti-tumor role by targeting the three classical pathways of regulating iron homeostasis, promoting lipid peroxidation and inhibiting the antioxidant defense system with glutathione peroxidase 4 as the core, promoting iron overload in urinary tumor cells and destroying the redox balance to induce ferroptosis. This article aims to systematically review the mechanism of TCM regulating ferroptosis in prevention and treatment of urinary tract tumors, in order to provide reference for its more in-depth molecular mechanisms research and wider clinical application.

The herb “Mutong” has long been plagued by significant species confusion in traditional Chinese medicine, involving non-toxic Mutong (Akebiae Caulis), Chuanmutong (Clematidis Armandii Caulis), and the highly nephrotoxic and carcinogenic Guuanmutong (Aristolochiae Manshuriensis Caulis). This paper provides a systematic review of the historical origins of such confusion, including changes in nomenclature, resource shortages, and regulatory gaps, with a focused analysis of the toxicity mechanisms of aristolochic acids (AAs), encompassing metabolic activation, DNA adduct formation, and the resultant A:T to T:A mutations leading to urothelial carcinoma. Although the Chinese Pharmacopoeia reinstated the use of genuine Akebiae Caulis and prohibited Aristolochiae Manshuriensis Caulis in 2005, widespread adulteration persists in the market, highlighting the limitations of conventional identification methods. This study further comprehensively evaluates various identification techniques ranging from morphology and microscopy to modern molecular biology and spectroscopy, discussing their respective strengths and weaknesses. It proposes the development of an integrated “field-laboratory-regulatory” tripartite identification system, incorporating portable NIR-PCR devices, AI-assisted LC-MS databases, and blockchain-based drug traceability systems. Finally, the paper calls for establishing a three-dimensional “efficacy-chemistry-toxicity” evaluation model to scientifically reinterpret traditional empirical knowledge, thereby enhancing the safety and global acceptance of traditional Chinese medicine.

Cellular senescence, defined as a stable state of cell cycle arrest, serves as a pivotal molecular mechanism driving organismal aging and age-related chronic diseases. Pancreatic β-cells and adipocytes are often among the earliest affected cell populations in senescence-associated metabolic disorders and play a central regulatory role in disease progression. In type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), the senescence of pancreatic β-cells and adipocytes has been established as a key driver of disease initiation and progression. Due to prolonged exposure to stress conditions such as high metabolic load and insulin signaling defects, pancreatic β-cells exhibit increased susceptibility to senescence, which directly leads to reduced cell numbers and impaired insulin secretory function. In contrast, adipocyte senescence significantly promotes systemic insulin resistance by altering the adipokine secretion profile and inducing chronic inflammation. In recent years, traditional Chinese medicines (TCM) and their active components have demonstrated unique value in targeting cellular senescence. As senostatics and senolytics, TCM-derived ingredients can reduce or eliminate senescent pancreatic β-cells and adipocytes, thereby enhancing insulin secretion and improving insulin resistance, showing promising potential in delaying T2DM progression. Therefore, in-depth investigation of the mechanisms underlying TCM and their active components targeting of pancreatic β-cell or adipocyte senescence for T2DM treatment not only provides a novel perspective for understanding T2DM pathogenesis but also offers new therapeutic strategies for TCM-based prevention and management of geriatric T2DM.

Chronic heart failure (CHF) is a cardiovascular end syndrome with high prevalence, high mortality and high re-hospitalization rate, and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) injections have significant potential in the treatment of CHF because of their combination of TCM evidence-based features and rapid onset of action. Based on ten years of research, this paper systematically investigates the pharmacodynamic material basis and action characteristics of 30 TCM injections to fill the gap of systematic summarization in this field. The study classified TCM injections into three categories according to TCM diagnosis: Activating blood and resolving stasis, replenishing qi and nourishing yin, and warming yang and excreting water. Activating blood and resolving stasis TCM injections can improve microcirculation and inhibit myocardial fibrosis and inflammation; replenishing qi and nourishing yin TCM injections focuses on regulating myocardial energy metabolism and mitochondrial function; warming yang and excreting water TCM injections can regulate intestinal bacterial flora, improve the “intestinal-cardiac axis” and inhibit iron death, etc. The study is the first to integrate single and compound TCM injections, revealing the advantages of TCM injections in multi-component and multi-target interventions in the complex pathology of CHF. It provides systematic evidence on the pharmacodynamic substances, mechanism of action, and clinical application for the clinical treatment of CHF using integrated Chinese and Western medicine, and provides new ideas for the precise identification of drugs and innovative treatment strategies.

Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death and disability worldwide. Although existing standard therapies can reduce the risk of acute events, a significant “residual risk” remains, highlighting the urgent need for multi-target intervention strategies. Tetrahydropalmatine (THP), the principal active alkaloid in Corydalis yanhusuo, features a unique tetracyclic scaffold and exhibits multitarget pharmacological characteristics. It plays significant roles in key pathological processes, including arrhythmia, platelet hyperaggregation and thrombosis, hypertension and endothelial dysfunction, and ventricular remodeling. Its mechanisms involve the coordinated regulation of multiple ion channels, enhancement of nitric oxide synthesis and endothelium-dependent relaxation, suppression of sympathetic nerve activity, and inhibition of fibrosis and hypertrophy. Furthermore, THP can activate protective signaling pathways such as the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B pathway, while inhibiting pathogenic pathways including the mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor-κB pathways, thereby exerting comprehensive effects such as anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, antioxidant, and pro-angiogenic actions. However, THP still faces critical limitations, including low oral bioavailability, complex metabolic pathways, and insufficient clinical evidence. Therefore, this review systematically summarizes the pharmacological effects and molecular mechanisms of THP in cardiovascular diseases, aiming to elucidate its potential value as a multi-target and multi-pathway therapeutic agent, and to provide a theoretical foundation for further pharmacokinetic optimization, formulation improvement, and clinical investigation.