Significant progress has been made in numerical forecasting of typhoon tracks and intensity, yet meeting the needs of operational forecasting remains challenging. Based on the high-resolution Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model, eight sets of combination experiments are conducted with different model initial conditions, initialization times, and microphysical parameterization schemes. The results indicate that the model initial condition exhibits the highest sensitivity in forecasting the track of typhoon Lekima (1909). Representative experiments are selected based on track errors, and sensitivity experiments are conducted to further explore the mechanisms responsible for significant differences in typhoon track forecasts arising from different model initial conditions. The results indicate that accurate forecasting of the strength and extent of the western Pacific subtropical high (WPSH) plays a crucial role in determining the quality of typhoon track predictions. An overestimation of the WPSH in the initial field leads to a subsequent overestimation of WPSH, which blocks the typhoon that moves westward and northward along the WPSH and its moving speed is slowed. This results in significant errors in the typhoon track forecasting. Additionally, forecast errors of the typhoon inner core structure at different stages are related to the predicted typhoon track. Vertical wind shear in the large-scale circulation field may be a significant factor contributing to this error. Moreover, an overestimation of the WPSH extent and intensity leads to a deeper asymmetric distribution of horizontal wind speed near the typhoon, which contributes to the occurrence and development of deep convection. This is an important reason for the slower moving speed of the typhoon.

Hong Kong is a coastal city in southern China. In the nineteenth century, Hong Kong's shipping industry had been well developed, serving as an important entrepot in the region. The Hong Kong Observatory (HKO) was established in 1883. Early operations of the HKO were all related to the shipping industry at the time, including meteorological observations and tropical cyclone warning service. The HKO has been conducting meteorological measurements at its Headquarters in Tsimshatsui since 1884. The long-term weather observations document the variations of climate in Hong Kong caused by global climate change and local urbanization. In 2017, the HKO Headquarters received the World Meteorological Organization's recognition as one of the first batches of centennial observing stations in the world. In more than a century, the HKO's services have evolved in pace with the increasing expectations and requirements of the modern society. During the period, the HKO made use of advanced technologies from time to time in tandem with its operational developments. Looking ahead, the HKO will further strengthen the cooperation with meteorological authorities in mainland China and the Greater Bay Area, playing the role of connecting the world to promote close meteorological cooperations regionally and internationally, and improving the ability to prevent natural disasters and respond to emergencies.

Retrievals of satellite-observed emissions of atmospheric pollutants and greenhouse gases provide essential information and data for understanding the sources of these key atmospheric compositions and for implementing precise emission control measures. Over the past two decades, significant progress has been made in the field of emission inversion, with Chinese researchers playing a substantial role. In celebration of the 100th anniversary of the Chinese Meteorological Society and Acta Meteorologica Sinica, this paper systematically reviews the advances in satellite-based emission inversion research by Chinese scientists during this period. (1) Several widely used inversion methodologies, including data assimilation, local mass balance, Gaussian models, two-dimensional (2D) models, and machine learning, are briefly summarized. (2) Emission inversion studies focusing on major atmospheric pollutants— such as nitrogen oxides (NO_x), ammonia (NH₃), formaldehyde (HCHO), glyoxal (CHOCHO), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), and carbon monoxide (CO)—as well as greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂) and methane (CH₄), are systematically elaborated. (3) Finally, the historical evolution of inversion methods and target species, challenges in current satellite-based emission inversion, and future research directions are discussed to promote more accurate quantification of atmospheric pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions. It is worth noting that contributions from Chinese researchers have provided critical scientific support to environmental protection and carbon neutrality efforts in China.

In 2023, the central part of the Hexi Corridor experienced an extreme high temperature and drought that would occur once every 60 years, which adversely affected local agricultural production and ecological environment, causing serious economic losses. This study uses various observational datasets to discuss the characteristics and effects of the high-temperature and drought in the central Hexi Corridor in 2023 from perspectives of meteorology, hydrology, ecology and agriculture. We further examine the responses of summer precipitation in the central Hexi Corridor to anomalous atmospheric circulation and sea surface temperature (SST). The datasets used in this study include monthly precipitation and temperature data during 1951—2023 from six national basic stations in the central Hexi Corridor, the Heihe river runoff data from Yingluoxia hydrological station in the upper reaches of the Heihe river, the FY-3D/MERSI satellite data, the GF-1 satellite data, and the NCEP/NCAR monthly mean reanalysis data, and 88 atmospheric circulation indexes and 26 SST indexes provided by National Climate Centre. The results show that precipitation and average temperature in the central part of the Hexi Corridor from May to September 2023 both exceeded historical extremes, with precipitation reached a new historical low and temperature reached a new historical high. The combined effect of high temperature and low precipitation significantly exacerbated the intensity of drought. In the middle Qilian mountains, the average snow cover area decreased by 45.8%, the annual runoff decreased by 15%, the main reservoir area decreased by 25.8%—66.0%. The characteristics of drought spread are meteorological drought—hydrological drought—ecological and agricultural drought. We find that precipitation in the central Hexi Corridor from May to September had significant multi-scale oscillations in 5, 11, 17 and 32 a, and multiple time scales showed that 2023 was in a period of less oscillation. When the drought in the central Hexi Corridor was observed, the atmospheric circulation anomalies included a southward shifted ridge line of the western Pacific subtropical high, an eastward shifted ridge point of the western extension, a westward shifted ridge point of the South Asian high pressure, a weaker than normal Indian low, a smaller polar vortex area in the northern hemisphere and Asia, a stronger blocking high in the middle and high latitudes of Asia, and increased longitudinal coverage of the westerly circulation in Eurasia. Meanwhile, positive SST anomalies occurred in the Nino3 area and the west wind drift region, while negative SST anomalies occurred in the Kuroshio region.

To obtain high precision wind profile and turbulence products and fully understand the application potential of wind lidar, quality control of Doppler wind lidar with five-beam swing (DBS5) mode is investigated in this work using radial velocity and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Three-dimensional wind and turbulence measurements by the DBS5 mode of wind lidar are systematically evaluated based on measurements of a three-dimensional ultrasonic anemometer mounted on a tower. The results show that the wind lidar exhibits excellent observational accuracy with root mean square errors (RMSEs) as low as 0.4 m/s, 0.1 m/s, 0.1 m/s, 0.1 m/s, and 0.5 m²/s² for horizontal wind speed (WS), vertical velocity (w), standard deviation of vertical velocity (σ_w), friction velocity (u_*), and turbulent kinetic energy (TKE), respectively at the height of 140 m. Moreover, the impacts of time scale, elevation angle, and spatial scale on observational accuracy of wind lidar are investigated. The results indicate that variations in time scale have little impact on observational accuracy, while elevation angle may affect the accuracy of TKE. Additionally, the RMSEs of WS and TKE gradually increase with increasing spatial scale, while the accuracy of w, σ_w, and u_* remain relatively stable. Further investigation of profiles of turbulence and vertical velocity under clear-sky conditions in Beijing indicates that the power spectra of vertical velocity is consistent with the classical −5/3 scaling law at different periods and heights, whereas white noise appears in the high-frequency region and intensifies with increasing height, especially above the boundary layer. Finally, the vertical turbulence of low-level jets (LLJs) observed by Doppler wind lidar is stronger below the jet height and weaker in and above the jet height.

Back-building MCSs (Mesoscale Convective Systems) are highly conductive to sudden, localized short-duration heavy rainfall. In order to reveal the characteristics of this type of MCS and its association with heavy rainfall, this study systematically studies spatial and temporal distribution of back-building MCSs that triggered short-duration heavy rainfall during the warm seasons from 2015 to 2021 in Zhejiang province. Different organizational forms and environmental thermodynamic factors of different types are also explored. The results show that back-building MCSs in Zhejiang province exhibit significant monthly and diurnal variation patterns, i.e., MCSs mainly occur in June and July with peak hourly rainfall intensities of 30 and 50 mm in these two months, respectively. The MCS primarily form between 11:00 and 14:00 BT, with the highest frequency of formation occurring between 12:00 and 13:00 BT. The majority of MCSs have a duration of 12 h or less, with 10 h duration being the most common. The start time of backward propagation shows a quasi-bimodal pattern, which is 2—3 h later than the main formation time of the MCS. For 90% of the cases, the time of maximum hourly rainfall intensity occur within 0—2.5 h after the onset of the backward propagation. Based on the evolution characteristics of convective system organization, the back-building MCSs with short-duration heavy rainfall in Zhejiang province can be categorized into four types: Advective, quasi-stationary, turning, and propagating MCS, with about 42% occuring under the forcing of weak synoptic-scale system. The MCS usually occurs in an environment with medium convective available potential energy (CAPE), high humidity and appropriate vertical wind shear, but with different environmental factors for different types. The quasi-stationary MCSs account for the largest proportion (44.7%) and are characterized by significant environmental dynamic features, including strong atmospheric instability, large steering flow, and mid-to-lower-level vertical wind shear. They result in relatively weak maximum hourly rainfall intensity (the median is 50 mm/h). Propagating MCSs (accounting for about 17%) exhibit more distinct environmental thermodynamic characteristics with large CAPE and precipitable water (PW), and lead to the strongest maximum hourly rainfall intensity (the median is 70 mm/h).

The similarities and differences in environmental conditions between daytime and nighttime torrential precipitation processes in North China have not been fully clarified. Based on precipitation data collected at 981 surface meteorological stations and ERA5 reanalysis data, the spatial and temporal distribution characteristics and environmental conditions of daytime and nighttime types of torrential precipitation processes in North China during the period from May to September of 2013—2023 are comprehensively analyzed. The objective classification method of the obliquely rotated T-mode principal component analysis is used to classify the circulation situations of daytime and nighttime types of torrential precipitation processes, and the characteristics of environmental physical variables of their corresponding circulation situations are then compared and analyzed. Direct comparison reveals that the environmental conditions of the nighttime heavy precipitation process in North China are different from that of the daytime heavy precipitation process, which provides an important basis for deepening our understanding of the formation mechanism of nighttime heavy rainfall in North China. The results show that the nighttime type torrential precipitation processes in North China develop more often after midnight, and have more occurrences over more concentrated regions, while the daytime processes and the first half-night precipitation of the nighttime processes have stronger convection and they mainly occur in July and August. Moisture of nighttime type is richer than that of daytime type, while CAPE of daytime type is higher than that of nighttime type. The distributions of both 850 hPa and 500 hPa temperature difference and 850 hPa vertical velocity are similar between the two types. Low-level wind speed and 0—1 km vertical wind shear are significantly higher in the nighttime type than in the daytime type. Low troughs and vortices at the edge of the subtropical high are the main synoptic systems influencing torrential precipitation processes in North China. The distribution characteristics of physical variable of the environments in different types of circulation situations are somewhat different. Moisture of deep trough circulation of daytime type and cold vortex circulation of nighttime type are the worst. 0—6 km vertical wind shear (SHR₆) and 0—3 km vertical wind shear (SHR₃) are generally not strong. SHR₆ of daytime torrential precipitation processes is slightly stronger than that of nighttime type, and SHR₃ of nighttime torrential precipitation processes is slightly stronger than that of daytime type. The above results indicate that the nighttime heavy rainfall over North China is closely related to the East Asian summer monsoon, which is characterized by abundant water vapor, high θ_se value, appropriate CAPE value and strong wind speed in the lower atmosphere. The low-level wind field and SHR₃ distribution indicate that one of the dominant factors of nighttime heavy rainfall over North China is the diurnal variations of low level jet or strong wind speed.

The "7.20" Zhengzhou torrential rainfall is the most severe storm in the 21st century, characterized by long persistence and intense hourly precipitation. Through comparative analysis of PBL (Planetary Boundary Layer) eddy transport for this instantaneous precipitation process, this study attempts to investigate PBL structure and turbulent diffusion impacts on heavy precipitation intensity. Three comparative experiments are conducted by tuning coefficients of local eddy diffusion and counter-gradient term. Results show that PBL turbulent transport has strong influences on severe hourly precipitation during the "7.20" Zhengzhou torrential rainfall event. It is found through comparison that the decrease in local eddy diffusion noticeably leads to weakening in precipitation intensity and the counter-gradient term mainly results in changes in rainfall location and evolution. Furthermore, PBL eddy transport can modulate large-scale atmospheric conditions for heavy storms, such as local water vapor supply and atmospheric instability. Finally, the eddy vapor and heat transports can notably modify the distribution, intensity and evolution of moisture flux convergence and PBL atmospheric instability, and thus exhibit great influences on this severe storm simulation.

Based on dual-polarization radar observations, surface data and ERA5 reanalysis product, an extensive propagation high wind event in Hubei province triggered by squall line is studied. Results show that in the environment with typical thunderstorm temperature and humidity profiles (wet downburst), the squall line originating in Southwest Henan province significantly enhanced after crossing Tongbai mountain, and resulted in a Derecho event in Hubei province. The direct reason for the enhancement of the squall line is that several isolated storms on the south side merged into the squall line. Further analysis reveals that the key mesoscale systems for the enhancement of the squall line included a shallow cold outflow from another squall line, an boundary-layer jet forced by the topography and the cold pool outflow of the squall line. The topographic effects include the blocking of cold pool outflow, the valley penetration of outflow, and the orographic uplift, which triggered isolated storms and provided a mesoscale ascending environment. After the squall line crossed the mountain, extreme winds in Guangshui were mainly caused by downward momentum transfer and divergence of strong downdrafts. The intense convective cells in the squall line were composed of graupels or small hails above the melting layer, and many small solid particles melted into large water droplets or water-covered ice cores near the melting layer. Significant evaporation under the melting layer significantly reduced the diameter of raindrops and liquid water content. This indicates that significant melting and evaporation are the main mechanisms for the formation of strong downdrafts in the storm. The results enhance our understanding of the effects of mesoscale topography on storms and physical processes of the formation of extreme winds.

To deepen understanding of mesoscale convective systems under the special topography of Hunan province, this paper uses high spatiotemporal resolution data obtained from the Variational Doppler Radar Analysis System to study the extreme precipitation process that occurred in Hunan province from 20:00 BT 29 May to 06:00 BT 30 May 2022. Results indicate that this extremely heavy precipitation event occurred in the convergence zone between dry, cold northerly airflow and warm, moist southwesterly jet at 700 hPa. In the initial stage, clustered convections were sporadically triggered and gradually organized into a banded mesoscale convection system. During the development of the banded mesoscale convection system, positive vorticity formed due to environmental vertical wind shear and negative vorticity generated by the cold pool gradually approached equilibrium, which, coupled with the enhancement of the southwesterly jet that transported a large amount of moisture, resulted in rapid development of the banded mesoscale convection system with extreme precipitation reaching 103 mm in one hour. In the maintenance stage, the compensatory downdraft for the updraft within the banded mesoscale convection system suppressed convection generation in the central part of the system. Additionally, the downdraft enhanced raindrops evaporation in the middle and lower levels and transferred horizontal westward momentum to the near-surface, intensifying convection in the eastern part of the banded mesoscale convection system and resulting in splitting of the convection system into a clustered mesoscale convective system. As the convection moved southward, the low-level southwesterly was blocked by Mingyang and Xuefeng mountains. As a result, new convections were mostly triggered on the west side of the Xiangjiang river valley, resulting in larger total precipitation there.