Objective To evaluate the clinical efficacy, pharmacoeconomic value, and potential for reducing antibiotic use of Liushen Capsules in the treatment of acute tonsillitis. Methods A multicenter, prospective cohort study was conducted, enrolling 875 patients with acute tonsillitis (660 in the exposed group, 215 in the non-exposed group). Comparisons were made between the two groups regarding sore throat Visual Analog Scale (VAS) scores, disease recovery rate, efficacy of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) syndrome differentiation, as well as antibiotic and antipyretic-analgesic usage rates. Pharmacoeconomic evaluation and multivariate logistic regression analysis were also performed. Results After seven days of treatment, the exposed group showed significantly better outcomes than the non-exposed group in terms of reduction in sore throat VAS score, improvement in TCM syndrome recovery rate, and reduction in antibiotic use rate (P<0.05).. Pharmacoeconomic cost-minimizationt analysis indicated that the exposed group was more cost-effective than the non-exposed group. Conclusion Liushen Capsules can effectively alleviate symptoms, improve clinical efficacy, significantly reduce antibiotic use, and demonstrate favorable pharmacoeconomic value in the treatment of acute tonsillitis.

Objective To systematically analyze the differences in volatile components of Chenxiang (Aquilariae Lignum Resinatum) essential oil (AEO) from various origins and extraction methods using an electronic nose combined with chemometrics, aiming to establish a novel method for rapid identification of AEO origins and extraction processes. Methods A total of 38 batches of AEO samples were collected from seven major origins using two extraction methods. Their chemical compositions were analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), while overall aroma fingerprint information was obtained via electronic nose. Principal component analysis (PCA), partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), and orthogonal partial least squares-discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) were comprehensively applied for pattern recognition of multi-source data. Results GC-MS analysis revealed that the common major components in all samples were benzylacetone, agarospirol, dehydrofuranone, and 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromone. Seven key differential compounds, including 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromone and 6-methoxy-2-(2-phenylethyl)chromone, were screened through variable importance projection (VIP > 1). The PCA results of the electronic nose response values show a good correlation with the origin or extraction method of AEO samples. The established OPLS-DA discriminant model exhibited excellent performance: the origin discriminant model achieved R_X² = 0.839, R_Y² = 0.794, Q² = 0.572 > 0.500, and the extraction method discriminant model achieved R_X² = 0.790, R_Y² = 0.647, Q² = 0.633 > 0.500, which can effectively classify AEO samples. Conclusion This study successfully combined the rapid identification of electronic nose with GC-MS component analysis, which confirmed that the combined strategy could accurately identify the extraction method and geographical origins of AEO, and clarified its material basis, providing an efficient and reliable new method for the classification and identification of AEO.

Objective To investigate the compositional distribution, in vitro release, and pharmacokinetic behavior of different phases in the Huangqin (Scutellariae Radix, SR)-Zhigancao (Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma Praeparata cum Melle, GRRPM) decoction, and to elucidate the physical structural basis for the delayed and enhanced efficacy mediated by herb compatibility. Methods The decoction was separated into nanoparticulate, true solution, and precipitate phases by centrifugation combined with dialysis. The particle size and morphology of these phases were characterized. The contents of major active components baicalin, wogonoside, liquiritin apioside, glycyrrhizic acid, and others were determined by HPLC, and their in vitro release profiles were evaluated. The plasma concentration of baicalin in rats after oral administration of different phases was measured using LC-MS/MS, and pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated. Results Significant differences in particle size and morphology were observed among the phases. The mass fractions of liquiritin apioside, baicalin, wogonoside, and glycyrrhizic acid in each phase decreased in the order: nanoparticulate phase > true solution phase > precipitate phase. All four components showed the highest release from the nanoparticulate phase, followed by the true solution phase, and the lowest release from the precipitate phase. After oral administration of the whole extract and the different phases, the C_max and AUC_0-t of baicalin ranked as follows: nanoparticulate phase > whole extract > true solution phase > precipitate phase. Conclusion The formation of a complex multiphase system in the SR-GRRPM decoction significantly affects the spatial distribution, in vitro release, and pharmacokinetic behavior of the active constituents. This may represent the physical structural basis underlying the delayed and enhanced efficacy resulting from the combination of the two herbs.

Objective To investigate the effect and mechanism of Chuanxiong (Chuanxiong Rhizoma) oil inhalation via nasal administration on chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS)-induced depressive mice. Methods The main components of Chuanxiong Rhizoma oil were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). A CUMS-induced depressive mouse model was established, and after drug intervention, the pharmacological effects of Chuanxiong Rhizoma oil were evaluated through behavioral tests, hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining and Nissl staining. Mechanistic studies were conducted using ELISA, Western blotting, qRT-PCR and 16S rRNA. Results GC-MS identified Z-ligustilide and senkyunolide A as the primary components of Chuanxiong Rhizoma oil. Nasal inhalation of Chuanxiong Rhizoma oil significantly alleviated depressive-like behaviors in CUMS mice (P < 0.05, 0.01), reduced hippocampal neuronal damage, upregulated the expressions of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)/tyrosine receptor kinase B (TrkB)/cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB) signaling pathway related proteins in hippocampus (P < 0.05, 0.01), elevated levels of monoamine neurotransmitters such as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) (P < 0.05, 0.01), inhibited the hyperactivity of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis (P < 0.05, 0.01), suppressed pro-inflammatory factors such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in colon tissue (P < 0.05, 0.01), enhanced barrier function (P < 0.05, 0.01), and significantly ameliorated CUMS-induced gut microbiota dysbiosis. The CREB-specific inhibitor 666-15 significantly reversed the antidepressant effects of Chuanxiong Rhizoma oil (P < 0.01). Conclusion Nasal inhalation of Chuanxiong Rhizoma oil alleviates depression by improving gut dysfunction through BDNF/TrkB/CREB pathway.

The herb “Mutong” has long been plagued by significant species confusion in traditional Chinese medicine, involving non-toxic Mutong (Akebiae Caulis), Chuanmutong (Clematidis Armandii Caulis), and the highly nephrotoxic and carcinogenic Guuanmutong (Aristolochiae Manshuriensis Caulis). This paper provides a systematic review of the historical origins of such confusion, including changes in nomenclature, resource shortages, and regulatory gaps, with a focused analysis of the toxicity mechanisms of aristolochic acids (AAs), encompassing metabolic activation, DNA adduct formation, and the resultant A:T to T:A mutations leading to urothelial carcinoma. Although the Chinese Pharmacopoeia reinstated the use of genuine Akebiae Caulis and prohibited Aristolochiae Manshuriensis Caulis in 2005, widespread adulteration persists in the market, highlighting the limitations of conventional identification methods. This study further comprehensively evaluates various identification techniques ranging from morphology and microscopy to modern molecular biology and spectroscopy, discussing their respective strengths and weaknesses. It proposes the development of an integrated “field-laboratory-regulatory” tripartite identification system, incorporating portable NIR-PCR devices, AI-assisted LC-MS databases, and blockchain-based drug traceability systems. Finally, the paper calls for establishing a three-dimensional “efficacy-chemistry-toxicity” evaluation model to scientifically reinterpret traditional empirical knowledge, thereby enhancing the safety and global acceptance of traditional Chinese medicine.

Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death and disability worldwide. Although existing standard therapies can reduce the risk of acute events, a significant “residual risk” remains, highlighting the urgent need for multi-target intervention strategies. Tetrahydropalmatine (THP), the principal active alkaloid in Corydalis yanhusuo, features a unique tetracyclic scaffold and exhibits multitarget pharmacological characteristics. It plays significant roles in key pathological processes, including arrhythmia, platelet hyperaggregation and thrombosis, hypertension and endothelial dysfunction, and ventricular remodeling. Its mechanisms involve the coordinated regulation of multiple ion channels, enhancement of nitric oxide synthesis and endothelium-dependent relaxation, suppression of sympathetic nerve activity, and inhibition of fibrosis and hypertrophy. Furthermore, THP can activate protective signaling pathways such as the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B pathway, while inhibiting pathogenic pathways including the mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor-κB pathways, thereby exerting comprehensive effects such as anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, antioxidant, and pro-angiogenic actions. However, THP still faces critical limitations, including low oral bioavailability, complex metabolic pathways, and insufficient clinical evidence. Therefore, this review systematically summarizes the pharmacological effects and molecular mechanisms of THP in cardiovascular diseases, aiming to elucidate its potential value as a multi-target and multi-pathway therapeutic agent, and to provide a theoretical foundation for further pharmacokinetic optimization, formulation improvement, and clinical investigation.

Objective To optimize the extraction process of the classic prescription Baizhu Powder (白术散), and verify its anti-inflammatory activity through cell anti-inflammatory activity experiments, providing a basis for the development of Baizhu Powder. Methods An HPLC detection method was established for the index components puerarin, daidzin, ginsenoside Rg₁, daidzein, ginsenoside Rb₁, and ammonium glycyrrhizinate. Taking the content of index components, paste yield and oil extraction volume as evaluation indicators, the comprehensive weights of each index were determined by analytic hierarchy process (AHP)-entropy weight method. Based on the single-factor experiment, the Box-Behnken design-response surface method (BBD-RSM) was adopted to optimize the Baizhu Powder extraction process. The anti-inflammatory activity of Baizhu Powder was investigated by inducing an inflammatory model of human normal colonic epithelial cells (NCM460) with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and the feasibility of the process was verified. Results The optimized extraction process of Baizhu Powder was 10 times the volume of water, soaking for 30 min, extraction time for 90 min, and extraction twice. Under these conditions, the average comprehensive score of the three batches of process validation was 0.974, and the RSD value was 1.94%. The pharmacodynamic verification results of Baizhu Powder indicated that the Baizhu Powder prepared by the optimized process could significantly reduce the levels of inflammatory factors interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in the LPS-induced NCM460 cell inflammatory model. The level of the anti-inflammatory factor IL-10 was increased, and there was no significant difference compared with the Baizhu Powder benchmark sample. Conclusion The Baizhu Powder extraction process optimized by AHP-entropy weight method combined with BBD-RSM is stable and reliable, which can provide a basis for the subsequent research and development of Baizhu Powder.

Objective This study focused on the root of Polygala tenuifolia by distinguishing the root, root bark (after removal of the heartwood), and heartwood from roots of different diameters, a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) fingerprint was established. Combined with chemical pattern recognition and multi-index component content determination methods, the quality differences were systematically evaluated to provide a scientific basis for the traditional “Quality Assessment Based on Morphological Characteristics” theory, specifically the principle that “thicker bark indicates better quality”. Methods P. tenuifolia samples were collected from Yulin, Shaanxi, and grouped according to root diameter (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 mm). The root, root bark, and heartwood samples were prepared separately. HPLC was used to establish fingerprints, calibrate common peaks, and identify the main components. The contents of seven indicator components, such as tenuifolin, were determined. Principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal partial least-squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) were performed using SIMCA 14.0 software, and cluster heat-map analysis was conducted on the Metware Cloud platform. Results HPLC fingerprints of 18 batches of samples were established, with 23 common peaks calibrated and seven of them identified. Similarity ranged from 0.748 to 0.943. PCA and OPLS-DA clearly distinguished three sample types (root, root bark, heartwood) and screened nine differential components, including 3,6′-disinapoyl sucrose and onjisaponin B. Overall, the content of active components followed the order: root bark > root > heartwood. 3,6′-disinapoyl sucrose showed significant differences between root bark and heartwood, while polygalaxanthone III varied markedly between root and root bark. The total content of indicator components increased with root diameter and bark thickness, but the individual content fluctuated irregularly with diameter, which may be related to the ratio of bark to heartwood. Conclusion The established HPLC fingerprint, combined with chemical pattern recognition and multi-index content determination, is stable and reliable. It can be used to systematically evaluate the quality differences of P. tenuifolia roots, root barks, and heartwoods of different diameters, providing a scientific reference for quality control and rational utilization of P. tenuifolia medicinal materials.

Lipidomics enables the systematic analysis of the composition, functions, and metabolic networks of lipid molecules in organisms. Its holistic analytical characteristics are highly consistent with the “multi-component, multi-target, and holistic regulation” mode of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), providing key technical support for elucidating mechanisms of TCM in treating liver diseases. This article systematically reviews the research achievements in the field of lipidomics applied to TCM for liver disease treatment over the past five years. It focuses on analyzing the regulatory effects of TCM on various liver disease-related metabolic pathways and key targets, organizes the lipid regulation mechanisms of different TCM therapeutic approaches, and summarizes the application value of lipidomics in analyzing the efficacy-related substances of TCM, validating the processing of Chinese medicinal materials, and elucidating the mechanisms of TCM formulation compatibility. The study aims to provide theoretical references and practical insights for enhancing research on mechanism of TCM in treating liver diseases through lipidomics, promoting clinical precision diagnosis and treatment, and advancing modernization of TCM theory.

Objective To clone the SmABCG34 gene from the Salvia miltiorrhiza genome and analyze its bioinformatics and expression characteristics. Methods The SmABCG34 gene was cloned from the S. miltiorrhiza genome, and the Conservative Domain and physicochemical properties of the gene and its encoded protein were analyzed by Bioinformatics Online Website. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) was used to detect the tissue expression specificity of SmABCG34 gene and its response to stress induced by abscisic acid (ABA), trans-zeatin (tZ), and polyethylene glycol-6000 (PEG-6000). Results The CDS of the SmABCG34 gene is 4 347 bp in size and encodes 1 448 amino acids; This protein contains a typical NBD-TMD-NBD-TMD structure and belongs to the full-molecule transporter of the ABCG subfamily; subcellular localization shows that this protein was localizted to the cell membrane. Phylogenetic analysis showed that SmABCG34 was closely related to S. hispanica, with a protein homology of up to 91.23 %. The expression pattern analysis revealed that the SmABCG34 gene was expressed in the roots, stems, leaves and flowers of S. miltiorrhiza with the highest expression in the flowers, followed by the leaves. After treatment with ABA, tZ, and PEG-6000, compared to 0 h, the expression of the SmABCG34 gene was significantly upregulated at 12 h. Conclusion The SmABCG34 gene belongs to the ABCG subfamily and shows a significant response to hormone and stress treatments, providing a scientific basis for further exploration of the function of the SmABCG34 gene.