Objective To investigate the chemical constituents and anti-inflammatory activity of the dried roots of Tibetan medicine Carpesium lipskyi. Methods The ethanol extract of C. lipskyi was isolated and purified using chromatographic techniques including silica gel column chromatography and Sephadex LH-20 gel column chromatography. The structures of the compounds were identified based on their physicochemical properties, spectroscopic methods (MS, NMR), and literature data. The in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of the compounds was evaluated using a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory model in mouse macrophage RAW264.7 cells. Results Nine compounds were isolated from the roots of C. lipskyi and identified as (1R,7R,10R,11S)-1-hydroxy-eudesma-3(4),5(6)-dien-11-oic acid methyl ester (1), (1R,4S,5R,7R)-1-acetoxy-11-hydroxy-eremophil-9(10)-ene (2), careudesmane D (3), isoalantolactone (4), 11-hydroxy-eremophil-1(10)-en-2,9-dione (5), carperemophilane A (6), carperemophilane B (7), protocatechuyl aldehyde (8), and umbelliferone (9). Compounds 2 and 7 inhibited LPS-induced NO production in RAW264.7 cells with half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) values of (13.62 ± 1.30) μmol/L and (19.47 ± 2.67) μmol/L, respectively. Conclusion Compound 1 is a new eudesmane-type sesquiterpene and designated as carpesiol A, and compound 2 is a new eremophilane-type sesquiterpene and designated as carpesiol B. Compounds 3—7 were isolated from this plant for the first time. Compounds 2 and 7 show potential for development as anti-inflammatory drugs.

Objective To investigate the chemical constituents from the ethanol extract of the bark of Spondias pinnata and preliminarily evaluate their anti-inflammatory activity. Methods Various chromatographic techniques were employed to isolate and purify the constituents from the extract. Their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic methods including NMR spectroscopy, as well as GFN2NMR and computational chemistry approaches. The anti-inflammatory activity of the new compound was evaluated using an LPS/IFN-γ-induced MH-S cell inflammation model in vitro. Results Ten compounds were isolated from the ethanol extract of the bark of S. pinnata and identified as (5R,6S)-6-[(7E,9R)-9-hydroxy-10-({(15R,16R)-17-butoxycarbonyl-15,16-dihydroxypropoxy})but-7-en-7-yl]-6-hydroxy-1,1-dimethylcyclohexan-3-one (1), ampelopsisionoside (2), (2E,4E,1'R,3'S,5'R,8'S)-dihydrophaseic acid 3'-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (3), N-benzoyl-D-phenylalanine (2R)-2-(benzoylamino)-3-phenylpropyl ester (4), isolariciresinol-4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (5), (+)-lyoniresin-4-yl-β-D-glucopyranoside (6), demethoxymatteucinol (7), 4'-hydroxy-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside flavone (8), (2S)-2-hydroxynaringenin-4'-O-β-D-glucoside (9), and (S)-(-)-N-benzoylphenylalaninol (10). Compound 1 significantly inhibited the expression of TNF-α (P < 0.05) and IL-6 (P < 0.01) at a concentration of 10 μmol/L. Moreover, at 20 μmol/L, it markedly ameliorated the LPS/IFN-γ-induced morphological changes in MH-S cells. Conclusion Compound 1 is a new compound, named as spondias A. Compounds 2—4 and 7—10 were isolated from the genus Spondias for the first time, while compounds 5—6 were obtained from this species for the first time. The bioassay results indicate that compound 1 inhibits the transformation of MH-S cells to the M1 phenotype, suggesting its potential anti-inflammatory activity.

Objective To investigate the chemical constituents of Buxus microphylla and their anti-hepatocarcinoma activity in vitro. Methods The compounds were isolated and purified by column chromatography of silica gel, reversed-phase C₁₈, Sephadex LH-20, semi-preparative HPLC and preparative TLC. Their structures were elucidated by physicochemical properties and spectral analyses. The cytotoxicity of the isolates against human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 and Hep3B cells was assessed using the MTT assay. Flow cytometry was employed to analyze cell apoptosis. Western blotting was used to detect the expression of proteins related to cell apoptosis. Results Eighteen compounds were isolated and identified from the 70% ethanol extract of B. microphylla, including hederagenin (1), 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosylspinasterol (2), fagraeanolide (3), rel-(2α,3β)-7-O-methylcedrusin (4), caruilignan D (5), (7′S,8R,8′S)-isolariciresinol (6), 3-hydroxy-1,2-dimethoxyanthrone (7), 1-methoxy-2,3-methylenedioxyanthrone (8), 1,2,3-trimethoxyanthrone (9), syringaldehyde (10), syringic acid (11), vanillic acid (12), p-hydroxybenzoic acid (13), polygital (14), 9-pentacosenoic acid (15), rhamnakoside B (16), lupeol (17), and betulin (18). The in vitro activity screening revealed that compounds 2, 3, 16—18 exhibited cytotoxicity in HepG2 and Hep3B cells, among which compound 2 was the most potent. compound 2 significantly increased the proportion of apoptotic cells and elevated the expression of apoptosis-related proteins such as Bax, decreased the expression of Bcl-2, all of which were statistically significant compared with control group (P < 0.001) at 10 μmol/L. Conclusion Compound 1 and 17—18 are triterpenoids; Compound 2 is a steroidal glycoside; compounds 3—6 are lignans, compounds 7—9 are anthrones, compounds 10—13 are phenolic acids, and compounds 14—16 are other types. Among them, compounds 2—5, 7—9, and 14—16 are isolated from the genus Buxus for the first time. In the anti-hepatocarcinoma activity assay, compound 2 demonstrated significant effects, with IC₅₀ values of 5.87 μnol/L and 6.42 μnol/L against HepG2 and Hep3B cells, respectively. Moreover, it effectively induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells.

Objective To prepare different polysaccharide fractions of Xiaoyao San (逍遥散, XYS) by graded ethanol precipitation and to clarify the anti-inflammatory activity, structural characteristics, and in vivo absorption and distribution behavior of the major enriched fraction. Methods Different polysaccharide fractions of XYS (40%, 60%, and 80% ethanol-precipitated fractions) were obtained using a water extraction-ethanol precipitation procedure, and the primary enriched fraction was screened based on yield comparison. Based on the inflammation-depression correlation, an LPS-induced microglial inflammation model was established, and anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated by measuring inflammatory markers including TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and iNOS. The composition and structural features of the target polysaccharide were characterized using UV-Vis spectroscopy, FT-IR, and NMR analyses. Fluorescently labeled polysaccharides were further prepared for in vivo pharmacokinetic studies in mice to systematically assess exposure levels and tissue distribution characteristics. Results Significant differences in yield were observed among polysaccharide fractions obtained at different ethanol precipitation ratios. The 60% ethanol fraction (XYSP-60) was identified as the major enriched fraction, with an extraction recovery of 37.5%. In the LPS-induced microglial inflammation model, XYSP-60 significantly downregulated the expression levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and iNOS, demonstrating clear anti-inflammatory activity. Structural characterization indicated that the polysaccharide mainly consisted of galacturonic acid, glucose, and fructose, with relatively stable structural features. Pharmacokinetic results showed that XYSP-60 exhibited high exposure in the intestine but limited entry into systemic circulation. Conclusion The 60% ethanol-precipitated fraction represents the principal enriched polysaccharide fraction of XYS, with stable structural characteristics and definite anti-inflammatory activity. Its in vivo behavior is characterized by high intestinal exposure and limited systemic absorption, suggesting that this fraction may serve as one of the key material bases underlying the anti-inflammatory effects of XYS.

Objective To optimize the extraction and β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) inclusion process for the volatile oil from the classical formula Dihuang Yinzi (地黄饮子) based on the quality by design (QbD) concept and the analytic hierarchy process-entropy weight (AHP-entropy) method. Methods Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) was employed for risk identification in the volatile oil extraction process. Heating time, material-to-liquid ratio, and soaking time were determined as the critical process parameters (CPPs), while cinnamaldehyde content, β-asarone content, and volatile oil extraction yield were defined as the critical quality attributes (CQAs). On the basis of single-factor tests, the Box-Behnken design-response surface methodology (BBD-RSM) was used for process optimization. The AHP-entropy weight method was applied to calculate a comprehensive score for the CQAs, which was then used to establish and validate an optimized design space. The inclusion process of volatile oil was investigated using the saturated aqueous solution method. The inclusion conditions were comprehensively optimized through orthogonal experimental design combined with the AHP-entropy weight method for multi-index evaluation. Finally, the optimal inclusion process parameters were determined and validated. Results The optimized volatile oil extraction process was as follows: soaking for 30 to 45 min, adding 9- to 10-fold volume of water, and extracting for 3.0 to 3.5 h. The optimal inclusion process parameters were: inclusion time of 2.0 h, β-cyclodextrin to volatile oil ratio of 10:1, and inclusion temperature of 30 ℃. Conclusion The volatile oil extraction and inclusion processes optimized based on the QbD concept and the AHP-entropy weight method can reliably ensure a stable extraction yield and consistent content of key active components. The resulting inclusion complex exhibits excellent quality. This study provides reliable data support and a solid process foundation for the industrial production and development of related Chinese medicinal preparations, while also offering a feasible pathway for the modern dosage form development of classical formulas.

Objective To systematically analyze the differences in volatile components of Chenxiang (Aquilariae Lignum Resinatum) essential oil (AEO) from various origins and extraction methods using an electronic nose combined with chemometrics, aiming to establish a novel method for rapid identification of AEO origins and extraction processes. Methods A total of 38 batches of AEO samples were collected from seven major origins using two extraction methods. Their chemical compositions were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), while overall aroma fingerprint information was obtained via electronic nose. Principal component analysis (PCA), partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), and orthogonal partial least squares-discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) were comprehensively applied for pattern recognition of multi-source data. Results GC-MS analysis revealed that the common major components in all samples were benzylacetone, agarospirol, dehydrofuranone, and 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromone. Seven key differential compounds, including 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromone and 6-methoxy-2-(2-phenylethyl)chromone, were screened through variable importance projection (VIP > 1). The PCA results of the electronic nose response values show a good correlation with the origin or extraction method of AEO samples. The established OPLS-DA discriminant model exhibited excellent performance: the origin discriminant model achieved R_X² = 0.839, R_Y² = 0.794, Q² = 0.572 > 0.500, and the extraction method discriminant model achieved R_X² = 0.790, R_Y² = 0.647, Q² = 0.633 > 0.500, which can effectively classify AEO samples. Conclusion This study successfully combined the rapid identification of electronic nose with GC-MS component analysis, which confirmed that the combined strategy could accurately identify the extraction method and geographical origins of AEO, and clarified its material basis, providing an efficient and reliable new method for the classification and identification of AEO.

Objective Based on the supramolecular “imprinting template” theory, this study investigates the autonomous interaction patterns of the component groups in Wuwei Xiaodu Yin (WXY, 五味消毒饮) during the preparation process from crude herbs to reference samples and elucidates the quantitative transfer law of its quality attributes. Methods Fifteen batches of WXY reference samples were prepared via water decoction. A UPLC fingerprint analysis method was established to identify key chromatographic peaks and determine the contents of chlorogenic acid, esculetin, cichoric acid, neochlorogenic acid, cryptochlorogenic acid, isochlorogenic acid A, isochlorogenic acid B, isochlorogenic acid C, glehinnalin, and linarin were determined at 240 nm. Parameters such as transfer rate, extract yield, total statistical moment, and information entropy were calculated for both the herbs and the reference samples. Results The fingerprint similarity of the 15 batches of reference samples was greater than 0.9. Fourteen chromatographic peaks were identified, with 10 characteristic peaks defined. The extract yield ranged from 43.27% to 53.43%. The transfer rates of chlorogenic acid, esculetin, cichoric acid, neochlorogenic acid, cryptochlorogenic acid, isochlorogenic acid A, isochlorogenic acid B, isochlorogenic acid C, glehinnalin, and linarin were 34.25%—42.72%, 51.52%—58.80%, 28.21%—32.04%, 56.26%—65.59%, 40.63%—53.89%, 22.35%—31.29%, 38.39%—46.22%, 34.02%—40.82%, 18.64%—20.96%, and 28.55%—32.63%, respectively, with no discrete data observed. The relative standard deviations (RSDs) of the information entropy for the UPLC fingerprints of the five herbs and the reference samples were all less than 10%. The RSDs of mean chromatographic retention time of total quantum (MCRT_T) and information entropy for WXY (crude herbs) were 3.90% and 2.25%, respectively. Conclusion Quality analysis of the reference samples based on the parameters of the supramolecular “imprinting template” provides a scientific basis for the quality control of WXY reference samples and the development of compound formulations.

Objective In response to the lack of objective standards for the nine-steaming and nine-drying process of Huangjing (Polygonati Rhizoma), this study quantified the dynamic changes in traits and components during processing, combined with zebrafish antioxidant activity experiments, to identify the optimal stage for comprehensive quality and provide a scientific basis for establishing modern quality control methods. Methods Using the decoction pieces of Polygonatum cyrtonema as the object of study, a colorimeter, texture analyzer, and electronic tongue were employed to quantify the color, texture, and taste of samples from different steaming cycles (S0—S9). Polysaccharide content, reducing sugars and amino acids was determined by UV-Vis, while 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) were measured using HPLC. Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA) were used to identify patterns in the processing stages. Pearson correlation analysis, the CRITIC objective weighting method, and zebrafish antioxidant experiments were integrated for comprehensive evaluation. Results As steaming progressed, color parameters (E_ab^*, L^* and b^*) continuously decreased, texture parameters (hardness, chewiness, gumminess) significantly declined, and moisture content increased. In terms of taste, bitterness and astringency markedly decreased by the third steaming cycle (S3), while sweetness increased. Chemically, 5-HMF accumulated continuously, reducing sugars peaked at S3 (1.38%), and amino acid and polysaccharide contents stabilized after S3. The correlation network analysis revealed significant relationships among trait indicators, chemical components, and bioactivity (P < 0.05). Multivariate statistical analysis divided the processing into three stages, with the early stage (S1—S3) identified as the critical transition period for quality formation. The comprehensive evaluation using the Criteria importance through intercriteria correlation method indicated that sample S3 achieved the highest overall quality score (65.41). At this stage, the sample was characterized by moderate 5-HMF accumulation, peak reducing sugar conten, and and maintenance of amino acids at a high level. It exhibited blackish-brown color (a^* was 11.13), with a soft and flexible texture (springiness was 0.647), and a disappearance of the numbing sensation. Its taste was sweet with slight bitterness (sweetness value was 4.50, bitterness value was 5.55), accompanied by a significantly enhanced antioxidant capacity. Conclusion This study establishes the third steaming cycle (S3) as the optimized processing endpoint for the nine-steaming and nine-drying process of P. cyrtonema and established amulti-dimensional quantifiable quality control system centered on “appearance properties-intrinsic components-bioactivity”. These findings provide a scientific basis for the standardization and precise quality control of this processing method.

Objective This study focuses on the Jinyinhua (Lonicerae Japonicae Flos, LJF) concentration process in the production of Reduning Injection (热毒宁注射液, RI), with the objective of developing and validating a data-driven technical framework. The framework is designed to enable objective evaluation, intelligent identification, and process optimization of “golden batches”, while fundamentally elucidating the key process mechanisms and quantitative control strategies influencing their formation. Ultimately, this approach aims to enhance the efficiency and stability of the production process. Methods This study collected production process data for 170 batches of LJF concentrate, and innovatively established “comprehensive concentration efficiency ratio” (E) as an evaluation index for process performance. A latent-space guided adaptive performance thresholding (LGAPT) strategy was employed to objectively classify the production batches into golden and non-golden categories. Subsequently, a classification prediction model based on extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) was constructed. By integrating model explanation techniques such as SHAP (Shapley additive explanations) and partial dependence plots (PDP), the key process features affecting batch quality and their optimal control ranges were systematically investigated. Finally, the model findings were statistically verified through non-parametric tests, effect size analysis, and kernel density estimation. Results The study established a threshold of E = 0.136 3 kg/(m³∙min), classifying the 170 batches into 61 golden and 109 non-golden batches. The XGBoost model demonstrated excellent performance in identifying golden batches, achieving an F1-score of 0.84 on the test set. Model interpretation identified features such as LT_std-2, LT_skew-1, and T3_abd-2 as core determinants for golden batch formation and defined their optimal ranges. The statistical validation results were highly consistent with the model interpretations, confirming the reliability of the findings. Conclusion This study established a comprehensive technical framework encompassing performance quantification, intelligent classification, and model-based optimization. By successfully identifying the key process features and their optimal control ranges, this work lays a methodological foundation for the standardization and intelligent control of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) manufacturing, driving a paradigm shift in process optimization from an empirical-based to a data-driven approach.

Objective To prepare transdermal peptide-modified osthole liposomes (TD-Ost-Lips), and to explore the transdermal permeation performance and its therapeutic effects on atopic dermatitis (AD). Methods TD-Ost-Lips were prepared by film dispersion method. Phospholipid to osthole amount ratio, phospholipid to cholesterol amount ratio and phospholipid to DSPE-mPEG₂₀₀₀-TD amount ratio were selected as main influencing factors, overall desirability (OD) of entrapment efficiency, drug loading and particle size acted as response values, and the Box-Behnken design-response surface method (BBD-RSM) was used to optimize preparations of TD-Ost-Lips. Shape of TD-Ost-Lips was observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). TD-Ost-Lips gel was prepared using carbomer 940 as matrix, drug release behavior in vitro was studied by dialysis method and the mechanism of drug delivery was also studied. The rheology of TD-Ost-Lips gel was explored. The Franz diffusion cell method was used to study the transdermal permeation performance of TD-Ost-Lips gels. Atopic dermatitis (AD) model was stablished, the changes of skin lesions on the back of the mice were observed, and the inflammatory factors and pathological changes of skin lesions were detected. Results The optimal formulations of TD-Ost-Lips: phospholipid to osthole amount ratio was 8.81:1, phospholipid to cholesterol amount ratio was 6.27:1 and phospholipid to DSPE-mPEG2000-TD amount ratio was 6.27:1. The encapsulation efficiency, drug loading, particle size and ζ potential of TD-Ost-Lips were (86.77 ± 0.71)%, (6.65 ± 0.10)%, (220.25 ± 5.69) nm, and (−17.31 ± 0.85) mV, respectively. The shape of TD-Ost-Lips were vesicular. The cumulative release rate of TD-Ost-Lips gel in 24 h was 77.06%, and the drug behavior accorded with Weibull model. The rheological properties of TD-Ost-Lips gels showed solid elastic properties, and did not flow when inverted. TD-Ost-Lips gel increased the permeation rate, cumulative penetration and skin retention of osthole to 5.00, 5.04 and 2.84 times, respectively. TD-Ost-Lips gel significantly reduced the psoriasis area and severity index (PASI), effectively suppressed the elevation of inflammatory factors in skin tissue, and enhanced the treatment effect of osthole on AD. Conclusion TD-Ost-Lips gel greatly promoted the transdermal permeation of osthole, significantly enhanced its therapeutic effects on atopic dermatitis, and laid a foundation for further development and application.

Objective To elucidate the mechanism by which Danhong Injection (丹红注射液, DHI) ameliorates mitochondrial dynamics imbalance and inhibits NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3)-mediated pyroptosis in H9c2 cells subjected to oxygen-glucose deprivation based on AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) pathway. Methods Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS) was employed to identify the core active components of DHI. Molecular docking was performed using AutoDock Vina software to assess the affinity between DHI core components and target proteins, including AMPK, Drp1, optic atrophy 1 (OPA1) and cystein-asparate protease-1 (Caspase-1). An H9c2 cell oxygen-glucose deprivation model was established, control group, model group, DHI group, DHI + Compound C (AMPK inhibitor) group, AICAR (AMPK agonist) group, MCC950 (NLRP3 inhibitor) group and Mdivi-1 (Drp1 inhibitor) group were set up. The optimal intervention concentration of DHI was screened using CCK-8 assay. Mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) was measured using JC-1 probe, and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) level was determined using MitoSOX^TM. Mitochondrial ultrastructure was observed via transmission electron microscopy. Immunofluorescence was used to detect the protein expressions of p-AMPK and p-Drp1. Western blotting was performed to detect the expressions of AMPK/Drp1 pathway-related proteins, mitochondrial dynamics-related proteins [mitochondrial fission 1 protein (FIS1), mitofusin 2 (MFN2) and OPA1] and pyroptosis-related proteins [NLRP3, apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD (ASC), Caspase-1 and N-terminal fragment of gasdermin D (GSDMD-NT)]. ELISA was used to determine the levels of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-18 and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Results UHPLC-MS identified eight active components of DHI, including salvianolic acid, lithospermic acid B, danshensu, caffeic acid, sodium danshensu, etc. The molecular docking results showed that each target and active ingredient had strong affinity. The in vitro experimental results showed that compared with model group, mitochondrial morphology in DHI group was significantly improved, with continuous outer membrane and relatively intact cristae structure, increased quantity, and matrix density restored to near normal. MMP and ATP levels were increased (P < 0.01), mtROS release was decreased (P < 0.01), p-AMPK/AMPK value was increased (P < 0.01), p-Drp1/Drp1 value was decreased (P < 0.01), MFN2 and OPA1 protein expressions were upregulated (P < 0.01), FIS1, NLRP3, ASC, Caspase-1 and GSDMD-NT protein expressions were downregulated (P < 0.01), and IL-1β and IL-18 levels were significantly decreased (P < 0.01), consistent with the effects of AICAR, MCC950 and Mdivi-1. Compound C could partially inhibit the above-mentioned effects of DHI. Conclusion DHI activates AMPK/Drp1 pathway, inhibits mitochondrial excessive division and promotes mitochondrial fusion, reduces NLRP3 inflammasome activation and pyroptosis, thereby alleviating hypoxia/hypoglycemia induced H9c2 cell damage.

Objective To investigate the therapeutic effect of pedunculoside (PE) on dextran sulfate sodium salt (DSS)-induced ulcerative colitis (UC) and elucidate its molecular mechanism through in vitro and in vivo models. Methods DSS was used to establish a mouse UC model, combined with transcriptome analysis, the effect of PE on changes in body weight, colon length, colon tissue pathology, pro-inflammatory cytokine levels in colon tissue, and expressions of tight junction proteins (Occludin, E-cadherin, Claudin-1) were evaluated. Caco-2 monolayer cell model was established, the cell permeability was detected using fluorescein isothiocyanate-glucan (FITC-glucan) to evaluate the effect of PE on intestinal mucosal barrier function. Further validation of the regulatory effect of PE on phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) signaling pathway, inflammatory factors, and tight junction protein expression and distribution was achieved through molecular biology experiments such as Western blotting and ELISA. Results The results of in vivo experiments showed that PE could significantly reduce the disease activity index (DAI) score of mice (P < 0.001), alleviate pathological damage to colon tissue, reduce pro-inflammatory cytokine levels (P < 0.05, 0.001), and upregulate the expressions of tight junction proteins in colon tissue (P < 0.001). Transcriptome sequencing revealed that PE had a significant inhibitory effect on the overactivated PI3K/Akt signaling pathway in colon tissue of UC mice (P < 0.001). In vitro experimental results showed that PE could significantly reduce the permeability of Caco-2 monolayer cells (P < 0.001), inhibit the phosphorylation of Akt and PI3K in DSS-induced Caco-2 cell model (P < 0.01, 0.001), reduce the levels of inflammatory factors (P < 0.01, 0.001), and upregulate the expressions of Occludin, E-cadherin and Claudin-1 (P < 0.001). Conclusion PE could downregulate inflammatory response and enhance intestinal epithelial barrier function by inhibiting PI3K/Akt signaling pathway in both in vivo and in vitro models, thereby exerting a protective effect on DSS-induced UC.

Objective To investigate the effects and underlying molecular mechanisms of glycyrrhetinic acid (GLG) and glycyrrhizic acid (GLA) on alleviation of cisplatin (CP)-induced acute liver injury (ALI) based on proteomics. Methods A total of 50 SPF male Wistar rats were randomly divided into control group, model group, amifostine (200 mg/kg) group, GLG (100 mg/kg) group and GLA (200 mg/kg) group. Rats in GLG group and GLA group were given intragastric administration for eight consecutive days. Rats in amifostine group was given intraperitoneal administration from the 5th to the 8th day of the experiment, control group and model group were given intragastric administration of physiological saline. On the 5th day of the experiment, except for the control group, all other rats were induced to ALI with a single dose of cisplatin solution (8 mg/kg) via ip. Liver index, liver function and pathological changes in liver tissue were detected. Label free non-standard quantitative proteomics technology was used to analyze protein expressions in liver tissue, differentially expressed proteins were screen, and bioinformatics analysis was performed. The protein-protein interaction (PPI) integration network of drug and disease prediction intersection targets and differentially expressed proteins was constructed by integrating network pharmacology methods. The core targets were screened by cytoNCA, MCODE and cytoHubba, gene ontology (GO) function and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis were performed. Key target expressions were validated using Western blotting, immunohistochemistry and other techniques. Results Compared with model group, the liver index and activities of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) in serum of rats in GLG group and GLA group were significantly reduced (P < 0.05, 0.01, 0.001), and the pathological damage of liver tissue was significantly improved. Proteomic identification identified 23 potential key differentially expressed proteins each in cisplatin-induced ALI treated with GLG and GLA, enriched in multiple biological processes related to redox reactions, inflammation and apoptosis. PPI integrated network showed that signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), heme oxygenase 1 (HMOX1), protein kinase B1 (AKT1), B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), cysteine aspartate protease-3 (Caspase-3) and tumor protein p53 (TP53) were key targets of GLG action network, HMOX1, Bcl-2, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and TP53 were key targets of GLA action network, and they can be enriched in phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt signaling pathway, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) signaling pathway, interleukin-17 (IL-17) signaling pathway, p53 signaling pathway, etc. The validation results showed that both GLG and GLA could significantly upregulate the p-Akt/Akt value and Bcl-2, superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels in liver tissue of ALI rats (P < 0.01, 0.001), and downregulate the expressions of Akt, HMOX1, STAT3, high mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1) and levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, malondialdehyde (MDA) in liver tissue (P < 0.05, 0.01, 0.001). Conclusion GLG and GLA could effectively alleviate cisplatin-induced ALI, and their protective effects may be closely related to regulating Akt/STAT3/HMOX1 signaling axis, thereby inhibiting liver oxidative damage, cell apoptosis and inflammatory response.

Objective To investigate the intervention effect of Jingfang Granules (荆防颗粒) on airway inflammation and airway remodeling in asthmatic mice based on lung-gut axis, and elucidate the underlying molecular mechanism. Methods BALB/c mice were randomly divided into control group, model group, Jingfang Granules low-, medium-, high-dose (1, 2, 4 g/kg) groups and dexamethasone (1 mg/kg) group. A mouse asthma model was established by ip ovalbumin/aluminum hydroxide. After drug intervention, levels of interferon-γ (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in serum and interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6 in lung tissue were detected. Hematoxylin-eosin (HE), PAS and Masson staining were used to detect pathological changes in lung tissue of mice. Immunohistochemistry was used to detect mucin 5AC (MUC5AC) protein expression in lung tissue. Western blotting was used to detect the expressions of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1)/Smad2/3 pathway, NOD nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway in lung tissue and intestinal barrier related proteins. 16S rRNA sequencing, untargeted metabolomics and proteomics analyses were integrated to systematically explore the potential mechanism of Jingfang Granules in asthma intervention from a multi-omics perspective. Results Compared with model group, Jingfang Granules significantly reduced the levels of TNF-α in serum and IL-1β, IL-6 in lung tissue of asthma model mice (P < 0.01), increased the level of IFN-γ in serum (P < 0.01), significantly reduced the infiltration of inflammatory cells in lung tissue, decreased the expression of MUC5AC in lung tissue, inhibited the activity of TGF-β1/Smad2/3 signaling pathway, thereby alleviating airway mucus secretion and airway remodeling. The results of multi-omics analysis further indicated that Jingfang Granules could upregulate the expressions of Occludin, Claudin1 and ZO-1, promote intestinal barrier repair, regulate gut microbiota imbalance and fecal metabolic disorders, and inhibit the abnormal activation of the NOD-NF-κB signaling pathway. Conclusion Jingfang Granules may ameliorate airway inflammation and airway remodeling in asthmatic mice by repairing intestinal barrier function, improving gut microbiota structure, correcting fecal metabolic disorders, and modulating NOD-NF-κB signaling pathway.

Objective To observe the effect of water extract of Crataegus pinnatifida leaves on vascular inflammatory injury and systemic lipid metabolism disorders in apolipoprotein E knockout (ApoE^−/−) mice induced by homocysteine (Hcy) and high fat. Methods Eight C57BL/6J mice fed a normal diet were served as the control group, 40 ApoE^−/− mice were randomly divided into high-fat group, high-fat + methionine group, simvastatin (5.7 mg/kg) group, C. pinnatifida leaves low-and high-dose (12, 24 g/kg) groups, with eight mice in each group. Except for the control group, all other mice were fed a 21% high-fat diet for 18 weeks. Starting from the 11th week, except for the control and high-fat groups, the remaining mice were received daily intragastric administration of methionine (1 g/kg) to induce hyperhomocysteinemia. Corresponding drugs were administered to each treatment group, while the control and high-fat groups received an equivalent volume of saline. Counts of white blood cells, red blood cells, hemoglobin and platelets in peripheral blood were measured. Levels of Hcy, total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), IL-1β, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), serum creatinine (SCr) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) in serum were assessed. Oil red O staining was used to observe lipid plaques in aortic intima and lipid content in liver sections. Filipin staining was used to measure hepatic cholesterol level. Hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining was used to examine pathological morphological changes in aortic tissue. Masson staining was used to detecte collagen fiber deposition in aorta. Immunofluorescence staining was used to evaluate the expressions of p50, p65 in aorta and sterol regulatory element binding protein 1 (SREBP1) and SREBP2 in liver. Results Compared with control group, levels of Hcy, TC, TG, LDL-C and inflammatory factors in serum of mice in high-fat group and high-fat + methionine group were significantly increased (P < 0.01), while the level of HDL-C was significantly decreased (P < 0.01). The red stained area of aorta was significantly increased (P < 0.01), the endometrium was thickened and showed obvious pathological changes, lipid accumulation was increased (P < 0.01), and expressions of p50, p65 were increased (P < 0.01). The expressions of SREBP1 and SREBP2 in liver were increased (P < 0.01), and the lipid content was increased (P < 0.01). Compared with high-fat + methionine group, levels of Hcy, TC, TG, LDL-C and inflammatory factors in serum of mice in each treatment group were significantly reduced (P < 0.01), while the level of HDL-C was significantly increased (P < 0.05, 0.01). The red stained area of aorta was significantly reduced (P < 0.01), pathological changes were alleviated, lipid accumulation was reduced (P < 0.01), and the expressions of p50, p65 were reduced (P < 0.01). The expressions of SREBP1 and SREBP2 in liver were decreased (P < 0.01), and the lipid content was decreased (P < 0.01). Conclusion The water extract of C. pinnatifida leaves could improve the atherosclerosis of blood vessels in mice, and its mechanism may be closely related to the inhibition of inflammatory damage of vascular endothelium and liver lipid synthesis.

Objective To explore the effects of verbascoside combined with electroacupuncture on neuroinflammation and brain tissue damage in ischemic stroke (IS) rats based on Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 (Rac1)/protein kinase B (Akt)/nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway. Methods A rat model of IS was constructed using middle cerebral artery occlusion. The successfully modeled rats were randomly divided into model group, verbascoside (10 mg/kg) group, electroacupuncture group, averbascoside + electroacupuncture group, nifedipine (10 mg/kg) group, Rac1/Akt/NF-κB pathway activator phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA, 10 μg/kg) group and verbascoside + electroacupuncture + PMA group, with 10 rats in each group. Another 10 normal rats were selected as the control group. After 2 h of successful modeling, each treatment group began intervention and continued treatment for 14 d. The neurological deficit and cerebral infarction area of rats in each group were evaluated. The levels of interleukin-17 (IL-17), IL-1β and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) in brain tissue of rats were detected. The pathological damage and cell apoptosis in brain tissue of rats were detected. The expressions of S100β, arginase-1 (Arg-1) and Rac1/Akt/NF-κB pathway related proteins in brain tissue of rats were detected. Results Compared with control group, the neurological severity score (NSS) and cerebral infarction area ratio of rats in model group were significantly increased (P < 0.05), the levels of IL-17, IL-1β and MCP-1 in brain tissue were significantly increased (P < 0.05), the pathological damage in brain tissue was severe, the apoptosis rate was significantly increased (P < 0.05), the protein expression levels of S100β, Rac1, p-Akt/Akt, p-NF-κB p65/NF-κB p65 in brain tissue were significantly increased (P < 0.05), and the expression of Arg-1 was significantly decreased (P < 0.05). Compared with model group, the above indicators were significantly improved in verbascoside group, electroacupuncture group, nifedipine group and verbascoside + electroacupuncture group (P < 0.05), among which the verbascoside + electroacupuncture group had a significantly better improvement effect than the verbascoside group and electroacupuncture group (P < 0.05). PMA could significantly reverse the improvement effect of verbascoside combined with electroacupuncture on IS rats (P < 0.05). Conclusion The combination of acteoside and electroacupuncture may alleviate neuroinflammation and brain tissue damage in IS rats by inhibiting Rac1/Akt/NF-κB pathway.

Objective To screen characteristic genes driving gastric mucosal “inflammation-cancer transformation” based on multi-omics data and Mendelian randomization (MR) causal inference methods, and to explore potential traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) intervention strategies. Methods Transcriptomic data and large-scale genetic data were integrated. Differential analysis, MR analysis, and protein-protein interaction network construction were performed to screen characteristic genes causally associated with gastric cancer risk. Subsequently, survival analysis, immune infiltration analysis, and immune mediation mechanism analysis were conducted on the identified genes. Finally, molecular docking-based virtual screening was performed on a TCM small-molecule compound library using core characteristic genes as targets to predict potential active components. Results A total of 30 continuously up-regulated differentially expressed genes were identified during the “inflammation-cancer transformation” process. MR analysis identified five core characteristic genes (S100A8, CXCR1, S100A9, S100A12, ZBED2) showing positive causal associations with gastric cancer risk. Among them, high expression of S100A12 was significantly associated with poor prognosis in patients, positively correlated with neutrophil infiltration, and negatively correlated with B-cell and CD4⁺ T-cell infiltration. Mediation analysis revealed that S100A12 may promote carcinogenic effects by negatively regulating CD25⁺CD4⁺ T cells (primarily regulatory T cells). Phenome-wide MR analysis suggested good potential safety for targeting S100A12. Virtual screening identified several TCM small-molecule compounds with high binding affinity to the S100A12 protein (e.g., C-curarine, physalin D). Conclusion S100A12 is a key characteristic gene linking chronic inflammation to gastric cancer development, driving “inflammation-cancer transformation” by reshaping the immune microenvironment. The screening of TCM small molecules targeting this gene provides lead compound candidates for intervening in gastric precancerous lesions. The established research framework integrating multi-omics and reverse drug screening offers a new approach for the precise prevention and drug development of gastric cancer.

Objective To investigate the clinical characteristics and medication patterns of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in the treatment of stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) based on real-world data and provide a scientific basis for syndrome differentiation-based medication selection and the development of new TCM therapies. Methods Electronic medical records of 6 240 outpatients with stable COPD treated at the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Liuzhou Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, and Wuzhou Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine between January 2019 and January 2025 were retrospectively collected. Disease characteristics and TCM prescription compatibility patterns were systematically analyzed using the Ancient and Modern Medical Record Cloud Platform through frequency analysis, association rule mining, and hierarchical cluster analysis. Results The predominant syndrome types in patients with stable COPD were lung-kidney deficiency syndrome and lung-spleen qi deficiency syndrome. The core symptoms were cough, sputum production, shortness of breath, and chest distension. Commonly used herbs included Gancao (Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma), Banxia (Pinelliae Rhizoma), Chenpi (Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium), Baizhu (Atractylodis Macrocephalae Rhizoma), and Huangqi (Astragali Radix). Important herb combinations included Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma-Pinelliae Rhizoma and Astragali Radix-Dangshen (Codonopsis Radix). These herbs were predominantly warm in nature and sweet, pungent, and bitter in flavor, and were mainly associated with the lung, spleen, and kidney meridians. Conclusion This study suggests that the stable stage of COPD is primarily characterized by lung-kidney deficiency syndrome and lung-spleen qi deficiency syndrome. Therapeutic strategies should focus on tonifying the lung, spleen, and kidney, warming yang, resolving phlegm, activating blood, and resolving stasis. The identified core herb combinations may provide an important reference for precise syndrome differentiation and treatment, future clinical validation, and the development of new TCM-based therapies.

Objective To explore the research status, trends and hotspots of plant-derived exosomes (PDEs) using bibliometric visualization analysis, so as to provide a theoretical basis for their basic research and practical applications. Methods Utilizing CiteSpace, VOSviewer, and Scimago Graphica software, we conducted a comprehensive visualization analysis of Chinese and English literature on PDEs indexed in the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) and the Web of Science Core Collection (WOSCC). The analysis encompassed publication trends, geographical distribution, institutional collaboration networks, author contributions, and keyword co-occurrence to identify research frontiers and evolving trajectories in PDEs research. Results A total of 2 815 eligible publications were included in this study, comprising 160 Chinese-language publications (5.68%) and 2 655 English-language publications (94.32%). Research activity in the PDEs field is predominantly concentrated in China and the United States, with global academic attention demonstrating a consistent annual increase. Institutional network analysis revealed distinct modular collaboration patterns, with Chinese institutions—including the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhejiang University, Capital Medical University, and Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine—alongside international institutions such as the University of California and the University of Illinois, occupying central positions in collaboration networks. High-frequency keyword co-occurrence analysis identified current research focal points, including PDEs derived from sources such as Jianghuang (Curcumae Longae Rhizoma), Renshen (Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma), tea, Gouqi (Lycii Fructus), and Machixian (Portulacae Herba), with investigations concentrating on molecular mechanisms underlying skin wound healing, neuroprotective effects, oncological therapy, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, and blood-brain barrier modulation. Additionally, sustained research attention is directed toward applied domains including extraction and purification methodologies, establishment of quality evaluation standards, and the development of PDEs as drug delivery vehicles. Conclusion PDEs demonstrate substantial research potential in neuroprotection, oncological therapy, and wound healing applications. Future research trajectories will likely focus on optimizing extraction and purification protocols for PDEs from diverse botanical sources, developing novel formulations tailored to precision medicine requirements, and expanding their therapeutic indications. Furthermore, strengthening interdisciplinary collaboration and integrating emerging technologies will be essential for fully realizing the translational potential of PDEs.

Objective To conduct a bibliometric analysis of the relevant literature on traditional Chinese medicine with nourishing-yin properties for tumor prevention and treatment published both domestically and internationally over the past 20 years, with the intention of providing references for the pharmacological effects and scientific connotations of such traditional Chinese medicine in tumor prevention and treatment. Methods The relevant literature was obtained from the databases of China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang Data, and Web of Science (WOS). Using bibliometrics and visualization research tools such as NoteExpress, CiteSpace, VOSviewer, and Gephi, the publication volume, countries, institutions, authors, and keywords of the selected literature were analyzed to form visualization results and analyze the current research status, hotspots, and trends. Results The analysis of publication volume shows that the research on yin-nourishing traditional Chinese medicine in tumor prevention and treatment has been increasing year by year. Currently, Chinese literature is the main body of research literature in this field. Maidong (Ophiopogonis Radix), Shihu (Dendrobii Caulis), and Gouqizi (Lycii Fructus) are the most frequently studied yin-nourishing traditional Chinese medicines in this field. The analysis of the countries and institutions that published papers indicates that the country with the most research publications in this field is China, and the dominant forces are Chinese medical colleges and hospital units. The analysis of authors’ publications shows that there is no core author group formed between domestic and international authors, and the research force in this field presents a diversified situation. The keyword analysis indicates that the research in this field mainly focuses on lung cancer, active ingredients, pharmacological effects, etc., while the medication pattern, data mining, mechanism of action, cell cycle regulation, and Lycium barbarum polysaccharides are the research hotspots in recent years. Conclusion Research on the prevention and treatment of tumors with yin-nourishing traditional Chinese medicine is still in an upward development stage at present. The research focus is on the study of the material basis and mechanism of action of yin-nourishing traditional Chinese medicines in preventing and treating tumors, as well as the research on clinical application experience and innovation in research methods.

Objective To explore the molecular mechanisms underlying the morphological differences in fruits and seeds of Ziziphus jujuba var. spinosa from different sources and to identify key genes influencing the morphological variation in Z. jujuba var. spinosa fruits and seeds. Methods Wild and grafted Z. jujuba var. spinosa fruits and seeds were used as materials. Phenotypic differences in their appearance were analyzed using a phenotypic group approach. Transcriptome sequencing was performed using the Illumina HiSeq platform. After data quality control, assembly, and gene annotation, differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were analyzed and screened. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) was used to assess the expression levels of key genes in different tissues, under gibberellin (GA₃) and drought stress treatments. Results The transverse and longitudinal diameters, as well as the weight of grafted Z. jujuba var. spinosa fruits, were significantly larger than those of wild Z. jujuba var. spinosa fruits. Similarly, the longitudinal diameter, thickness, and weight of grafted Z. jujuba var. spinosa seeds were significantly higher than those of wild Z. jujuba var. spinosa seeds. Transcriptome sequencing revealed that DEGs between grafted and wild Z. jujuba var. spinosa fruits and seeds were related to stress response, transcriptional regulation, plant hormone signal transduction, and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis. Through qRT-PCR, core DEGs influencing the morphological development of Z. jujuba var. spinosa fruits and seeds were identified, including WRKY53, WRKY40, TIFY9, NCED3, TSJT1, NRT3.1, BZIP9, TEN1, BXL1, and LRX4. After treatment with 150 mg/L GA₃, the expression levels of WRKY53, LRX4, NRT3.1, and TIFY9 were significantly upregulated, whereas BZIP9 and NCED3 were significantly downregulated. Under PEG-6000 drought stress, the expression levels of WRKY53, WRKY40, TEN1, TSJT1, and TIFY9 were significantly upregulated, while those of BZIP9 and LRX4 were significantly down-regulated. Conclusion This study preliminarily elucidated the molecular mechanisms underlying the morphological differences between grafted and wild Z. jujuba var. spinosa fruits and seeds. It also identified key candidate genes influencing the morphological development of fruits and seeds and their expression patterns under different stress conditions. These findings provide a theoretical basis and key targets for molecular breeding, environmental adaptability studies, and resource improvement of Z. jujuba var. spinosa.

Objective To investigate the regulatory mechanism underlying the effect of low-temperature treatment on the accumulation of active components in Veronica polita and clarify its regulatory mechanism. Methods Plants subjected to low-temperature treatment were analyzed through phenotypic observation, physiological and biochemical indices, transcriptome and metabolome analyses. Results Prolonged low-temperature treatment significantly increased the plant height, fresh weight and dry weight, as well as the root length of V. polita. The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD), as well as the contents of total flavonoids, total phenols and total sugars first rose and then decreased. The contents of malondialdehyde (MDA) and chlorophyll increased, whereas chlorophyll fluorescence parameters decreased. The contents of total flavonoids and total phenols also first increased and then decreased. Transcriptomic analysis showed that the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) exhibited a stage-specific expression patterns. Pathways such as secondary metabolite biosynthesis, phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, metabolic pathways, and plant hormone signal transduction were significantly enriched. Three flavonoid synthesis-related genes (GT5, JOX2, HO1) and five phenol synthesis and metabolism-related genes (LAC3, AOX4, LPR2, AS1, MT-CO2) were identified. Metabolomic analysis indicated that the contents of quercetin, myricetin, and benzoic acid showed a trend of first increasing and then decreasing with the extension of treatment time. Integrated multi-omics analysis demonstrated that the core mechanism by which V. polita responds to low-temperature stress involves the precise reprogramming of the phenylpropanoid/flavonoid metabolic pathway. Conclusion Appropriatelow-temperature treatment promotes the accumulation of secondary metabolites in V. polita, thereby providing a foundation for further research into its functional genes.

Objective To screen high-efficiency phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) in the rhizosphere soil of Fritillaria taipaiensis and provide data support for the development of microbial fertilizers. Methods Rhizosphere soil samples were collected from ten production areas. Strains of inorganic phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (IPSB) and organic phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (OPSB) were isolated and purified. Their phosphate-solubilizing capacities were evaluated qualitatively and quantitatively, and the strains were identified based on physiological and biochemical characteristics as well as 16S rDNA sequencing. The effects of selected strains were further verified using pot experiments. Results A total of 42 IPSB and 31 OPSB strains were isolated. Quantitative analysis showed that among the IPSB strains, WP2-2 exhibited the strongest solubilizing capacity, increasing available phosphorus by 231.30 mg/L, followed by WP7-2 (211.05 mg/L). Among the OPSB strains, YP3-1 showed the highest phosphorus solubilization (28.57 mg/L), followed by YP5-1 (22.30 mg/L). Strain WP2-2 was identified as Serratia plymuthica, WP7-2 as Bacillus cereus, and both YP3-1 and YP5-1 were also identified as B. cereus. Pot experiments revealed that inoculation with these PSB strains altered the total phosphorus content in bulbs and fibrous roots, and also influenced the total alkaloid content in the bulbs. Conclusion The strains WP2-2, WP7-2, YP3-1, and YP5-1 show great potential for developing specialized microbial fertilizers for the cultivation of F. taipaiensis.

Objective To evaluate the quality of Urtica laetevirens from different producing areas based on multi-index quantification, combined with chemical pattern recognition technology, weighted TOPSIS and grey relational analysis(GRA) fusion model. Methods A total of 20 batches of U. laetevirens were collected from the main producing areas. The contents of protocatechuic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, hyperoside, rutin, quercetin, apigenin, kaempferol, luteolin, daucosterol, β-sitosterol were detected by HPLC, and the extract, total ash and acid-insoluble ash were examined. Combined with chemical pattern recognition technology, the differences between U. laetevirens from different producing areas were discussed, and the main landmark components leading to the quality differences of U. laetevirens from different producing areas were screened. The weighted TOPSIS model was constructed with the VIP value of each index as the weight, and then integrated with the GRA method to rank the quality of 20 batches of U. laetevirens. Results Under the established HPLC conditions. The linear ranges of protocatechuic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, hyperoside, rutin, quercetin, apigenin, kaempferol, luteolin, daucosterol, β-sitosterol showed a good linear relationship within the range of 0.21—10.50, 1.15—57.50, 0.28—14.00, 0.46—23.00, 3.35—167.50, 4.47—223.50, 1.70—85.00, 0.14—7.00, 0.37—18.50, 0.79—39.50, 0.65—32.50, 1.31—65.50 μg/mL, respectively. The established method had good repeatability and high instrument precision. The stability of the sample solution of nettle extracted by 70% methanol ultrasonic extraction was good within 24 h. The average recovery rates of each component were 98.43%, 97.91%, 98.24%, 99.06%, 100.03%, 99.68%, 100.01%, 97.81%, 98.92%, 98.23%, 96.77% and 98.34%, respectively. The RSD was between 0.73% and 1.86%. The contents of various components were 0.66—0.129, 0.270—0.577, 0.093—0.184, 0.164—0.281, 1.440—2.465, 1.911—3.204, 0.331—1.188, 0.036—0.106, 0.078—0.209, 0.187—0.456, 0.196—0.418, 0.383—0.613 mg/g, The contents of extract, total ash and acid-insoluble ash were 14.3%—31.5%, 7.3%—16.2%, 0.5%—3.4%, respectively. It showed that the quality difference between batches was large. The 20 batches of U. laetevirens samples were divided into three groups by chemical pattern recognition technology, among them, S1—S8 from Sichuan, Gansu and Yunnan, S9-S14 from Guangxi, Guizhou and Hunan, and S15—S20 from Qinghai and Xizang were each group, showing obvious regional characteristics. The marker components that distinguish the quality differences of each sample were rutin, hyperoside, quercetin, chlorogenic acid, luteolin and β-sitosterol. The analysis results of weighted TOPSIS and GRA fusion model showed that the comprehensive relative closeness of 20 batches of samples was between 0.285 4 and 0.673 6. The comprehensive relative closeness of S15—S20 samples from Qinghai and Xizang were 0.652 2, 0.663 3, 0.628 3, 0.673 6, 0.597 0 and 0.583 7, respectively, which was higher than that of other batches, and the quality was relatively better. Conclusion The established multi-index quantitative method is stable and reliable, which can be used to perfect the quality standard of U. laetevirens. The chemical pattern recognition combined with weighted TOPSIS and GRA fusion model comprehensively and scientifically evaluated the quality of U. laetevirens from different producing areas, laying a foundation for the quality analysis and evaluation of U. laetevirens.

Objective To detect and compare the contents of multiple indexes in Homalomena occulta from different producing areas, and to provide basis for quality evaluation of H. occulta. Methods In this study, 19 batches of H. occulta were collected. An HPLC method was performed on a CenturySIL C₁₈ BDS column (250 mm × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) with acetonitrile-0.3% phosphoric acid as the mobile phase under gradient elution and wavelength switching detection at 260, 330 and 210 nm to simultaneously determine the contents of 11 components (protocatechuic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, quercetin, apigenin, pinocembrin, daucosterol, β- sitosterol, stigmasterol, ursolic acid, betulinic acid). The content of linalool was determined, and the alcohol-soluble extract, total ash and acid-insoluble ash were examined according to the 2025 edition of Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Hierarchical cluster analysis, principal component analysis (PCA), factor analysis (FA), partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) and grey relational analysis (GRA) were comprehensively applied to evaluate the quality of H. occulta from different producing areas and to screen the quality difference markers. Results The contents of each index in 19 batches of H. occulta were protocatechuic acid 0.251—0.903 mg/g, caffeic acid 0.171—0.294 mg/g, ferulic acid 0.041—0.101 mg/g, quercetin 0.265—0.490 mg/g, apigenin 0.144—0.250 mg/g, pinocembrin 0.046-0.088 mg/g, daucosterol 0.237—0.509 mg/g, β-sitosterol 0.394—1.153 mg/g, stigmasterol 0.102—0.218 mg/g, ursolic acid 0.154—0.328 mg/g, betulinic acid 0.071—0.116 mg/g, linalool 3.022—5.079 mg/g, extract 19.5%—33.5%, total ash 2.4%—6.5% and acid-insoluble ash 0.5%—1.2%. Chemical pattern recognition analysis showed that there were some differences in the quality of H. occulta in different producing areas. The 19 batches of samples were divided into 3 groups, and the samples with similar origin were divided into one group. The quality difference markers of each sample were linalool, quercetin, ursolic acid, β-sitosterol and protocatechuic acid. The quality evaluation results of factor analysis and grey correlation analysis were consistent, which showed that the quality of S15—S19 samples from Guangxi was better. Conclusion By analyzing and comparing the contents of multiple indexes in H. occulta from different producing areas, the quality difference markers for distinguishing each sample were determined, which can provide a method reference for the quality evaluation of H. occulta.

With the wide application of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) at home and abroad, the problem of toxicity reduction of toxic Chinese materia medica needs to be solved urgently. Rational compatibility of TCM is the basis for safe use of Chinese medicinal formulas, and herb pair is the smallest unit of TCM compatibility. By starting from toxicity reduction through herb pair compatibility, this study summarizes the mechanism of action of “toxic” TCM, the differences between ancient and modern dosages, and the typical theories of herb pair compatibility, to provide ideas and references for research on toxicity reduction in herb pairs. In addition, this study summarizes studies on chemical composition changes of individual herbs after pairing, in vivo pharmacokinetics, and pharmacological mechanisms of herb pair compatibility. It is concluded that under the guidance of basic theories of TCM, herb pairs can be studied at multiple levels and from multiple perspectives by combining multiple methods to investigate the mechanisms of their combinations in reducing toxicity. This approach helps to clarify the compatibility rules of Chinese medicinal formulas and provides a scientific reference for in-depth studies on the mechanisms of compatibility and detoxification of herb pairs, as well as for the clinical safe use of TCM.

The gut-lung axis is an important pathway connecting the respiratory system and the digestive system, playing a key role in maintaining immune homeostasis, regulating inflammatory responses, and protecting the mucosal barrier. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) theory that “the lung and the large intestine are exterior-interior related” is highly consistent with the modern concept of gut-lung axis, providing a scientific basis for “lung and intestine co-treatment”. Studies have shown that the imbalance of the intestinal flora and the damage of the barrier function can affect the inflammatory immune response in lungs through inflammatory mediators and metabolites, aggravating the occurrence and development of lung diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma and pulmonary fibrosis. TCM can improve the stability of gut-lung axis as a whole by regulating the intestinal flora and metabolic products (such as short-chain fatty acids and tryptophan metabolites), and repairing the mucosal barrier, thereby reducing the inflammatory response and tissue damage in lungs. Therefore, based on gut-lung axis, this paper mainly expounds the research progress of the main therapeutic effect relief links of traditional Chinese medicine throug regulating intestinal flora, flora metabolites and mucosal immunity, protecting lung-intestine barrier and preventing and treating lung diseases, providing a new idea for in-depth explanation of mechanism of “regulating the lung through the intestine” and the prevention and treatment of respiratory diseases by TCM.

Type 2 bitter taste receptors (TAS2Rs), a subfamily of G protein-coupled receptors, comprise 25 receptor-members. Besides being expressed on taste buds to perceive bitterness, TAS2Rs are also distributed in multiple systems, including the respiratory, digestive, immune systems, where they regulate various physiological processes such as airway defense, gastrointestinal motility, and inflammation regulation. In traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) theory, the bitter TCMs are able to purge, dry and firm. Their functional substances often serve as both taste substances that evoke bitter perception and the key component responsible for the medicinal properties and efficacy of bitter herbs. These components may exert various pharmacological effects, such as regulating glucolipid metabolism and inflammatory responses, by activating TAS2Rs expressed in different tissues and organs. This article systematically expounds the association between the efficacy of bitter TCMs and the function of TAS2Rs, as well as the tissue distribution, physiological functions, structural characteristics and signal transduction mechanisms of TAS2Rs, and analyses the problems and challenges in research between bitter TCMs and TAS2Rs pharmacology. It’s expected to reveal the scientific essence of the “property-effect-substance” correlation of bitter TCMs.

Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) oral liquid is an oral liquid preparation made from Chinese medicinal materials through processes such as extraction, concentration and purification, and it is one of the commonly used liquid preparations. It has the advantages of easy absorption, rapid action and convenient administration, and is widely used in clinical practice. However, TCM oral liquid has a complex composition. During production and storage, it is easily affected by factors such as temperature and light, and undergoes oxidation, degradation, complexation and other reactions, resulting in unstable phenomena such as sedimentation, turbidity, flocculation and stratification. These phenomena have adverse effects on product quality and medication safety. How to regulate the stability of TCM oral liquid through environmental control, clarification process optimization, additive addition and application of advanced formulation technologies is a key issue. Based on this, this paper aims to deeply analyze the factors affecting the stability of TCM oral liquid and the transformation mechanism of its active ingredients on the basis of the active ingredients of TCM oral liquid, and then summarize the control strategies, with the aim of providing theoretical references for research and development and production of TCM oral liquid.

Nanoaggregates of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) serve as the core vehicle for elucidating the pharmacological basis of TCM formulations and their “multi-component, multi-target” mechanisms of action. This review systematically reviews the latest research advances on the formation mechanisms, influencing factors, characterization techniques and targeted delivery applications of TCM nanoaggregates, and analyzes the current challenges and future prospects of this research field. Studies have shown that TCM nanoaggregates can self-assemble spontaneously through non-covalent interactions such as hydrogen bonding, π-π stacking, electrostatic interactions and hydrophobic interactions. Their particle size, morphology and structural characteristics significantly affect the solubility, stability and bioavailability of drugs. Targeted delivery is the core advantage of TCM nanoaggregates. It enables the precise enrichment of drugs at lesion sites through passive targeting and active targeting strategies, thereby achieving the goal of toxicity reduction and efficacy enhancement. Nevertheless, this field still faces challenges such as complicated preparation processes and insufficient evaluation of stability and safety. Future studies should further elucidate the formation mechanisms and optimize the evaluation system, providing novel perspectives and technical support for the interpretation of the material basis of TCM efficacy and the modernization development of traditional Chinese medicine.

Digestive system diseases exhibit high clinical incidence rates and complex pathogenesis, creating an urgent need for the development of safe and effective therapeutic agents. Hesperetin is a flavonoid compound widely presented in Rutaceae plants, and serves as the primary effective component of traditional Chinese medicines such as Chenpi (Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium), Zhiqiao (Aurantii Fructus) and Qingpi (Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium Viride) in preventing and treating digestive system dysfunction. Modern pharmacological studies have confirmed that hesperetin could exert potential therapeutic effects on digestive system diseases such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, liver fibrosis, ulcerative colitis, gastric cancer, and colorectal cancer through multiple pathways including inhibiting inflammatory responses, antioxidative stress, improving lipid metabolism, regulating intestinal flora, regulating mitochondrial autophagy, antitumor, etc. This article summarizes and analyzes the relevant research reports at home and abroad in the past 30 years, systematically reviews the pharmacological effects and molecular mechanisms of hesperetin in treatment of digestive system diseases, and provides theoretical basis and scientific reference for the development of new drugs and health products.

With the continuous deepening of research on active ingredients in traditional Chinese medicine, Dactylicapnos alkaloids play an increasingly important role in the fields of plant chemistry and innovative drug development. This article elaborates on the main achievements and progress in the research of alkaloid components in the Dactylicapnos at home and abroad, and introduces the research status and characteristics of this field at home and abroad. By comparing domestic and foreign studies, this article found that there are some hot and difficult issues in the research field of Dactylicapnos alkaloid components, mainly manifested in the imbalance of alkaloid research among different species in Dactylicapnos, the narrow scope of alkaloid components and pharmacological activity research in this genus. Finally, this article provides a review of the efficacy, chemical composition, biosynthetic pathways, and pharmacological activities of Dactylicapnos, pointing out the shortcomings of current research and proposing future research directions and possible development trends. This article aims to provide reference for researchers on Dactylicapnos alkaloids and provide insights and suggestions for subsequent investigations.

Chinese herbal medicine-derived EV-like particles (CHM-EVLP) constitute a natural nanoscale delivery system sourced from medicinal plants listed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Exhibiting excellent biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, outstanding ability to traverse biological barriers, and synergistic effects from multiple components. They effectively overcome limitations in traditional drug therapies for neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), such as difficulty in penetrating the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the limited efficacy of single-target interventions. This paper systematically reviews the biological characteristics and material basis of CHM-EVLP, confirming its core particle size distribution between 30—150 nm and its composite structure comprising lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and secondary metabolites. It summarises separation and purification techniques—including differential ultracentrifugation, density gradient centrifugation, and ultrafiltration/size exclusion chromatography—alongside multidimensional characterisation methods. It emphasises the core mechanism of CHM-EVLP in preventing and treating NDDs, which involves the synergistic action of four pathways: “inhibiting protein aggregation, regulating neuroinflammation, repairing mitochondria, and protecting neurons”. This approach establishes specific in vivo action pathways for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson’s disease (PD), while analysing suitable scenarios for oral, intranasal, and injectable administration routes. Concurrently, it identifies current limitations in CHM-EVLP research, including the absence of standardised extraction and purification protocols, incomplete quality control systems, and the need for further validation of in vivo delivery efficiency and long-term safety. Future research directions proposed include establishing standardised preparation workflows, constructing a “combined marker system”, and deepening the validation of key bioactive component-target-effect relationships. This work provides theoretical underpinnings and technical references for the engineered development of CHM-EVLPs and the clinical translation of TCM nanomedicines in NDDs prevention and treatment, highlighting their application value in modernising traditional Chinese medicine.

Huangjing (Polygonati Rhizoma) is a medicinal and edible herb whose quality is primarily determined by its intrinsic medicinal properties, mainly characterized by polysaccharides and saponins. However, the content and composition of these bioactive constituents are highly susceptible to variations in germplasm, ecological conditions, and processing methods, leading to significant fluctuations in commercial product quality—a critical bottleneck impeding the standardized development of the industry. Traditional research has predominantly focused on the apparent effects of individual ecological or agronomic factors, lacking a holistic analysis of the complex system governing quality formation. This review focuses on the intrinsic medicinal quality of Polygonati Rhizoma and constructs a systematic theoretical framework of “genetic-environment-management” multifactorial interactions to elucidate the multidimensional regulatory network underlying its quality formation. The article comprehensively reviews and analyzes the synergistic regulatory mechanisms of various factors and their interactions on quality traits from three dimensions: intrinsic genetic basis (germplasm resources and metabolic regulatory networks), extrinsic environmental regulation (climatic factors and rhizosphere microecological interactions), and anthropogenic production interventions (precision cultivation and post-harvest processing). On this basis, we propose that future research should prioritize systems biology analysis through multi-omics integration, intelligent and precise management across the entire industrial chain, modernization and value-added transformation of processing technologies, and the establishment of a whole-process quality standard system. This review provides an integrated theoretical framework for understanding the formation mechanism of the geo-authentic medicinal quality of Polygonati Rhizoma and offers a theoretical foundation for guiding its standardized production and high-quality industrial development.