Objective To explore the mechanism of Astragalus bhotanensis (AB) against chronic pharyngitis based on network pharmacology, molecular docking, in vitro and in vivo experiments. Methods The antibacterial activity of AB extract against Staphylococcus aureus (SA), β-hemolytic streptococcus (HS), Escherichia coli (EC) and Diplococcus pneumoniae (DP) was assessed in vitro. A chronic pharyngitis rat model induced by HS was established and the pharmacological effects of AB extract was investigated. The interaction network between AB extract and chronic pharyngitis was constructed using databases such as PubChem, GeneCards, and STRING, and core targets were screened using Cytoscape software, followed by gene ontology (GO) function and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis. Molecular docking was performed using Autodock vina software, and the predicted results were verified by Western blotting. Results AB extract showed certain antibacterial activity against SA, HS, EC and DP. Compared with model group, AB extract significantly reduced the levels of inflammatory factors in serum of rats with chronic pharyngitis (P < 0.05, 0.01, 0.001), and effectively reversed the pathological damage of pharyngeal tissue. Network pharmacology analysis suggested that AB extract may act on targets such as heat shock protein 90 alpha family class B member 1 (HSP90AB1), phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha (PIK3CA), MAPK1, MAPK3, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1) by regulating signaling pathways such as mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt), thereby exerting therapeutic effects on chronic pharyngitis. The molecular docking results showed that oleic acid, 7β-hydroxysitosterol and astribhotin A had good binding ability with MAPK protein. Western blotting results showed that AB extract significantly reduced TLR4 protein expression and phosphorylation levels of nuclear factor-κB p65 (NF-κB p65) and p38 MAPK in pharyngeal tissue of chronic pharyngitis rats (P < 0.05, 0.01, 0.001). Conclusion AB extract alleviates HS-induced chronic pharyngitis in rats by regulating TLR4/p38 MAPK/NF-κB p65 signaling pathway.

The comorbidity of depression and cognitive impairment is increasingly prevalent in clinical practice, particularly among the elderly population, which faces a higher risk of onset. Given the severity of the current comorbidity situation and the guiding significance of the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) theory of “treating different diseases with the same method,” it is essential to systematically explore the underlying mechanisms of this comorbidity and conduct an in-depth analysis of TCM’s multi-target intervention strategies. According to TCM theory, the core pathogenesis of this comorbidity involves visceral deficiency, insufficiency of qi and blood, and phlegm turbidity clouding the orifices and disturbing the spirit, collectively leading to impaired mental functioning. Modern medical research, on the other hand, indicates that the pathological basis of this comorbidity arises from the interplay of multiple systemic mechanisms, including vascular pathologies, reduced brain-derived neurotrophic factor, hyperactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, neuroinflammation, and gut microbiota dysbiosis. TCM demonstrates unique advantages in holistic intervention by multi-target regulation of neurotransmitters, suppression of neuroinflammation, enhancement of neuroplasticity, and modulation of the gut-brain axis. Through a systematic review of the mechanisms underlying the comorbidity of depression and cognitive impairment and the progress in multi-target intervention research in TCM, this study aims to provide new insights and references for scientific research and clinical practice in this field.

Objective To investigate the effect and mechanism of notoginsenoside R₁ (NGR1) on cardiac remodeling after myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury (MIRI) in mice. Methods A model of cardiac remodeling after myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury (MIRI) was established by ligating the anterior descending branch of the coronary artery in mice. After three weeks of intervention with NGR1, the cardiac index and heart weight/tibia length of mice were measured. The left ventricular end-diastolic volume (LVEDV), left ventricular end-systolic volume (LVESV), left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) and left ventricular fractional shortening (LVFS) were measured using a small animal ultrasound instrument. The cross-sectional area of myocardial cells was calculated by wheat germ agglutinin (WGA) fluorescence staining. The collagen volume fraction (CVF) of heart was calculated by Masson staining. The protein expressions of collagen I, collagen III, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), brain natriuretic peptide (BNP), transferrin receptor 1 (TFR1), acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4 (ACSL4), solute carrier family 7 member 11 (SLC7A11) and glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) in myocardial tissue were detected by Western blotting. The possible mechanism of NGR1 inhibiting cardiac remodeling after MIRI was preliminarily explored through network pharmacology. The contents of iron ions (Fe²⁺) and lipid peroxide (LPO) in myocardial tissue were detected using kits. The damage of myocardial mitochondria was observed by transmission electron microscopy. Results Compared with sham group, cardiac index, heart weight/tibia length, LVEDV, LVESV and CVF of mice in model group were significantly increased (P < 0.05, 0.01), protein expressions of collagen I, collagen III, ANP, BNP, TFR1 and ACSL4 in myocardial tissue were significantly increased (P < 0.01), contents of Fe²⁺ and LPO were significantly increased (P < 0.05, 0.01), mitochondrial membrane density was increased and cristae was decreased, SLC7A11 and GPX4 protein expressions were significantly decreased (P < 0.01). Compared with model group, cardiac index, heart weight/tibia length, LVEDV, LVESV and CVF of mice in NGR1 administration groups were significantly decreased (P < 0.05, 0.01), protein expressions of collagen I, collagen III, ANP, BNP, TFR1 and ACSL4 were significantly decreased (P < 0.05, 0.01), contents of Fe²⁺ and LPO were significantly decreased (P < 0.05, 0.01), mitochondrial damage was improved, SLC7A11 and GPX4 protein expressions were significantly increased (P < 0.05, 0.01). Conclusion NGR1 could significantly improve cardiac remodeling in mice after MIRI, and its mechanism may be related to the activation of SLC7A11/GPX4 pathway to inhibit ferroptosis of cardiomyocytes.

Objective To investigate the relationship between the physical properties of Jinzhen Oral Liquid (金振口服液) intermediates and their total solid content (TSC) and the contents of effective components, and to establish a content prediction model, thereby providing a reference for rapid quality evaluation of intermediates. Methods Samples were collected from two types of extracts (mineral-botanical and artificial cow bezoar) and four key manufacturing steps (hot mixing, refrigeration, centrifugation, and filling). Six physical parameters (density, viscosity, surface tension, electrical conductivity, refractive index, and pH value) were measured, alongside the contents of six effective components (baicalin, wogonoside, glycyrrhizic acid, gallic acid, hyodeoxycholic acid, and cholic acid) and TSC. Correlation analysis was performed, and polynomial regression models were developed for the overall process, the mineral-botanical extract, and the artificial cow bezoar extract, respectively. Results Correlation analysis indicated that most physical parameters were significantly correlated with chemical components throughout the entire preparation process. Refractive index showed a strong correlation with TSC (r = 0.845), while density was correlated with TSC and baicalin with coefficients of 0.529 and 0.505, respectively. In mineral-botanical extracts, the correlation coefficient between refractive index and TSC was 0.525. In artificial cow bezoar extracts, refractive index was correlated with TSC, hyodeoxycholic acid, and cholic acid, with coefficients of 0.759, 0.729, and 0.593, respectively. The regression models established based on refractive index performed well in validation: the model for TSC in the full process showed a mean relative error (MRE) of 4.04% and a mean absolute error (MAE) of 1.10%. The MRE values for the baicalin and wogonoside models were both below 10%, and both passed the F-test. The MRE values for the TSC models in both mineral-botanical and artificial cow bezoar extracts were below 6%. Conclusion The refractive index of Jinzhen Oral Liquid intermediates shows significant correlation with both TSC and the contents of effective components. The refractive index method is a feasible approach for predicting TSC and the contents of baicalin and wogonoside during the manufacturing process, as well as TSC in both extracts. This study provides a novel strategy for the rapid quality assessment of Jinzhen Oral Liquid production and offers a technical basis for the practical application of online refractometry.

Objective To explore the effect and mechanism of Yinyanghuo (Epimedii Folium) and Nüzhenzi (Ligustri Lucidi Fructus) on Buguzhi (Psoraleae Fructus)-induced liver injury in a rat model of kidney-yin deficiency based on the theory of “heterogeneous medicinals mutual restriction”. Methods The liver injury rats with kidney-yin deficiency model induced by Psoraleae Fructus was taken as a reference, Epimedii Folium and Ligustri Lucidi Fructus were respectively given for intervention, the changes in indicators of kidney-yin deficiency were evaluated by through body weight, anal temperature, fecal water content and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)/cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) ratio in serum. The changes in liver function were evaluated by measuring the activities of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) in serum, as well as by staining liver tissue with hematoxylin eosin (HE). Metabolomics, association analysis, ROC analysis and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis were combined to elucidate potential mechanisms. Results Epimedii Folium significantly decreased body weight and fecal water content in model rats (P < 0.05, 0.01), significantly increased anal temperature, cAMP/cGMP ratio and activities of ALT, AST (P < 0.05, 0.001), aggravated the infiltration of inflammatory cells in liver and exacerbated liver damage. Ligustri Lucidi Fructus significantly reversed the above changes. Metabolomics identified 17 common metabolites that were differentially regulated between Epimedii Folium and Ligustri Lucidi Fructus. Association analysis and ROC analysis further revealed six differential metabolites with good diagnostic efficacy, including ceramide and taurocholic acid, mainly involving eight pathways such as linoleic acid metabolism and sphingolipid metabolism. In addition, Epimedii Folium could significantly increase the levels of inflammatory factors such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in serum of model rats (P < 0.05), and decrease anti-inflammatory factor IL-10 level. Ligustri Lucidi Fructus reversed the above changes. Conclusion Epimedii Folium and Ligustri Lucidi Fructus may affect the levels of inflammatory cytokines by differentially regulating liver linoleic acid metabolism, leading to differences in toxicity/efficacy in liver of rats with kidney-yin deficiency induced by Psoraleae Fructus. This study provides experimental basis for the theory of “heterogeneous medicinals mutual restriction” in traditional Chinese medicine, and provides reference for the research on reducing toxicity and increasing efficiency of Psoraleae Fructus.

Objective Based on the Patsnap database, a visual analysis is conducted on the development overview of patent technologies in China’s traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) industry from 2000 to 2024 to reveal its evolution laws and structural characteristics. Methods Employing multidimensional retrieval strategies (title/abstract, IPC classifications, national economic industry classifications, etc.), the study integrates 119 485 TCM-related patents, focusing on four technical domains: Chinese medicinal materials, Chinese herbal decoction pieces, Chinese patent medicine (CPM), and intelligent manufacturing of TCM. Quantitative and visualized analyses were performed on application trends, regional distribution, applicant types, IPC classifications, and legal statuses. Results The number of patent applications in the TCM industry reached a peak of 11 087 in 2017, then declined, and stabilized at 5 000 per year after 2020, reflecting a shift from scale expansion to quality improvement. Shandong, Guangdong, and Jiangsu emerged as innovation hubs, while Anhui leveraged its Bozhou medicinal material market to form a specialized cluster, demonstrating a multi-polar distribution of “eastern dominance with gradual western expansion”. The proportion of patents in the field of CPMs is the highest, while the base in the field of intelligent manufacturing is small but the growth rate is stable. IPC classifications centered on A61K36 (plant-derived preparations) and A61K9 (dosage forms), targeting digestive and anti-infectious diseases. Colleges and universities lead in high-value invention patents, while enterprises have a high number of applications but an authorization rate of less than 20%. Individual applicants were active but showed low conversion efficiency. Invalid patents account for 69.91%, mainly due to insufficient inventiveness; the number of invalid patents in the field of CPM is the largest, but the proportion of valid patents is relatively high. Conclusion TCM patents exhibit “quantitative dominance but qualitative structure imbalance and weak global competitiveness”. Innovations in CPMs focus on process optimization rather than clinical validation. Recommendations include establishing a “quality-transformation-internationalization” synergy mechanism, strengthening frontier technologies like authentic medicinal material DNA barcoding and nano-formulations, and promoting the transformation of TCM patents from “scale-driven” to “value-driven” patent strategies.

Objective To investigate the chemical constituents of Mallotus repandus. Methods The compounds were separated and purified using a variety of chromatographic techniques, including silica gel and ODS column chromatography, as well as semi-preparative HPLC. Their structures were established by NMR and mass spectroscopy analysis. The antimicrobial activities of these isolates were evaluated by the broth microdilution method. Results Twenty-nine compounds were obtained from the dichloromethane extract of the twigs and leaves of M. repandus and identified as 3-O-cis-caffeoyl betulinic acid (1) , ergosta-4,6,8(14),22-tetraen-3-one (2), β-sitostenone (3), 5,8-epidioxyergosta-6,9(11),22-trien-3-ol (4), N(N'-benzoyl-S^*-phenylalaninyl)-S^*-phenylalaninolbenzoate (5), aurantiamide acetate (6), isoechinulin A (7), 6-geranylnaringenin (8), questin (9), 1,3,8-trihydroxy-6-methyl-9,10-anthracenedione (10), flavoglaucin (11), isodihydroauroglaucin (12), isoaspergin (13), 5'-cis-isotetrahydroauroglaucin (14), (E)-6-hydroxy-7-(3-methyl-2-butenyl)-2-(3-oxobut-1-enyl)chroman-5-carbaldehyde (15), camellia chlorophyllide Ⅱ (16), 13²(R)-hydroxypheophorbide-a ethyl ester (17), ethyl pheophorbide a (18), ligulariaphytin A (19), (−)-α-tocospirone (20), α-tocospiro B (21), δ-tocopherol (22), α-tocopherolquinone (23), 5-methoxypinosylvin (24), dehydroabietic acid (25), (5E,7E)-9-oxooctadeca-5,7-dienoicacid (26), (10E,12E)-ethyl-9-oxo-octadeca-10,12-dienoate (27), (10E,12Z)-9-hydroxy-10,12-octadecadienoic acid (28) and palmitic acid (29), respectively. Compound 13 has a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 128 μg/mL against Enterococcus faecalis, 16 μg/mL against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and 4 μg/mL against Cryptococcus neoformans. Compound 15 has an MIC of 128 μg/mL against E. faecalis, 64 μg/mL against MRSA, and 8 μg/mL against C. neoformans.Conclusion Compounds 2, 4, 8, 9, 11—19, and 24—28 were reported from Euphorbiaceae plants for the first time, compounds 1, 3, 5, 7, 20, 21, and 23 were reported from the genus Mallotus for the first time, and compounds 6, 10, and 22 were reported from M. repandus for the first time. Compounds 13 and 15 have notable inhibitory effects on E. faecalis, MRSA, and C. neoformans.

Objective To study the chemical constituents, antioxidant activity and anti-inflammatory activity of the n-butanol fraction from Primulina eburnea. Methods Compounds were separated and purified using chromatographic techniques such as normal-phase and reversed-phase silica gel column chromatography, Sephadex LH-20 gel column chromatography and RP-HPLC. Meanwhile, their structures were identified by spectroscopic techniques including NMR, UV and IR. Subsequently, the antioxidant activities of obtained compounds were evaluated by the DPPH and ABTS assays, while the Griess assay was employed to determine the effect of these compounds on NO production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7 cells to assess their anti-inflammatory activity. Results A total of 20 compounds were isolated from the n-butanol fraction of P. eburnea and were respectively identified as spathodic acid-28-O-β-D-gentiobioside (1), calceolarioside B (2), 2-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)ethanol glucoside (3), salidroside (4), tyrosol (5), 6-hydroxyapigenin-7-O-β-[2-O-β-xyloglucoside] (6), icariol A₂(7), (+)-isolariciresinol (8), 5-methoxy-(+)-isolariciresinol (9), (+)-syringaresinol-4'-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (10), dihydrophaseic acid (11), (6S,9R)-roseoside (12), esculetin (13), p-hydroxybenzoic acid (14), protocatechuic acid (15), vanillic acid (16), syringic acid (17), caffeic acid (18), caffeic acid methyl ester (19) and methyl-3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-4-hydroxy caffeic acid (20). Meanwhile, compounds 7, 17 and 18 exhibited significant antioxidant activity. Compounds 3, 5—9 exhibited significant inhibitory effects on the production of NO in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. Conclusion Compound 1 is a new triterpenoid glycoside, named eburneoside A. While compounds 4, 6, 9—12, 14, 15 and 20 were isolated for the first time from the genus Primulina. Additionally, compounds 17 and 18 were firstly isolated from P. eburnea. Furthermore, some of these compounds exhibited significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities.

Current quality evaluation of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) primarily focuses on chemical composition analysis, neglecting the interactions among components. The phase of TCM is an ordered combination formed by different or identical components through intermolecular forces, serving as a crucial form for TCM efficacy and a vital supplement to its quality assessment. It reflects the characteristic of multiple components synergistically exerting pharmacological effects. This article systematically reviewed the importance of TCM phase in quality evaluation. We summarized the formation mechanisms and research methods of TCM phase, as well as their roles in reducing toxicity and enhancing efficacy. Furthermore, we discussed the research strategies for screening active phases, characterization approaches, and potential challenges, providing a theoretical basis for transitioning TCM quality evaluation from a composition-based perspective to a “chemistry-structure-function integrated” model.

Objective To investigate the effect of dandelion polysaccharide (DP) on lipid metabolism disorder in liver and gut microbiota structure in high-fat diet-induced obese mice. Methods A total of 40 SPF male C57BL/6J mice were randomly divided into control group, model group, orlistat (10 mg/kg) group, DP low-, high-dose (200, 400 mg/kg) groups, with eight mice in each group. Mice were fed with high-fat diet to establish an obesity model, and the model was simultaneously administered with ig for eight weeks. After the end of administration, mice were euthanized by removing their eyeballs and collecting blood. Serum was collected to measure the levels of total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C); Hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining and Oil red O staining were used to observe the pathological changes of liver and epididymal fat in mice; qRT-PCR was used to detect the expressions of lipid metabolism related genes [carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT-1), cytochrome P450 family 7 subfamily A member 1 (CYP7A1), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα), fatty acid synthase (FAS), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD-1), hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL), adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL)] in liver tissue; Feces were collected from each group of mice for microbiome sequencing. Results Compared with control group, the body weight, epididymal fat index, and levels of TC, TG, LDL-C in serum of mice in model group were significantly increased (P < 0.01, 0.001), HDL-C level were significantly decreased (P < 0.01). The structure of liver cells was damaged, the intercellular space was unclear, the arrangement of hepatic cords was significantly disordered, the area of vacuoles and the number of lipid droplets were significantly increased (P < 0.001), and the volume of epididymal fat cells was significantly increased with varying cell shapes and sizes. The expression levels of fat generation related genes FAS, PPARγ and SCD-1 mRNA were significantly increased (P < 0.01), while the expression levels of fat breakdown related genes HSL and ATGL mRNA were significantly decreased (P < 0.01). Compared with model group, DP low-, high-dose groups and orlistat group all reduced the body weight and epididymal fat index of obese mice to varying degrees, and improved the histopathological morphology of liver tissue and epididymal fat. The expression levels of fat synthesis related genes FAS, PPARγ and SCD-1 were significantly reduced in DP high dose group (P < 0.01), while the expression levels of fat breakdown and oxidation related genes HSL, ATGL, CTP-1, CYP7A1, PPARα mRNA were significantly increased (P < 0.01). Meanwhile, DP regulated the species composition of gut microbiota in obese mice to a certain extent, significantly increased the relative abundance of Blautia, s_unclassified_g_Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, Lachnospiraceae_bacterium_28-4 and Helicobacter rodentium, decreased the relative abundance of Erysipelatoclostridium and Ruminococcus_torques_group, and their dominant strains were positively correlated with fat oxidation and decomposition genes HSL, ATGL, CTP-1, CYP7A1 and PPARα, and negatively correlated with fat synthesis genes FAS, PPARγ and SCD-1. Conclusion DP could significantly reduce the body weight of obese mice induced by a high-fat diet. The mechanism may be related to regulating beneficial bacteria to promote fat oxidation and decomposition and inhibit fat synthesis.