[Objective] Water security is an important cornerstone of sustainable development and is closely associated with human well-being. As national parks are typical ecological functional areas, it is important to clarify the complex interaction mechanisms among their various water ecosystem services, which forms the scientific basis for achieving coordinated management of regional water security. [Methods] Based on the InVEST model, PLS-SEM model, Spearman correlation analysis and geographical detector method, this study systematically analyzed the spatiotemporal evolution characteristics and trade-offs/synergies of four key water ecosystem services (water yield, water conservation, soil retention, and water purification) in National Park of Hainan Tropical Rainforest from 2000 to 2022, identified key driving factors, and provided insights for sustainable spatial planning and management. [Results] (1) From 2000 to 2022, the overall status of three water ecosystem services—water yield, soil retention, and water conservation—in National Park of Hainan Tropical Rainforest improved, while the water purification function slightly declined. The water ecosystem services exhibited significant spatial heterogeneity, with the Wuzhi Mountain-Limuling Mountain range showing better water ecological functions than the hilly and plain areas. (2) Except for water yield and soil retention, other water ecosystem services were dominated by synergies with small fluctuations in correlation coefficients, and the synergy between water purification and water conservation was the strongest. (3) Climate change and landscape patterns directly and positively impacted all four water ecosystem services with the strongest explanatory power, while human activities showed a direct negative impact with the weakest explanatory power. [Conclusion] The water ecosystem services in National Park of Hainan Tropical Rainforest generally show an improving trend. This change is significantly influenced by the interaction between climate change and landscape patterns, while the direct impact of human activities is relatively limited. This study proposes a governance framework for water ecosystem services in national parks from four aspects: institutional construction, spatial planning, ecological management, and environmental monitoring. In the future, a theoretical framework for optimizing the water ecological security pattern should be further developed, integrating the needs of regional ecological conservation and spatial governance. This will provide important theoretical support for maintaining the integrity and stability of water ecosystems in national parks and promoting the sustainable governance of territorial space.

[Objective] From the perspective of socio-cultural space, this study investigates the generative mechanisms of protected areas as a special type of socio-cultural space, thereby providing theoretical support for the management of human activities and cultural resources in these areas. [Methods] Building on the theory of the production of space and integrating the methodology of cultural sedimentation, this study constructed a three-layer analytical framework of “site-documentation-imagery”. Using methods including historical document verification, GIS spatial analysis, online text mining, and semi-structured interviews, this study systematically integrated multi-source, long-term data to analyze the generative mechanisms of socio-cultural space in the typical case of Wuyishan National Park. [Results] The empirical study showed that: (1) in the site layer (dominated by spatial practice), a significant vertical gradient differentiation was observed. Spiritual sites, such as sacrificial sites and academies, were highly concentrated in the low-altitude original scenic areas, while productive sites related to the tea industry and transportation extended into the high-altitude core protection zones. (2) In the documentation layer (dominated by representations of space), Neo-Confucian educational activities and tea industry practices during the Song and Ming dynasties formed areas of high-density overlap, constructing stable core narrative zones and demonstrating the diachronic sedimentation of spatial representations with social significance. (3) In the imagery layer (dominated by representational spaces), the visitors focused on iconic tourist landscapes, while local residents retained living cultural memories and emotional connections in deeper natural areas, highlighting differences in the representational spaces experienced by different groups. These results revealed the long-term process of expansion and formation of the socio-cultural space in Wuyishan National Park under the driving and embedding effects of human activities. [Conclusion] Based on empirical evidence, this study operationalizes the theory of the production of space into a “three-driver and three-layer” analytical framework, coupling the triadic dialectic of space with the three layers of “site-documentation-imagery”. This achieves the operational transformation of spatial production theory in protected areas and deepens the proposition that protected areas are “artifacts of social relations and historical environments”. The study provides a scientific basis for optimizing heritage interpretation systems in protected areas and for the coordinated governance of ecological conservation and cultural inheritance.

[Objective] Scientifically assessing the spatiotemporal evolution and spatial association between ecosystem service value and ecological risk in national parks provides an important foundation for supporting differentiated ecological management and zoned restoration.[Methods] Taking Sanjiangyuan National Park as the study area, this study utilized land cover data from 2000 to 2020 and integrated spatial autocorrelation analysis, geographically weighted regression with optimal bandwidth, random forest, and an optimal-parameter geographic detector to analyze the dynamics of different ecosystem types and to reveal the spatiotemporal evolution, spatial association, and driving mechanisms of ecosystem service value and ecological risk. [Results] (1) From 2000 to 2020, significant differences were observed in the area changes among ecosystem types in the study area, with shrubs and cropland showing the largest changes (-3.19% and -2.69%, respectively), while grassland exhibited the smallest change (-0.13%). (2) Ecosystem service value showed an overall increasing trend. The area of high-level ecosystem service value decreased the most (-2.60%), whereas the area of relatively low-level ecosystem service value increased the most (1.57%). (3) Ecological risk exhibited an overall decreasing trend. The area of high-level ecological risk decreased the most (-3.05%), while the area of moderate-level ecological risk increased the most (1.42%). (4) Ecosystem service value and ecological risk were closely spatially associated and could be classified into four spatial clustering types: high value - high risk, high value - low risk, low value - high risk, and low value - low risk. The high value - high risk area decreased by 0.50%, while the low value - high risk, low value - low risk, and high value - low risk areas increased by 1.41%, 1.11%, and 0.09%, respectively. (5) Driving factor analysis indicated that the human footprint index and precipitation seasonality were the most important individual driving factors. The interactions between NDVI and annual mean temperature, NDVI and the human footprint index, and railway - road distance and the human footprint index showed strong explanatory power, revealing a coupled driving mechanism of natural processes and human activities. [Conclusion] Based on spatial association characteristics, Sanjiangyuan National Park can be divided into ecological restoration-dominated zones, ecological protection-dominated zones, and ecological protection - restoration balanced zones. Considering the differences and transitions among these zones, differentiated ecological protection strategies—including zoned management, key area regulation, and targeted governance—should be implemented to support the scientific conservation and restoration of the national park ecosystem, enhance ecological functions, and promote high-quality and sustainable development of national parks.

[Objective] Addressing the persistent “protection versus development” dilemma in coastal wetland national parks, this study explores effective transformation pathways for ecotourism resources, aiming to construct innovative development models that balance ecological and economic benefits. [Methods] Taking Liaohekou National Park as a case study, a “space-attribute-behavior” three-dimensional analytical framework was introduced. Kernel density analysis was employed to reveal the spatial distribution pattern of 97 resource sites. A comprehensive evaluation model integrating the AHP-entropy weight method with a negative correction for ecological sensitivity was constructed to quantify the resource transformation potential. Text mining and sentiment analysis of 1337 online reviews were conducted to diagnose tourist perceptions. [Results] (1) Ecotourism resources exhibit a dual-core spatial pattern, with natural endowment being the primary determinant of tourism product maturity. (2) The resource transformation pathways are distinctly stratified, where semi-mature products are constrained by systematic barriers. (3) Tourist perceptions highlight a conflict between ecological scarcity and insufficient supporting facilities. [Conclusion] This study establishes a four-level transformation framework of “resource identification-gradient evaluation-product classification-model innovation” and proposes four corresponding development models (i.e., scenery-industry-city integration, innovative PPP, community co-management, and digital twin). This framework provides a systematic solution for the sustainable development of coastal wetland national parks by coordinating industry, technology, and governance.