Objective To explore the mechanism of Astragalus bhotanensis (AB) against chronic pharyngitis based on network pharmacology, molecular docking, in vitro and in vivo experiments. Methods The antibacterial activity of AB extract against Staphylococcus aureus (SA), β-hemolytic streptococcus (HS), Escherichia coli (EC) and Diplococcus pneumoniae (DP) was assessed in vitro. A chronic pharyngitis rat model induced by HS was established and the pharmacological effects of AB extract was investigated. The interaction network between AB extract and chronic pharyngitis was constructed using databases such as PubChem, GeneCards, and STRING, and core targets were screened using Cytoscape software, followed by gene ontology (GO) function and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis. Molecular docking was performed using Autodock vina software, and the predicted results were verified by Western blotting. Results AB extract showed certain antibacterial activity against SA, HS, EC and DP. Compared with model group, AB extract significantly reduced the levels of inflammatory factors in serum of rats with chronic pharyngitis (P < 0.05, 0.01, 0.001), and effectively reversed the pathological damage of pharyngeal tissue. Network pharmacology analysis suggested that AB extract may act on targets such as heat shock protein 90 alpha family class B member 1 (HSP90AB1), phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha (PIK3CA), MAPK1, MAPK3, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1) by regulating signaling pathways such as mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt), thereby exerting therapeutic effects on chronic pharyngitis. The molecular docking results showed that oleic acid, 7β-hydroxysitosterol and astribhotin A had good binding ability with MAPK protein. Western blotting results showed that AB extract significantly reduced TLR4 protein expression and phosphorylation levels of nuclear factor-κB p65 (NF-κB p65) and p38 MAPK in pharyngeal tissue of chronic pharyngitis rats (P < 0.05, 0.01, 0.001). Conclusion AB extract alleviates HS-induced chronic pharyngitis in rats by regulating TLR4/p38 MAPK/NF-κB p65 signaling pathway.

Objective To explore the mechanism of galangin-induced apoptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) based on network pharmacology, molecular docking and cell experiment. Methods Potential targets of galangin were predicted using SwissTargetPrediction and PharmMapper databases, HCC-related targets were collected from GeneCards, TTD and OMIM databases. The intersection of these targets was used to construct a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network via STRING database, followed by gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis of intersected targets using DAVID platform. Molecular docking of galangin with core targets was validated using AutoDock Vina. Human hepatocellular carcinoma PLC/PRF/5 cells were cultured in vitro, and the effects of galangin on cell viability and apoptosis were assessed using CCK-8 assay and flow cytometry. Western blotting was used to detect the expressions of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) signaling pathway and apoptosis-related proteins. Results Network pharmacology analysis identified 142 common targets between galangin and HCC. PPI network analysis revealed that proteins such as EGFR, Akt and cystein-asparate protease-3 (Caspase-3) may serve as core targets. GO and KEGG analyses suggested that galangin primarily influenced cellular processes by regulating PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Molecular docking results indicated galangin had strong binding affinity with targets such as EGFR. In vitro experiments confirmed that galangin significantly inhibited PLC/PRF/5 cells viability and induced apoptosis (P < 0.01, 0.001), significantly down-regulated p-EGFR and p-Akt protein expressions (P < 0.05), and significantly up-regulated cleaved Caspase-3 and Caspase-9 protein expressions (P < 0.05, 0.01). Conclusion Galangin may exert its anti-HCC effects by inhibiting EGFR-PI3K/Akt signaling pathway and inducing apoptosis in HCC cells.

Objective To investigate clinical efficacy of Jiaotai Wan (JTW, 交泰丸), and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) in patients with depression, and to explore their underlying mechanisms. Methods Based on biological sample data from a previous multicenter, randomized, active-controlled parallel clinical trial, a total of 83 depression patients were divided into three groups: JTW group (n = 25), JTW combined with SSRIs group (n = 29), and SSRIs alone group (n = 29). A mixed linear model was used to analyze changes in short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), neuroinflammatory markers [cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂)] and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) before and after treatment in each group. Spearman correlation and structural equation modeling were used to explore the relationships between post-treatment biomarkers and clinical symptoms [Hamilton depression rating scale (HAMD) scores], and potential mediating pathways. Results HAMD scores decreased significantly from baseline in all three groups (P < 0.001), but there was no significant differences between the groups. The JTW group showed a significant increase in butyrate levels (P = 0.002) and maintained higher levels of acetate and propionate. The SSRIs group was associated with increased levels of isovalerate, isobutyrate, and hexanoate. After treatment, the JTW + SSRIs group showed significant increases in isobutyrate, isovalerate, and isohexanoate levels, and a significant decrease in acetate levels. The combined group had significantly higher BDNF levels than the other two groups (P < 0.05). The PGE₂ levels in the combined group were also higher than in the JTW group both at baseline and after treatment (P < 0.05). Correlation analysis showed a strong positive correlation between PGE₂ and BDNF in the combined group after treatment (r = 0.609, P < 0.001). In the SSRIs group, COX-2 was positively correlated with HAMD score (r = 0.451, P = 0.014). In the JTW group, isohexanoate was positively correlated with BDNF (r = 0.445, P = 0.026). Mediation analysis suggested a potential indirect effect in the combined group, where PGE₂ influenced HAMD scores through BDNF (indirect effect = −0.065, P = 0.093). Conclusion JTW alone, SSRIs alone and JTW combined with SSRIs all can effectively alleviate depressive symptoms. However, they showed different patterns in regulating gut SCFAs, neuroinflammation, and neurotrophic factors. JTW combined with SSRIs may modulate branched-chain fatty acid metabolism and promote a positive association between PGE₂ and BDNF, thereby creating a distinct pathway that differs from single therapies. These findings provide preliminary evidence for understanding the differential mechanisms of various antidepressant strategies, suggesting that personalized treatment should consider patients’ specific biological characteristics.

Objective To explore the medication patterns of medicinal and food homologous traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) in treatment of vascular dementia (VD), to elucidate their potential mechanisms using network pharmacology, and to validate these findings experimentally, providing a scientific basis for the prevention and treatment of VD. Methods Clinical literature on TCM prescriptions for VD was retrieved from China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang, China Science and Technology Journal Database (VIP), and the China Biology Medicine databases. After comparing with the list of TCMs that are both food and medicine, we obtained a set of VD-related TCM prescriptions. We analyzed the medication patterns and screened for core herbs. Using network pharmacology, we identified the active components of the core herbs and their target points in VD treatment, followed by gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) analyses. Molecular docking was performed on core targets and major active components. Animal experiments were conducted to verify the therapeutic effects of the core herbs. Results Data mining yielded 531 TCM prescriptions that are both food and medicine, revealing three high-frequency and strongly associated herbal pairs. Huangqi (Astragali Radix), Danggui (Angelicae Sinensis Radix), Taoren (Persicae Semen), and Shanzhuyu (Corni Fructus) were selected as the core herbs for treating VD. The anti-VD mechanisms involve regulating pathways such as interleukin‑17 (IL-17) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF). The main active components, quercetin and kaempferol, showed good binding affinity with key VD targets including tumor protein p53 (TP53), protein kinase B1 (AKT1), TNF, and IL-6. Animal experiments demonstrated that the TCM prescriptions improved learning and memory in VD rats, reduced mitochondrial and synaptic damage, and downregulated the mRNA expression levels of TP53, TNF, and IL-6 in the hippocampus, as well as the positive expression of TP53. Conclusion Astragali Radix, Angelicae Sinensis Radix, Persicae Semen, and Corni Fructus are core herbs in the category of TCMs that are both food and medicine for treating VD. Their anti-VD mechanisms are related to the regulation of targets such as TP53, TNF, and IL-6, which help alleviate synaptic injury and neuroinflammation. This study provides valuable insights into the use of these herbs for VD prevention and treatment.

Objective To systematically review the overall landscape of research on hepatotoxicity associated with traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) using bibliometric methods, identify key research areas and emerging trends, and conduct a multidimensional analysis encompassing material basis, mechanisms of action, research methodologies, toxicity reduction strategies, and clinical evaluation, thereby providing reference for TCM safety research and rational application. Methods Chinese and English literature on hepatotoxicity of TCM was retrieved from the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) and Web of Science (WOS) databases. The search period spans from January 1982 to July 2025. The CiteSpace bibliometric tool was employed to analyze the temporal distribution of published studies, core authors, key research institutions, high-frequency keywords, and emerging terms, thereby revealing research frontiers and hotspots in this field. Results A total of 552 Chinese-language articles were identified from the CNKI database, while 181 English-language articles were retrieved from the WOS database. The authors with the highest number of publications in both Chinese and English literature are Xiao Xiaohe and Wang Jiabo. The research institutions with the highest number of publications in both Chinese and English literature are Beijing University of Chinese Medicine and Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Bibliometric analysis indicates a steady annual increase in publications on TCM-induced hepatotoxicity. Research hotspots primarily focus on high-risk herbs (e.g., Polygonum multiflorum, Rheum officinale, Tripterygium wilfordii), toxic constituents (e.g., anthraquinones and pyrrolizidine alkaloids), and their molecular mechanisms. Further analysis revealed that research on hepatotoxicity caused by TCM has progressively established a systematic research chain spanning from fundamental mechanism analysis to clinical safety evaluation. Regarding material basis and mechanisms of action, research have focused on high-risk herbs and their active components, revealing multi-pathway synergistic mechanisms of liver injury mediated by metabolic activation, oxidative stress, immune inflammation, and apoptosis. Regarding research methodologies, research have evolved from traditional animal experiments and pathological observations to multidisciplinary approaches including cellular and molecular biology, systems toxicology, network pharmacology, and emerging organoids and liver-on-a-chip technologies. Regarding toxicity reduction strategies, a systematic toxicity reduction system has been established through the approaches of herbal processing, rational combination, formulation optimization, and personalized interventions guided by pharmacogenomics. Regarding clinical evaluation, the continuous refinement of case reporting, causality determination systems, and real-world studies has propelled TCM safety research toward evidence-based and international standards. Conclusion Current research on hepatotoxicity of TCM demonstrates a scientific progression from qualitative descriptions to quantitative analysis, and from empirical judgments to evidence-based conclusions. Future studies should deepen the elucidation of material bases and action mechanisms while strengthening the application of emerging technologies and big data mining. This will enhance the TCM safety evaluation system, providing support for rational TCM use and its modernization.

Objective To explore food and medicine homologous prescriptions for heat-clearing and detoxifying, with Lugen (Phragmitis Rhizoma) as the core, evaluate their antipyretic effect, and develop compound Phragmitis Rhizoma herbal tea. Methods A total of 181 Chinese patent medicine and formulations containing Phragmitis Rhizoma were retrieved from the Yaozh™ database. After screening, 97 formulations were included for data mining. The core composition of the herbal tea was identified through frequency statistics, cluster analysis, association rule analysis, and core complex network. The antipyretic effect and underlying mechanism were investigated using a dry yeast-induced febrile rat model. Results Data mining revealed that herbs used in Phragmitis Rhizoma-based formulations were predominantly sweet in taste and cold in property, primarily acting on the lung and stomach meridians. Eight traditional Chinese medicine combinations with high confidence and strong associations with Phragmitis Rhizoma were identified. Guided by traditional Chinese medicine theory, the core formulation was finalized as: Phragmitis Rhizoma, Gancao (Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma), Bohe (Menthae Haplocalycis Herba), Dazao (Jujubae Fructus), Maidong (Ophiopogonis Radix), Jiegeng (Platycodonis Radix), Jinyinhua (Lonicerae Japonicae Flos), and Korla fragrant pear. Animal studies showed that administration of low, medium, and high doses of the compound Phragmitis Rhizoma herbal tea significantly reduced the body temperature of febrile rats (P < 0.01). All dose groups significantly decreased serum tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) levels, as well as hypothalamic prostaglandin E₂(PGE₂) and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels (P < 0.01). Serum levels of interleukin‑6 (IL-6) were significantly reduced in the all groups (P < 0.05, 0.01). Conclusion The compound Phragmitis Rhizoma herbal tea can significantly reduce the body temperature of febrile rats. Its antipyretic mechanism is likely associated with decreasing serum levels of pyrogenic factors IL-6 and TNF-α, as well as reducing hypothalamus levels of pyrogenic, pro‑inflammatory, and algesic factors PGE₂ and cAMP content, there by causing a downward shift of the thermoregulatory set point.

ObjectiveTo systematically analyze the TIFY gene family members in Gastrodia elata f. glauca and explore their potential molecular mechanisms in the interaction between G. elata. f. glauca and Armillaria gallica. Methods Based on the whole-genome data of G. elata f. glauca, bioinformatics methods were used to analyze the system evolution, gene structures, and chromosome distribution. The gene expression characteristicswere detected by qRT-PCR, and the jasmonic acid (JA) content was detected by mass spectrometry. The correlation between gene expression and JA content was further analyzed. Results A total of 30 TIFY family members were identified in G. elata f. glauca, belonging to four subfamilies: TIFY, JAZ, PPD, and ZML. They have highly conserved protein motifs and similar exon/intron structures, and are unevenly distributed on seven chromosomes. The number of conserved homologous genes in G. elata f. glauca is more than that in Arabidopsis thaliana, indicating a specific expansion of the TIFY family. The cis-acting element analysis revealed that the promoter regions of the TIFY family members in G. elata f. glauca are enriched with a large number of hormone response, stress response, and growth and development-related elements. Transcriptome analysis showed that A. gallica infection induced differential expression of 19 TIFY family members in G. elata f. glauca. In the mother tubers, GeJAZ4-3, GeJAZ8, and GeJAZ1-1 were significantly upregulated, and the expression levels of multiple members were significantly positively correlated with JA content, especially the expression level of GeJAZ4-3. Conclusion The TIFY gene family in G. elata f. glauca shows specific expansion. GeJAZ4-3, as a key regulatory factor, mediates the JA signaling pathway to regulate the balance of the interaction between G. elata f. glauca and A. gallica, laying an important foundation for the analysis of the symbiotic mechanism of G. elata and facilitating disease-resistant breeding.

ObjectiveTo identify the members of the ERF gene family (TkERFs) of Trichosanthes kirilowii based on transcriptome sequencing data, and to analyze their biological functions in the growth and development of T. kirilowii, so as to provide a theoretical basis for further studying the mechanism of sex differentiation in T. kirilowii. Methods Bioinformatics methods were used to systematically identify the ERF gene family members of T. kirilowii, and the key candidate gene for sex differentiation, TkERF2, was screened for functional elucidation. The tissue expression patterns of the tissues were analyzed by real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR). The TkERF2 overexpression vector was constructed and its biological function was explored through subcellular localization and genetic transformation experiments of Arabidopsis thaliana, combined with phenotypic observation, related gene expression detection and ethylene content determination. Transcriptome and small RNA omics data were integrated to screen miRNAs that target the regulation of TkERFs and improve their regulatory networks. Results Based on transcriptome data, a total of 54 TkERF genes (TkERF1—TkERF54) were identified by open reading frame (ORF) and conserved domain analysis. It encodes a protein sequence length of 101—389 amino acids, a molecular weight of 11 580—43 310, and a theoretical isoelectric point (pI) of 4.66—10.60. Subcellular localization prediction showed that 74% of TkERFs were localized in the nucleus and 26% were distributed in chloroplasts and cytoplasm. Protein conservation motif analysis identified 10 motifs. The phylogenetic tree divides the family into eight subfamilies. TkERF2, TkERF20 and TkERF45 were identified by specific miRNA targeting. Transgenic A. thaliana experiments showed that TkERF2 significantly regulated ethylene synthesis pathway, and the expressions of auxin synthesis genes (AtYUC2, AtYUC6), auxin response factor (AtARF8) and auxin transport gene (AtPIN2) were significantly higher than those of wild type (P < 0.05), confirming that TkERF2 was involved in developmental process by positively regulating auxin synthesis and transport. Conclusion This study has completed the systematic identification and preliminary exploration of the ERF gene family, which provides a theoretical basis for analyzing the mechanism of sex determination and genetic improvement of T. kirilowii.

Objective To provide theoretical guidance for the phylogenetics, genetic diversity, and species identification of Dioscorea by integrating chloroplast genomics, codon usage bias, DNA barcoding, and machine learning technologies. Methods The chloroplast gene structures of 11 plant species were compared via IRscope and a phylogenetic tree was constructed. Codon usage bias was analyzed using tools such as CodonW and CUSP. Dioscorea materials were collected, and DNA barcode sequences were amplified and sequenced. Molecular identification was performed based on the maturase K gene (matK), photosystem b a protein gene-transfer RNA-Histidine intergenic spacer (psbA-trnH), and ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase large subunit gene (rbcL) barcodes using machine learning algorithms. Results The chloroplast genomes of Dioscorea were found to be conserved and stable. Codon usage showed a significant A/T bias, with the third codon position favoring A/U endings. Natural selection was the primary factor influencing codon bias, and the common optimal codons identified were GGA and UCA. All three barcodes successfully discriminated species. Single-barcode identification using the BLOG algorithm achieved 100% success rate, while the SMO and NaïveBayes classifiers in WEKA demonstrated high identification accuracy. Conclusion The chloroplast genome of Dioscorea is conserved, and natural selection dominates its codon usage pattern. This study provides a basis and guidance for research on gene expression regulation, species identification, and resource conservation of Dioscorea.

Objective To evaluate the quality and differences among different varieties of Mume Flos by analyzing their fingerprints using chemical pattern recognition techniques, combined with quantitative analysis of characteristic components and antioxidant activity assays. Methods Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) was used to establish the fingerprints of different varieties of Mume Flos, combined with the chemical pattern recognition technology to explore the differences between different varieties of Mume Flos, screened for the characteristic chemical components that lead to the differences between different varieties of Mume Flos, and quantitatively analyzed them. The antioxidant activity of different varieties of Mume Flos was detected by DPPH free radical scavenging method. Results A total of 22 common peaks were identified in the fingerprints of 33 batches of Mume Flos.The similarity within the varietal group was above 0.869, while the similarity between the varietal groups was relatively low. Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) were used to classify the 33 batches of Mume Flos into two major groups and three subgroups, among which the green calyx group could be distinguished from the rest of the samples. The combination of OPLS-DA indicated that 12 components, including chlorogenic acid, rutin, hyperoside, isoquercitrin, isochlorogenic acid B, quercitrin, and naringenin, might be the characteristic markers leading to the differences in different varieties of Mume Flos. The results of the content determination showed that the samples from the green calyx variety group were dominant in the content of the components except naringenin. The results of antioxidant activity showed that the antioxidant capacity of green calyx variety group, the vermilion variety group, and DHH were relatively higher, and the antioxidant activities of various varieties of Mume Flos had strong correlations with chlorogenic acid, hyperoside, isoquercitrin, isochlorogenic acid B. Conclusion The content of components and antioxidant activity of different varieties of Mume Flos have some variability, among which the green calyx variety group is relatively stable. These results provide data support for exploring the variability of different Mume Flos varieties and the preference of “green calyx” for Mume Flos.