Objective To investigate the chemical constituents of the intestinal bacteria transformation products of total saponins from Platycodon grandiflorus and their anti-drug-induced liver injury activity. Methods The compounds were isolated and purified by column chromatography techniques including AB-8 macroporous resin, normal phase silica gel, Sephadex LH-20 gel chromatography, and semi-preparative high-performance liquid chromatography. Their structures were identified based on physicochemical properties, mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectral data. The anti-drug-induced liver injury activities of the isolated compounds were evaluated using an acetaminophen-induced AML12 cell hepatic injury model. Results A total of 16 compounds were isolated from the intestinal bacteria transformation products of total saponins from P. grandifloras and identified as 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyloxy-2β,3β,16α,23-tetrahydroxyolean-12-en-28-oic acid-28-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)-α-L-arabinopyranoside (1), polygalacin D (2), 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl platycodigenin (3), platycodin D₃ (4), platycoside F (5), platycodin D (6), deapio-platycodin D (7), platycodonoid B (8), 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl polygalacic acid (9), leiyemudanoside A (10), linoleic acid (11), (6Z,9Z)-6,9-hexadecadienoic acid (12), glyceryl linoleate (13), (2S)-1-O-(9Z,12Z-octadecandienyl)-3-O-β-galactosyl glycerol (14), dibutyl phthalate (15), and triallyl isocyanurate (16). Anti-drug-induced liver injury activity study showed that compounds 1—3, 5—7, 9, and 14 significantly inhibited the levels of alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase in acetaminophen-induced AML12 cell supernatants (P < 0.05,0.01). Conclusion A total of 16 compounds were successfully isolated and identified from the intestinal bacterial transformation products from total saponins of P. grandiflorus. Compound 1 is a new compound named des-apio-xylosyl polygalacin D. Compounds 1—3, 5—7, 9, and 14 exhibit significant anti-drug-induced liver injury activities, showing potential hepatoprotective effects.

Objective To investigate the chemical constituents from the twigs and leaves of Alstonia mairei and to evaluate their antifungal activity. Methods The separation and purification were conducted by a variety of chromatographic separation techniques, including MCI, silica gel, Sephadex LH-20 gel column chromatography, and preparative high-performance liquid chromatography. The chemical structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated by spectroscopic methods, including mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance, and electronic circular dichroism (ECD). The antifungal activity of the selected compounds was evaluated against Candida albicans CMCC98001 and Aspergillus niger R330 using the microbroth dilution method. Results A total of eight compounds were isolated from the twigs and leaves of A. mairei, including one new compound, ent-12-hydroxy-16-methylol-atisane-3-one (1), and seven known compounds, 17-acetylsarpagine (2), 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1-oxo-β-carboline (3), vinorine N₄-oxide (4), vinorine (5), yohimbine (6), hancockinol (7), ent-16β, 17-dihydroxyatlsan-3-one (8). The MICs of compound 1 and 8 against A. niger R330 were 12.5 and 6.25 μg/mL, respectively. Conclusion Compound 1 is a new diterpenoid named alstomanoid A, and compounds 3, 7 and 8 are isolated from the genus of A. mairei for the first time. Compounds 1 and 8 show antifungal effect against A. niger R330.

Objective To investigate the chemical constituents of Euonymus alatus. Methods Separation and purification were performed using normal- and reversed-phase silica gel, Sephadex LH-20, and high-performance liquid chromatography. The structures of the obtained compounds were identified using NMR, MS, and X-Ray techniques. The protective effect of the compound against podocyte injury was evaluated using the CCK-8 assay. Results Six compounds were isolated and purified from the dichloromethane fraction of the 95% ethanol extract of E. alatus, namely 3β-hydroxy-24-norhopa-4(23) (1), acetyl ursolic acid (2), betulinic acid (3), foliasalaci A4 (4), betulonicacid (5), and ursolic acid lactone (6). Moreover, compound 1 has a significant protective effect against MPC5 cell damage induced by advanced glycation end-products (AGEs). Conclusion Compound 1 is a new compound, named 2,4-dehydrowhite birch resinol. All the other compounds were isolated from this plant and plants of the same genus. Compound 1 exhibits anti-podocyte injury activity in a concentration-dependent manner.

Objective To investigate the dynamic changes of volatile and water-soluble constituents in Schizonepetae Herba and Cinnamomi Cortex decoctions at different boiling durations, reveal the characteristics of constituent dissolution, volatilization, and degradation during decoction from the material basis, and provide a scientific basis for rational determination of decoction time and different administration routes (e.g., decoction, powder infusion) in clinical practice. Methods Decoctions of JIngjie (Schizonepetae Herba) and Rougui (Cinnamomi Cortex) were prepared at different boiling times. A headspace GC-MS/MS method was established and validated for pulegone, menthone, o-methoxycinnamaldehyde, and cinnamaldehyde, and their content changes at different decoction times were compared. UPLC-Q-TOF MS/MS was employed to characterize and semi-quantify water-soluble constituents. Normalized ion intensities and clustering analysis were used to assess the impact of boiling duration on the overall chemical profile. Results The four volatile compounds exhibited distinct time-dependent patterns.Pulegone, menthone, and cinnamaldehyde increased rapidly at early stages and declined thereafter, whereas o-methoxycinnamaldehyde increased continuously. A total of 139 water-soluble constituents were identified by UPLC‑Q‑TOF MS/MS, many of which showed reduced abundance with prolonged boiling, indicating potential heat degradation. Integrated analysis suggested that approximately 7.5 min represents an optimal decoction time for Schizonepetae Herba. For Cinnamomi Cortex, prolonged decoction is not suitable when emphasizing the effects of warming yang and reinforcing fire, whereas appropriate prolonged decoction or alternative administration such as powder infusion can be used when emphasizing warming and unblocking to relieve pain. Conclusion Schizonepetae Herba and Cinnamomi Cortex exhibit clear time-dependent chemical changes during decoction. Boiling time critically influences the retention of volatile and water-soluble constituents. The results provide a reference for selecting decoction time and optimizing administration routes of the two herbs under different clinical applications, and offer an experimental basis for the standardization and modernization of traditional Chinese medicine decoctions.

Objective To address the issues of poor flowability and high hygroscopicity of fermented Cordyceps powder, the particle size gradation strategy and investigates the relationship between flowability parameters, particle size, and particle size distribution, so as to provide theoretical support and technical guidance for enhancing powder performance and optimizing processing strategies. Methods A laser particle size analyzer, powder characteristics tester, and powder rheometer were employed to systematically characterize the particle size distribution, static flowability parameters (angle of repose, Hausner ratio, and flat plate angle, etc.), and rheological properties (flow energy, aeration, permeability, and shear behavior) of the fermented Cordyceps powder. The effects of different particle size ratios on powder packing behavior and hygroscopicity were analyzed. Results Particle size is a critical factor affecting powder flowability. A particle size ratio of 24-80 (95:5) mesh yielded optimal packing performance. Hygroscopic kinetics modeling showed that both the double exponential and Weibull models provided good fits for describing the moisture absorption behavior of powders with different particle sizes, offering quantitative indicators of hygroscopicity. Conclusion Particle size gradation design provides a new strategy for improving the flowability and stability of fermented Cordyceps powder.

Objective To establish the pressing process of the Fujv decoction pieces of Daqingye (Isatidis Folium, IF), and determine the optimal process parameters. Methods The contents of indirubin, isovitexin and tryptanthrin in IF were determined by HPLC. The paste yield was determined by hot maceration. The analytic hierarchy process (AHP)-entropy weight method was used to determine the weight coefficients of each index and calculate the comprehensive score. Pressure, compression time, drying temperature and drying time were investigated as single factors. The AHP-entropy weight method combined with the Box-Behnken design-response surface methodoly (BBD-RSM) was used to optimize the pressing process of the decoction pieces of the Fujv decoction pieces of IF. Results The optimal parameters of the initial pressing process of the decoction pieces of the Fujv decoction pieces are as follows: After moistening, the medicinal materials were cut into 5—7 mm pieces, pressed at 4 MPa for 60 s, and baked at 60 ℃ for 4 h. Under these conditions, the overall desirability (OD) value of the validation tests was 94.12%, which is close to the predicted OD value of 93.30%. Conclusion The compression process for IF Fujv decoction pieces is practically feasible, providing a reference for the development and utilization of such pieces.

Objective This study aimed to establish an evaluation system for screening transdermal penetration enhancers suitable for traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) compound formulations and to apply it to the optimization of a composite penetration enhancer for Erxian Decoction (EXD, 二仙汤). Methods Menthol, azone, and borneol were selected as penetration enhancers, and an L₉(3³) orthogonal design was employed. The 48 h cumulative permeation per unit area (Q₄₈), steady-state flux (J_ss), and enhancement ratio (ER) of ten marker components (phellodendrine, mangiferin, ferulic acid, berberine, curculigine, epimedin A1, epimedin A, epimedin B, epimedin C, icariin) were measured. Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed separately for Q₄₈ and J_ss datasets to reduce dimensionality, while fingerprint similarity (S) was incorporated as a quality constraint. The PCA scores and S were weighted and integrated via the satisfaction function to calculate the comprehensive satisfaction (D). With D as the response value, range analysis and analysis of variance were performed to screen the optimal formulation of penetration enhancers. Results The optimal compound penetration enhancer formulation was identified as 2% menthol combined with 1% azone. Validation studies showed that this formulation exhibited excellent penetration-enhancing effect, while the fingerprint similarity S remained above 0.9, achieving both “high-efficiency penetration enhancement” and “quality fidelity”. Conclusion The constructed “PCA dimension reduction-fingerprint constraint-satisfaction function integration” system can effectively solve the problems of information redundancy and decision contradiction in multi-index optimization, providing a referable research paradigm for screening composite penetration enhancers of TCM compound prescriptions.

Objective In order to demonstrate the feasibility of microwave processing as an alternative to traditional methods, the study aimed to systematically compare that different processing methods affect on the appearance, active components, toxicity and efficacy of Banxia (Pinelliae Rhizoma, PR). Methods This study systematically compares the active components of different processed PR using extract yield determination, UV spectrophotometry, and HPLC. The irritancy of various processed products of PR was assessed through scanning electron microscopy (SEM)/X-ray diffraction (XRD) characterization, sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), and slug irritation tests. Additionally, mouse ammonia-induced cough suppression and tracheal phenol red secretion assays were employed to evaluate the antitussive and expectorant effects of the different processed products of PR. Results The experimental results indicate that the water-soluble extract and alkaloid content of microwave-processed PR are significantly higher than those of traditionally processed products (P < 0.01). However, the total nucleoside content is lower than that of raw PR, Jiangbanxia (Pinelliae Rhizoma Praeparatum cum Zingibere et Alumine, PRPZA), and Qingbanxia (Pinelliae Rhizoma Praeparatum cum Alumine, PRPA), but higher than that of Fabanxia (Pinelliae Rhizoma Praeparatum, PRP) (P < 0.01). Compared to raw PR and traditionally processed products, the content of calcium oxalate raphides in microwave-processed PR is significantly reduced (P < 0.01), and the lectin protein structure is disrupted. The mucosal irritation was in the order: raw PR > PRPA > PRP > PRP > microwave-processed PR, and microwave-processed product showed almost no mucosal irritation. Pharmacological experiments indicated that the cough-suppressing and expectorant effects of microwave-processed PR were comparable to those of raw PR and significantly superior to those of traditionally processed products. Conclusion Microwave processing retains active components of PR while rapidly reducing its irritancy, with antitussive and expectorant activities comparable to those of raw PR. This study demonstrates the feasibility of microwave technology for PR, providing scientific evidence for its industrial-scale production and clinical applications.

Objective To compare the composition and content differences of volatile components in Liushenqu (六神曲, Massa Medicata Fermentata, MMF) samples with different fermentation times, clarify the material basis of the unique aroma of MMF, and identify the key components that give it its main characteristic aroma. Methods Taking MMF fermented for different durations as the research object, and electronic nose was used to characterize its overall odor profile, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was combined to analyze the specific volatile components. Chemometrics was applied to screen the differential components at different fermentation stages, and the relative odor activity value (ROAV) was used to reveal the odor differences of MMF and the material basis for its odor formation. Results Based on the detection results of the W5S, W1W, and W2W sensors of the electronic nose, the fermentation process of MMF was clearly divided into three stages: T1—T4 (initial fermentation), T5—T8 (middle fermentation), and T9—T12 (late fermentation). A total of 120 volatile components were identified by GC-MS. Principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal partial least squares-discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) confirmed that there were significant differences in the volatile components of MMF at different fermentation times. A total of 49 differential components were screened out according to the criteria of variable importance in projection (VIP) > 1 and P < 0.05. Combined with the relative odor activity value method, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural was identified as the component contributing the most to the characteristic aroma of the main body. 2-Hexene, pentyl (9E)-octadec-9-enoate, 3,5-dihydroxy-1-nonadecylbenzene, and methyl 2-methoxy-5-hexadecenoate played important modifying roles in the characteristic aroma. Conclusion The differences in volatile components during the fermentation of MMF can be effectively analyzed by electronic nose, GC-MS, combined with the relative odor activity value method, which provides a scientific basis for the identification and quality evaluation of MMF.

Objective Hesperetin and palmatine hydrochloride co-amorphous system (Hes-PH CAS) was prepared to develop new solid forms and improve the solubility and dissolution of hesperetin. Methods Hes-PH CAS was obtained via the rotary evaporation method. The solid-state characteristics were characterized by powder X-ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, dynamic vapor sorption and solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance, respectively. The solubility and dissolution behavior were investigated by high-performance liquid chromatography. Furthermore, the antioxidant and antitumor activities were analyzed through radical scavenging assay and cell proliferation studies. Results Hes-PH CAS possessed a single glass transition temperature (T_g = 104.5 ℃) and exhibited intermolecular interactions. The co-amorphous simultaneously influenced the solubility and dissolution of both drugs, increasing hesperetin solubility while decreasing palmatine hydrochloride solubility, and promoting hesperetin release while delaying palmatine hydrochloride release. The antioxidant and anti-tumor results demonstrated that the free radical scavenging rate and HT-29/HCT 116 cell inhibition rate of Hes-PH CAS were higher than those of the individual raw materials, indicating a synergistic effect between the two drugs in terms of both free radical scavenging and cell inhibition. Conclusion The prepared Hes-PH CAS improved the solubility and dissolution of hesperetin, with two pharmaceutical components exhibiting good antioxidant and antitumor effects.

Objective To investigate the molecular mechanisms by which ginsenoside Rb₃ (Rb₃) inhibits lipid accumulation in macrophages. Methods Oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL) was used to induce lipid-associated macrophages (LAMs) model in murine RAW264.7 macrophages. After Rb₃ intervention, intracellular lipid accumulation was evaluated by oil red O staining and BODIPY-based neutral lipid fluorescence staining. Changes in lipid composition were analyzed using untargeted lipidomics. Transcriptomic and proteomic analyses were performed in parallel, followed by integrative multi-omics bioinformatic analysis. Molecular docking was conducted using Autodock to predict the binding potential between Rb₃ and candidate target molecules identified from multi-omics intersections. The expression levels of key genes and proteins were validated by qRT-PCR and Western blotting. Cell thermal shift assay (CETSA) was employed to evaluate the binding of Rb₃ to complement component 5a receptor 1 (C5ar1) and cluster of differentiation 36 antigen (Cd36) targets. Results A lipid-enriched LAMs model was successfully established. Within a non-cytotoxic concentration range, Rb₃ dose-dependently suppressed intracellular lipid accumulation (P < 0.05, 0.01, 0.001). Lipidomics revealed a marked elevation of triglycerides accompanied by a reduction in glycerophospholipids in model group, whereas Rb₃ treatment significantly reduced triglyceride levels and restored glycerophospholipids, with pathway enrichment mainly involving glycerophospholipid metabolism. Transcriptomic analysis identified 1 291 differentially expressed genes, which were significantly enriched in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) signaling pathway. Proteomic analysis detected 254 differentially expressed proteins, with enrichment in pathways including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-related signaling. Integrative multi-omics analysis identified six overlapping target molecules, including Cd36, C5ar1 and adenosine triphosphate binding cassette transporter G1 (Abcg1). Molecular docking predicted favorable binding affinities between Rb₃ and Cd36, C5ar1, Abcg1. CETSA results demonstrated that Rb₃ significantly protected Cd36 and C5ar1 proteins from temperature-dependent degradation, providing further evidence of direct binding between Rb₃ and these targets. qRT-PCR and Western blotting results showed that Rb₃ significantly down-regulated the expressions of Cd36 and C5ar1 in LAMs (P < 0.05, 0.01, 0.001), while up-regulated the expressions of PPARγ, Abca1 and Abcg1 (P < 0.05). Conclusion Rb₃ activates PPAR signaling pathway and regulates glycerophospholipid metabolism, targeting Cd36 and C5ar1 to inhibit their mediated lipid uptake and promote Abca1 and Abcg1 mediated lipid efflux, regulating the intracellular levels of triglycerides and glycerophospholipids, thereby exerting an inhibitory effect on lipid accumulation in macrophages.

Objective To investigate the hypolipidemic effects of gypenosides based on serum, liver and fecal metabolomics techniques. Methods A high-fat diet was used to establish a hyperlipidemia model in rats, with 32 male SD rats randomly divided into control group, model group, atorvastatin (10 mg/kg) group and gypenosides (150 mg/kg) group. After eight weeks of continuous administration, body weight and blood lipid levels were measured. Metabolites in serum, liver and feces were analyzed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry, and differential metabolites were screened through multivariate statistical analysis. Results Gypenosides significantly reduced levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in serum of hyperlipidemic rats (P < 0.05, 0.01). Metabolomics analysis revealed that gypenosides effectively normalized the endogenous metabolic profile of model rats, identifying 30, 27, 19 differential metabolites in serum, liver and feces, respectively, primarily including lysophosphatidylcholine, unsaturated fatty acids and derivatives, bile acids, and amino acids and derivatives, linked to glycerophospholipid, linoleic/arachidonic acid, unsaturated fatty acid, primary bile acid biosynthesis, and tryptophan metabolism. Except for glycoursodeoxycholic acid and glycylglycoursodeoxycholic acid in liver, which still showed an increasing trend after gypenosides intervention, all other differential metabolites returned to near-normal levels. Conclusion Gypenosides modulate blood lipids by regulating the lipid metabolism network through multiple targets, with mechanisms related to intervention in lysophosphatidylcholine metabolism, linoleic acid and arachidonic acid metabolism, bile acid metabolism and tryptophan metabolism pathways, systematically revealing the overall regulatory effect of gypenosides on endogenous metabolism of hyperlipidemic rats.

Objective To investigate the acute and chronic diuretic effects and diuretic mechanisms of Clematis hexapetala in a saline-loaded rat model. Methods Model group, furosemide (10 mg/kg) group, C. armandii (20 g/kg) group, C. hexapetala low-, medium- and high-dose (5, 10, 20 g/kg) groups, with eight rats in each group. Urine volume and electrolyte concentration in rats were measured after acute and long-term drug intervention. The activity of Na⁺-K⁺-triphosphatase (ATPase) and levels of angiotensin II (Ang II), antidiuretic hormone (ADH), aldosterone (ALD), atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) in serum were measured. Hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining was used to observe pathological changes in renal tissue. Network pharmacology was used to screen the active ingredients and diuretic targets of C. hexapetala, a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed to perform gene ontology (GO) functional and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis on core targets. Molecular docking validation was performed on the core components and targets, qRT-PCR and Western blotting were used to detect the expressions of genes and proteins related to aquaporin (AQP)/cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)/cAMP response element binding protein (CREB) pathway in renal tissue. Results A total of seven active compounds and 354 potential drug targets were identified for C. hexapetala from TCMSP database. A total of 1 531 disease-related targets were screened from GeneCards and OMIM databases, including 133 intersecting targets. PPI analysis revealed that the top 5 core targets were prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (PTGS2), adrenergic receptor β1 (ADRB1), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARA), angiotensin II receptor type 1 (AGTR1) and PPARG. KEGG pathway enrichment analysis revealed that cAMP pathway played an important role in the process of diuresis in C. hexapetala. Animal experiment results showed that C. hexapetala significantly increased urine output and Na⁺, Cl⁻, K⁺ levels in urine of rats (P < 0.05, 0.01), significantly reduced Ca²⁺ level (P < 0.05), thereby increasing NaCl excretion. C. hexapetala significantly reduced the levels of ADH, Ang II and ALD in serum of rats (P < 0.05, 0.01), significantly increased Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase activity and ANP level (P < 0.05, 0.01), thereby inhibiting the activation of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). C. hexapetala significantly inhibited the expressions of genes and proteins related to AQP/cAMP/CREB pathway (P < 0.05, 0.01, 0.001). Conclusion C. hexapetala may exert acute and long-term diuretic effects by inhibiting AQP/cAMP/CREB pathway in saline loaded rats.

Objective To explore the therapeutic effect and mechanism of Shouhui Tongbian Capsule (首荟通便胶囊, SHTB) on post-stroke depression (PSD) using a multi-omics strategy. Methods A mouse model of PSD was established by photochemical induction of stroke combined with chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS). Depressive-like behaviors were evaluated by behavioral tests, and neuronal and myelin sheath structures were assessed by histological analysis. A comprehensive approach integrating 16S rDNA sequencing of gut microbiota, metabolomics of feces and brain tissues, proteomics, neurotransmitter detection and Western blotting was employed to systematically elucidate the potential mechanism. Additionally, gut microbiota was depleted by antibiotics to verify whether the effect of SHTB is dependent on intestinal microbes. Results SHTB significantly improved depressive-like behaviors and neuronal morphology in PSD mice. 16S rDNA sequencing analysis showed that SHTB restored the balance of gut microbiota, characterized by an increase in beneficial genera (e.g., Enterococcus) and a decrease in pro-inflammatory genera (e.g., Oscillibacter, Erysipelotrichaceae). Metabolomic results indicated that SHTB could correct fatty acid metabolism disorders, particularly linoleic acid and arachidonic acid pathways, and reduce the levels of neuroinflammation-related metabolites. Proteomics and neurotransmitter detection further revealed that SHTB could restore the levels of serotonin (5-HT), γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE) (P < 0.05), reduce the abnormal accumulation of glutamate (P < 0.05), and inhibit the excessive activation of TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB inflammatory pathway (P < 0.05). After depletion of gut microbiota by antibiotics, the above effects were significantly attenuated, indicating that the efficacy of SHTB was gut microbiota-dependent. Conclusion SHTB could restore the gut microbiota, repair the intestinal barrier, regulate fatty acid metabolism, inhibit TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway-mediated peripheral and central inflammatory responses, and restore the balance of key neurotransmitters through a gut microbiota-dependent mechanism. This multi-dimensional improvement in the gut-brain axis function contributes to its anti-PSD and neuroprotective effects.

Objective To reveal the mechanism of Zuogui Jiangtang Jieyu Formula (左归降糖解郁方, ZGF) to improve synaptic loss of hippocampal neuron based on triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2)/complement component 1q (C1q) signaling-mediated microglial cell synaptic pruning in diabetes-related depression (DD) rats. Methods The model of DD rats was established and rats were randomly divided into control group, model group, TREM2 inhibitor (IN1, 1.5 μg/kg) group, TREM2 agonist (AL002, 2 μg/kg) group, positive drug (metformin 0.18 g/kg+ fluoxetine 1.8 mg/kg) group and ZGF (10.26 g/kg) group. Primary microglia and hippocampal neurons from SD rats were cultured separately. An in vitro co-culture cell model simulating the DD environment was constructed by treating with 150 mmol/L high glucose combined with 200 μmol/L corticosterone, control group, model group, TREM2 inhibitor (IN1, 2 μmol/L) group, TREM2 agonist (AL002, 5 μmol/L) group, positive drug (10% positive drug-containing serum) group and ZGF (10% ZGF-containing serum) group were set up. Depression-like behavior was evaluated by open field, forced swimming and sucrose preference test. Synaptic loss of hippocampal neuron was observed by Golgi staining. Morphology and structure of microglia and hippocampal neuron was observed by cell imaging analysis. Nissl’s staining was used to observe synaptic loss of hippocampal neuron. The protein expressions of TREM2 and C1q in rat hippocampal microglia or in vitro microglia, and ostsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95) in rat hippocampal neurons or in vitro hippocampal neurons were detected by immunofluorescence. The expressions of TREM2 protein in hippocampal tissue or in vitro microglia were detected by Western blotting. Results The animal experiment results showed that ZGF significantly increased the total activity distance and sugar water preference rate of rats in open field experiment (P < 0.01), reduced forced swimming immobility time (P < 0.01), up-regulated TREM2 expression in hippocampal microglia (P < 0.01), and inhibited C1q/PSD95 signal mediated excessive pruning of microglial synapses, thereby improving synaptic loss in rat hippocampal neurons (P < 0.05, 0.01). The results of cell experiments showed that the serum containing ZGF could significantly up-regulate TREM2 expression and inhibit C1q/PSD95 signal mediated synaptic pruning in microglia, thereby reversing synaptic loss in hippocampal neurons (P < 0.05, 0.01). Conclusion ZGF effectively mitigate the synaptic loss of hippocampal neuron and thereby alleviate depressive behavior in rats, the mechanism of which might be related to the regulation of excessive synaptic pruning of microglia mediated by TREM2/C1q signaling.

Objective To explore the differential attenuation effects of Nüzhenzi (Ligustri Lucidi Fructus) and its wine-processed product on Tripterygium wilfordii polycoride (TWP)-induced reproductive toxicity, and to investigate its attenuation mechanism based on nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) mediated testicular antioxidant defense. Methods ICR mice were ig TWP (40 mg/kg) for 28 d, and intervention was also given with Ligustri Lucidi Fructus or its wine-processed products. Reagent kits were used to detect the levels of testosterone in serum and oxidative stress-related indicators in testicular tissue. Hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining was used to observe pathological changes in testicular tissue. Western blotting and qRT-PCR were used to detect the protein and mRNA expressions of Nrf2, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate quinone dehydrogenase 1 (NQO1) in testicular tissue. Results TWP caused a loose structure of seminiferous tubules in testes of mice, a decrease in level of spermatogenic cells, a significant reduction in number of mature sperm, a significant decrease in testosterone levels (P < 0.01), and a significant increase in the level of malondialdehyde (MDA), a lipid peroxidation product in testes (P < 0.01). Ligustri Lucidi Fructus (1, 2 g/kg) could significantly inhibit the abnormal indicators mentioned above (P < 0.05, 0.01), and Ligustri Lucidi Fructus (2 g/kg) could also significantly enhance the activity of antioxidant enzymes (P < 0.05, 0.01). Ligustri Lucidi Fructus wine-processed products (1, 2 g/kg) could significantly inhibit the abnormal indicators mentioned above (P < 0.01), and Ligustri Lucidi Fructus wine-processed products (2 g/kg) could more comprehensively reverse oxidative stress imbalance (P < 0.01). At the same dose, the detoxification effect of Ligustri Lucidi Fructus wine-processed products was significantly better than that of their raw products (P < 0.05, 0.01). Mechanism analysis revealed that TWP significantly down-regulated the expressions of Nrf2 and its downstream molecules HO-1 and NQO1 in testicular tissue of mice (P < 0.01), while Ligustri Lucidi Fructus and its wine-processed products (1, 2 g/kg) significantly up-regulated the expressions of Nrf2 and its downstream molecules HO-1 and NQO1 (P < 0.05, 0.01), with Ligustri Lucidi Fructus wine-processed products showing a significantly better effect than Ligustri Lucidi Fructus (P < 0.01). Conclusion Ligustri Lucidi Fructus and its wine-processed products could alleviate the testicular reproductive toxicity caused by TWP, and the detoxification effect of wine-processed products is significantly better than that of raw products. The mechanism may be related to enhancing Nrf2 mediated testicular antioxidant defense.

Objective Based on the theory of “heart-small intestine relationship” and the “gut-heart axis” hypothesis, this study applies Mendelian randomization (MR) and bioinformatics approaches to investigate gut microbiota with genetic causal effects on myocardial infarction (MI), explore underlying mechanisms, and predict potential interventional traditional Chinese medicines. Methods Genome-wide association study (GWAS) and gene expression data for gut microbiota and MI were obtained from the MiBioGen, IEU GWAS and GEO databases. MR analysis was primarily performed using the inverse variance weighted (IVW) method. Potential mechanisms were explored through gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses. Core genes were screened via machine learning algorithms. Potential traditional Chinese medicines were predicted by integrating the Coremine database, and their properties (four qi), flavors (five tastes), meridian tropism, and functions were statistically analyzed. Results MR analysis revealed six gut microbiota taxa with genetically causal associations with MI: Butyricicoccus (a protective factor, OR < 1, P < 0.05), Lachnoclostridium, Ruminococcaceae UCG014, Odoribacter, Oxalobacter, and Sellimonas (risk factors, OR > 1, P < 0.05).The core genes were mainly enriched in signaling pathways including the ephrin receptor signaling pathway, calcium signaling pathway, and mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPK) signaling pathway. A total of 596 potential traditional Chinese medicines were predicted. Their properties (four qi) were predominantly warm, followed by cold and neutral; their flavors (five tastes) were primarily sweet, with bitter and pungent also being notable. The main therapeutic functions identified were clearing heat and detoxifying. Representative medicines included Renshen (Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma), Sanqi (Notoginseng Radix et Rhizoma), and Huanglian (Coptidis Rhizoma). Related classical prescriptions encompassed Xiaochaihu Decoction (小柴胡汤) and Taohong Siwu Decoction (桃红四物汤). Conclusion This study reveals the genetic causal relationship and molecular mechanisms through which gut microbiota mediates the occurrence of MI. It enriches the modern biological connotation of the “heart-small intestine relationship” theory. The predicted traditional Chinese medicines provide new strategies for the traditional Chinese medicine-based prevention and treatment of MI and offer a reference for further investigation into the “gut-heart axis”.

Objective To screen key genes of ischemic stroke (IS) and analyze their mechanisms by integrating multi-omics and machine learning methods, and predict their potential targets for traditional Chinese medicine prevention and treatment. Methods IS transcriptome data from GEO database was integrated, and candidate genes were screened through differential expression, weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) and protein interaction network analysis. A variety of machine learning algorithms including logistic least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (Lasso), random forest, etc. were used to construct a diagnostic model, and the optimal gene set is determined through cross-verification. An middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model was constructed and further verified by Bederson scoring, HE staining and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Immune infiltration was analyzed using CIBERSORTx and potential traditional Chinese medicines were reverse-matched based on Coremine Medical database. Results Eight core genes (ARG1, CLEC4E, CLEC5A, FCAR, FCGR1A, IRAK3, MCEMP1, TLR5) were identified, and their diagnostic models performed well in both the training and verification cohorts [area under curve (AUC) > 0.7]. Animal experiments had confirmed that the expression of these genes was significantly up-regulated in the cortical tissue of IS model rats, and was closely related to the infiltration level of immune cells such as M0-type macrophages and neutrophils. Based on the above targets, 59 potential traditional Chinese medicines were predicted. Most of the four qi were cold, warm and calm, and most of the five are bitter and sweet. The meridian tropism was mainly concentrated in the liver, kidney and spleen meridians. The medicinal properties and meridian tropism were consistent with the pathogenesis of IS “liver and kidney yin deficiency, and stasis and heat accumulation”. Conclusion By integrating bioinformatics, machine learning and experimental validation, this study systematically identified and validated eight key genes involved in the remodelling of the post-stroke immune microenvironment, which may serve as potential diagnostic biomarkers for IS. Predictive analysis of traditional Chinese medicine suggests that the pharmacological properties—including taste, nature and meridian tropism—of drugs targeting these genes are consistent with the pathogenesis of IS, thereby providing a theoretical basis for the prevention and treatment of IS using traditional Chinese medicine from the perspective of immune regulation.

Objective To conduct a bibliometric and visual analysis using CiteSpace and VOSviewer on the current research, status of plants in the genus Eleutherococcus and predict future research trends. Additionally, by analyzing the patent landscape of Eleutherococcus plants, this study aims to evaluate the current status and development trends of its technological transformation, thereby providing a decision-making basis for subsequent research, development, and industrialization. Methods Literature searches were performed in four databases: China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Chinese Sci-Tech Journal Full-text Database (VIP), Wanfang Data Knowledge Service Platform (Wanfang), and Web of Science (WOS), using keywords such as “Eleutherococcus” The retrieved literature was imported into NoteExpress software for screening and deduplication. The exported data were then visualized using CiteSpace and VOSviewer to analyze the distribution of the number of published papers, author and institutional collaboration networks, as well as keyword clustering and co-occurrence networks. The search function of the Incopat patent database was utilized to analyze and summarize global patent trends, geographical distribution, applicant rankings, and applicant type composition related to Eleutherococcus plants. Results A total of 2 081 Chinese articles and 462 English articles meeting the criteria were included. Over the past decade, the number of Chinese publications on Eleutherococcus generally showed a fluctuating decline before stabilizing, while English publications exhibited a fluctuating upward trend. China was the leading country in terms of publication volume. Author collaboration networks were primarily based on intra-team cooperation, with relatively insufficient inter-team collaboration. Through the Incopat patent database, 18 992 patent records related to Eleutherococcus plants were retrieved. Among these, 9 942 patents (52.35%) were domestic applications in China, accounting for more than half of the global patents in this field. Conclusion Domestic research on Eleutherococcus in China is currently in a phase of fluctuating decline, while international research is on the rise. Studies predominantly focus on Acanthopanax senticosus and A. sessiliflorus, with research hotspots trending toward active components, oxidative stress, modern pharmacology, and resource conservation. The global distribution of patents related to Eleutherococcus plants shows significant disparities. Although China has a relatively high number of patent applications, it faces challenges such as reduced application activity in recent years and insufficient innovation.

Objective This paper uses scientometrics methods to conduct a visual analysis of Chinese and English literature on the Zhizi (Gardeniae Fructus) to explore its research progress and future development trends. Methods Bibliometrix and VOSviewer software were used to conduct a scientometric analysis of research literature in the field of the Gardeniae Fructus in the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), VIP, Wanfang, Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed databases up to 2025. From the perspectives of annual publication volume, countries, institutions, journals, keywords, and theme evolution, a visual analysis of the research on Gardeniae Fructus at home and abroad was conducted. Results A total of 5 049 relevant Chinese and 639 English literature were retrieved. The countries that conduct research in the field of Gardeniae Fructus are mainly China. The research forces show a significant regional and institutional concentration feature, and the core contributions are mostly from leading Chinese universities of traditional Chinese medicine. In recent years, the popularity of research on the Gardeniae Fructus has continued to grow, with both Chinese and English literature focusing on the pharmacological mechanisms of active ingredients such as geniposide, extraction process optimization, and quality control system construction. Chinese research focuses more on the application and industrial development of traditional formulas, while English research focuses more on molecular mechanisms and international collaboration. Scientometric analysis indicates that the pharmacological activity and toxicity of key active ingredients in the Gardeniae Fructus, as well as research methods such as network pharmacology, metabolomics, molecular docking, and response surface methodology, are currently the focus and hotspots of research. Conclusion This study analyzed and visualized the Chinese and English literature on the Gardeniae Fructus using scientometric methods, and identified the research priorities and hot topics in the pharmacological activities, toxic effects, and research techniques and methods of Gardeniae Fructus. This has certain reference significance for in-depth research on the Gardeniae Fructus and its active ingredients, as well as for the selection of future research topics.

Objective The glutamate receptor-like (GLR) gene family was identified at the whole genome level of Panax notoginseng and the expression analysis under different hormone treatments was conducted to provide a reference for in-depth study of its functions. Methods The PnGLR gene family was systematically identified using bioinformatics methods, followed by comprehensive analyses of physicochemical properties, phylogenetic relationships, conserved motifs, protein structures, cis-regulatory elements, and expression patterns. Additionally, their expression responses were examined under exogenous hormone treatments, including methyl jasmonate (MeJA), salicylic acid (SA), abscisic acid (ABA), and L-glutamic acid (L-Glu), as well as upon infection with Cylindrocarpon destructans. Results Genome-wide analysis identified 12 PnGLR genes in P. notoginseng, which were unevenly distributed across six chromosomes and grouped into four clades. Members of the PnGLR gene family encoded 693 to 1372 amino acids and contained 2 to 5 transmembrane domains, and were all predicted to localize to the plasma membrane. The cis-acting element prediction results showed that the promoter region of PnGLR contained response elements related to light, plant hormones, and abiotic/biotic stress. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) results demonstrated that PnGLR2, PnGLR4, PnGLR5, PnGLR8, PnGLR9, and PnGLR11 were significantly upregulated under exogenous hormone treatments and C. destructans infection. Exogenous L-Glu treatment with 1 and 10 mmol/L could significantly induce the upregulation of gene expression of PnGLR5, PnGLR6, PnGLR7, PnGLR9, and PnGLR10. Conclusion A total of 12 members of the PnGLR gene family were identified at the whole-genome level, and their expression patterns under exogenous hormone, L-Glu treatment and C. destructans infection were different, this laid a theoretical foundation for further exploring the potential functions of the PnGLR genes.

Objective To identify and analyze the expression of R2R3-MYB transcription factor family of Bupleurum chinense, and provide a theoretical basis for analyzing the secondary metabolic regulation mechanism of B. chinense under salt stress. Methods All R2R3-MYB genes of B. chinense were screened and identified by homologous alignment and hidden Markov model. Their physical and chemical properties, phylogenetic relationship, conserved domains, gene structure, cis-acting elements and chromosome distribution were systematically analyzed, and their expression patterns under 200 mmol/L salt stress were analyzed by transcriptome sequencing. Results A total of 116 R2R3-MYB transcription factors were identified in the B. chinense genome, all of which were hydrophilic nuclear localization proteins, with only two members containing transmembrane domains. Phylogenetic analysis showed that they clustered into 23 subfamilies, mainly distributed in K, P, W, and X subfamilies. The promoters contained four types of cis-acting elements, including light response, hormone response, stress response, and development regulation, among which light response elements accounted for the highest proportion. There were 42 pairs of gene duplication events, including three tandem duplications and 39 fragment duplications. The salt stress expression profile revealed that 21 genes responded significantly, and they were classified into early response type, mid-term continuous type, and late inhibition type according to the expression patterns. Conclusion This study conducted a genome-wide identification, evolutionary analysis and salt stress expression analysis of the R2R3-MYB gene family in B. chinense. It was initially determined that BcMYB59 and BcMYB116, due to their unique structural features and strong stress response, are excellent candidate genes for understanding the salt stress response mechanism and potential transmembrane signal perception function of B. chinense.

Objective To clone the cytochrome P450 gene (CaCYP2) involved in C-6β hydroxylation modification of triterpenoid saponins in Centella asiatica, systematically analyze its molecular characteristics, tissue expression pattern and subcellular localization, and achieve prokaryotic soluble expression, so as to provide experimental basis for clarifying its function in triterpenoid biosynthesis. Methods The full-length sequence of CaCYP2 was cloned from C. asiatica cDNA and subjected to bioinformatics analysis. Quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) was performed to detect the gene specific expression in different tissues. Seamless cloning technology was employed to construct yeast two-hybrid vector, prokaryotic expression vector and subcellular localization vector for self-activation detection, recombinant protein expression and tobacco transient localization analysis, respectively. Results The CaCYP2 gene was successfully cloned. Its open reading frame (ORF) was 1 443 bp, encoding 480 amino acids, and it belonged to the CYP716 family, hence named CYP716E116. The predicted protein had a relative molecular mass of 54 430 and a theoretical isoelectric point of 8.98, showing hydrophilicity. It contained a typical CYP90-like conserved domain and one transmembrane domain. Subcellular localization results indicated that this protein was localized in the endoplasmic reticulum. qRT-PCR analysis showed that the expression level of CaCYP2 was highest in the leaves, which was 6.2 times higher than that in the roots (P < 0.000 1), showing significant differences compared to other tissues. Prokaryotic expression results indicated that a soluble recombinant protein with a relative molecular mass of approximately 91 300 (including a 40 300 tag protein) was obtained after isopropyl β-D-thiogalactoside (IPTG) induction. The yeast two-hybrid experiment confirmed that the yeast two-hybrid vector had no self-activating activity and could be used for subsequent screening of interacting proteins. Conclusion This study successfully cloned the CaCYP2 gene and characterized its molecular structure, tissue-specific expression pattern, and endoplasmic reticulum localization. It also confirmed that the protein can be expressed solubly in a prokaryotic system. These findings lay an important foundation for further investigation into its catalytic function and regulatory role in the biosynthetic pathway of triterpenoid saponins in C. asiatica.

Objective To find out the optimal light quality for plant growth and bioactive metabolites accumulation of Angelica sinensis, and provide references for regulating the growth and metabolites product accumulation of A. sinensis. Methods The A. sinensis plants grown in pots were exposed to three different light qualities (red, blue, and infrared light) with white light as the control (CK), the growth characteristics of plants, contents of main bioactive metabolites, and expression level of key genes were determined. Results There were significant differences in the growth characteristics, main bioactive metabolites accumulation, and key genes expression of A. sinensis under different light qualities. Compared with the CK, blue light significantly promoted plant height, root length, chlorophyll content, and stomatal aperture; red light and infrared light could promote some growth parameters (e.g., plant height and aerial parts dry weight) to some extent; however, the blue, red, or infrared light had no significant effect on biomass accumulation. Red light significantly promoted soluble sugar accumulation, blue light significantly promoted total flavonoids accumulation, while infrared light significantly promoted accumulation of ferulic acid, ligustilide and total phenolics as well as in vitro antioxidant capacity. The three light qualities could promote the expression levels of almost genes related to the biosynthesis of main bioactive metabolites (i.e., ferulic acid, flavonoids, volatile oils, and polysaccharides); for example, the caffeic acid 3-O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene involved in ferulic acid biosynthesis showed the highest upregulation under blue light, the chalcone isomerase 2 (CHI2) gene involved in flavonoid biosynthesis was significantly upregulated under infrared light; and the 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase (DXS) gene involved in volatile oil biosynthesis was significantly upregulated under red light. Conclusion Monochromatic light qualities (blue, red, and infrared light) presented specific effects on the growth and main bioactive metabolites accumulation in A. sinensis, thus, the regulatory effect of combined lights on the growth and metabolites accumulation requires further study.

Objective To achieve precise discrimination between Zhishi (Aurantii Fructus Immaturus, AFI) and Zhiqiao (Aurantii Fructus, AF), as well as to analyze samples from different geographical origins, using the maximum information entropy principle combined with total statistical moment analysis and entropy-weighted TOPSIS method, thereby providing a scientific basis for their rational clinical application. Methods The UPLC fingerprint conditions for 15 batches of AFI and 15 batches of AF were optimized based on the maximum information entropy principle. Total statistical moment analysis was employed to compare the two, combined with multi-component quantification and entropy-weighted TOPSIS for systematic evaluation, the key chemical components that distinguish the two were obtained, and comprehensive scores were calculated to classify AFI, AF, and samples from different origins. Results Under the maximum information entropy principle, the optimal UPLC fingerprint conditions for AFI and AF were determined at a detection wavelength of 245 nm. Total statistical moment parameters revealed significant differences in overall chemical composition between AFI and AF (P < 0.05), with the total chemical content of AFI being 2.26 times higher than that of AF. Entropy-weighted TOPSIS analysis ranked the contribution weights (W_j) of nine quantified components in descending order: neohesperidin > naringenin > hesperidin > eriocitrin > tangeretin > synephrine > narirutin > naringin > nobiletin. AFI samples generally scored higher than AF, with those from Ji’an (Jiangxi) ranking highest among AFI and those from Changde (Hunan) ranking highest among AF. Conclusion The established method effectively distinguishes AFI from AF with high specificity and demonstrates robust discriminative capability for samples of different geographical origins. Comprehensive scores showed statistically significant differences (P < 0.05), providing an objective basis for the precise application of these medicinal materials.

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a complex metabolic disorder characterized by central obesity, hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, and hypertension. At its core, MetS involves dysfunction of multi-organ metabolic networks, whereas current single-target pharmacological strategies are insufficient to address its complexity. Based on the emerging recognition of the gut microbiota as a central hub of metabolic regulation, this study systematically reviews the mechanisms of disrupted inter-organ communication in MetS mediated through the gut-liver axis, gut-brain axis, gut-adipose axis, and gut-cardiovascular axis. Phytochemicals derived from traditional Chinese medicine can exert multi-target interventions on key pathological processes, including insulin resistance and chronic inflammation, through four interconnected mechanisms: remodeling gut microbial composition, regulating microbial metabolites, restoring intestinal barrier integrity, and modulating host signaling pathways. By synthesizing evidence on representative traditional Chinese medicines, this study further distills a shared “multi-component-microbiome-multi-target” framework of action. This framework provides a scientific basis for the development of a novel theoretical paradigm for the systemic management of MetS and highlights potential directions for future practice. Looking ahead, the integration of multi-omics approaches and computational modeling is expected to facilitate the exploration of precision nutrition interventions and drug development based on this framework.

Jiezi (Sinapis Semen), as an essential herb for warming and resolving cold phlegm, possesses the effects of warming the lungs, dispelling phlegm, promoting qi flow, dispersing nodules, unblocking collaterals, and relieving pain. It plays a significant role in clinical applications of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Modern research has shown that Sinapis Semen primarily contains various chemical components such as glucosinolates, sinapine, flavonoids, and volatile oils. Among these, sinapine thiocyanate is listed as the quality control indicator for Sinapis Semen in the 2020 edition of Chinese Pharmacopoeia. However, the current quality evaluation indicators for Sinapis Semen remain relatively limited, making it difficult to comprehensively reflect its overall material basis of effective components, and further in-depth research is still needed. This article systematically and comprehensively reviews the research progress on the chemical composition and pharmacological effects of Sinapis Semen. Based on three essential criteria of effective components (identification, dose-effect precision, and mechanism clarification) and the “five principles” of quality markers for TCM—effectiveness, specificity, measurability, transmission and traceability, and compatibility environment, this study identifies sinalbin, sinigrin, sinapine, sinapine thiocyanate, and allyl isothiocyanate as potential core components for the quality evaluation of Sinapis Semen. This review can provide a theoretical reference for establishing a more scientific and comprehensive quality control system for Sinapis Semen.

Gastrodia elata is a precious traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) with the effects of calming wind to relieve convulsion and suppressing liver yang, and it is mainly used for the treatment of diseases of nervous and cardiovascular-cerebrovascular systems. Through retrieval and statistics, 171 TCM prescriptions containing G. elata were identified, involving 392 TCMs. These herbs are mostly warm or cold in nature, predominantly bitter and pungent in flavor, and their meridian tropism is mainly attributed to the liver, spleen and heart meridians. Data analysis identified seven Chinese medicinal combinations and four categories of core drugs. There are ten dosage forms of the preparations, with pills and capsules as the main types. Their core efficacies focus on wind syndrome, blood stasis syndrome and deficiency syndrome, and they are indicated for stroke, rheumatic arthralgia and certain pediatric diseases. Contraindications remain unclear for 52% of TCM prescriptions containing G. elata, and some explicitly state that they are forbidden for pregnant women, children and other populations. By systematically analyzing the marketed medicinal products containing G. elata, this study constructs a complete evidence chain of “chemical components-pharmacological effects-formulation rules-clinical positioning”, which provides a scientific reference for the rational clinical application, in-depth research and development of G. elata, and also offers valuable insights for the modernization of TCM.

Sepsis-associated acute lung injury (SA-ALI) is a common and life-threatening complication in critically ill patients, for which current therapeutic options remain limited. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) exhibits multi-target and multi-pathway regulatory effects with relatively few adverse reactions, showing promising potential in the prevention and treatment of SA-ALI. Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent form of regulated cell death, driven by iron metabolism dysregulation, uncontrolled lipid peroxidation chain reaction, and impaired antioxidant defense systems, and it plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of SA-ALI. Emerging evidence indicates that TCM agents—such as curcumin, Ginkgo leaves extract, and Xuebijing Injection—can suppress ferroptosis by activating antioxidant signaling pathways, promoting glutathione synthesis, and restoring iron homeostasis, thereby alleviating pulmonary tissue damage. This article systematically reviews recent advances in TCM-mediated targeting of ferroptosis for SA-ALI, aiming to provide a theoretical foundation for optimizing clinical strategies and developing novel therapeutics.

The dynamic balance of the immunometabolic network constitutes the core of maintaining organismal homeostasis, and the close crosstalk between immune cell functional remodeling and metabolic reprogramming exerts a pivotal regulatory role in the occurrence and progression of diseases. Adhering to the core characteristic of holistic regulation and treatment based on syndrome differentiation, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) features the inherent advantages of multi-component and multi-target actions, which are highly consistent with the systematic regulatory demands of the immunometabolic network. This paper systematically reviews the application paradigms of modern technologies including high-throughput sequencing, single-cell metabolomics and metabolic flux analysis in TCM immunometabolism research, and focuses on elaborating the metabolic regulatory mechanisms of TCM monomers (flavonoids, polysaccharides, saponins, etc.) and compound prescriptions on core immune cells such as macrophages, T cells, dendritic cells, B cells and neutrophils. Meanwhile, it analyzes the key bottlenecks in current research, including the unbalanced research on immune cell subtypes, ambiguous correlation between active components and target networks, and the disconnection between TCM syndrome types and metabolic phenotypes. Furthermore, innovative research directions are proposed, such as multi-omics technology integration, artificial intelligence-assisted target prediction and correlation analysis of syndrome type-metabolic phenotype, so as to provide a scientific basis and practical reference for the modernization of TCM and the metabolic regulatory therapy for immune-related diseases.

Anisomeles indica, traditional medicinal plant belonging to the Lamiaceae family, is utilized in ethnomedicine for the treatment of rheumatism, colds and fevers, as well as skin infections. Currently, the research about A. indica is relatively limited. In this review, a systematic summary of domestic and international literature has been done, providing a comprehensive review of its phytomorphological characteristics, herbalogical textual research, botanical identification, pharmacological activities, and clinical applications. Herbalogical studies confirm that the original plant should be designated as Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze. It exhibits morphological similarities to Pogostemon cablin and Siegesbeckia orientalis, and its nomenclature is easily confused with “Fangfeng (Saposhnikovia divaricata)”. The use of local folk medicinal varieties requires standardization. The whole herb of A. indica is employed medicinally, possessing the properties of dispelling wind, releasing the exterior, regulating “qi” and alleviating pain. It demonstrates significant pharmacological effects, including anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anticancer, and antibacterial activities. Clinically, both the single herb and compound preparations are used to treat series diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, common cold, and eczema. Furthermore, this review discusses the potential prospects for the development of A. indica, aiming to provide a reference for further research and its clinical application.

Insomnia disorder, a highly prevalent and often chronic sleep disorder globally, exhibits a continuously rising incidence rate. It is frequently comorbid with various complications such as anxiety and depression, severely impacting patients’ physical and mental health as well as social functioning. Current treatment strategies for insomnia are primarily based on non-pharmacological interventions like cognitive behavioral therapy, while pharmacological interventions are required when significant sleep dysfunction and accompanying symptoms are present. However, existing medications are associated with limitations including addiction potential and rebound insomnia upon discontinuation, and no specific curative drugs targeting the root cause of insomnia is currently available. Modern medical research suggests that the pathogenesis of insomnia involves multifactorial interactions, including neurotransmitter imbalances, inflammatory responses, oxidative stress, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysfunction, hormonal disturbances, and abnormal expression of circadian clock genes. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), leveraging its multi-mechanism, multi-pathway, and multi-target advantages, demonstrates unique potential in improving core symptoms of insomnia, delaying disease progression, reducing relapse risk, and synergistically ameliorating comorbid conditions. Nevertheless, existing studies still lack intuitive elucidation of the pathogenesis of insomnia and its interactive relationships, and there is particularly limited research systematically correlating and integrating these mechanisms with TCM regulatory effects and signaling pathways. Therefore, this paper systematically reviews and analyzes database literature to summarize the pathogenesis of insomnia and TCM prevention and treatment research, aiming to provide scientific evidence and theoretical support for the clinical application of TCM in treating insomnia disorder.

Shudihuang (Rehmanniae Radix Praeparata), a fundamental herb in traditional Chinese medicine, is widely used to nourish kidney essence and replenish marrow. It is commonly applied in the prevention and treatment of syndromes related to “kidney essence deficiency”. Modern research has revealed its potential therapeutic value in neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) and neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). Given the complex pathological mechanisms of both conditions and the current lack of effective clinical treatments, studies suggest that NDDs and NDs share common neuropathological mechanisms. Traditional Chinese medicine theory posits that “kidney essence deficiency” is a key pathological mechanism underlying both disorders. This article, while reviewing the therapeutic advantages of Rehmanniae Radix Praeparata in treating NDDs and NDs, aims to provide an in-depth analysis of its potential biological mechanisms in preventing and treating these two categories of diseases through its action of “tonifying the kidney and replenishing essence”. Furthermore, it seeks to offer new insights into the herb’s role in promoting neurodevelopment and intervening in neurodegenerative processes, thereby fostering a deeper understanding of its pharmacological mechanisms and supporting subsequent drug development. This study also provides scientific evidence for the application of the TCM principles of “tonifying the kidney and replenishing essence” and “treating different diseases with the same method” in the field of neurological disorders, contributing to the modernization of traditional Chinese medicine.

Ginsenosides, the primary bioactive constituents of Panax plants, exhibit a wide range of remarkable pharmacological activities, including antitumor, hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective and anti-fatigue effects, underpinning their significant medicinal value. Based on a systematic review of the recent advances in the chemical structures, classification, biosynthetic pathways and medicinal functions of ginsenosides, this article focuses on the transcription factors involved in the regulation of ginsenosides biosynthesis. The pathways various transcription factor (TF) families, including NAM, ATAF1/2 and CUC2 (NAC), basic Helix-Loop-Helix (bHLH), myeloblastosis (MYB), APETALA2/ethylene-responsive factor (AP2/ERF), WRKYGOK (WRKY), TEOSINTE BRANCHED1, CYCLOIDEA and PCF (TCP) and [(Gibberellic Acid Insensitive, GRI), (Repressor of GAI-3 mutant, RGA), and (Scarecrow, SCR)](GRAS) precisely regulate the expression of key genes in the ginsenoside biosynthesis through responding to abiotic stresses such as cold, drought and salt, and phytohormone signals including methyl jasmonate (MeJA), ethylene and salicylic acid, leading to the ultimately determination of the accumulation and composition of ginsenosides. This paper raised the challenges in current studies concerning the molecular mechanisms of transcriptional regulation in ginsenoside biosynthesis, which could provide a theoretical reference for researchers in related fields to further improve quality of Panax ginseng through strategies such as synthetic biology and molecular breeding.