Article(id=1241022940574184233, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227665162245664772, issueId=1241022939957621542, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.20043/j.cnki.MPM.202411495, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1732550400000, receivedDateStr=2024-11-26, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1773812526124, onlineDateStr=2026-03-18, pubDate=1742832000000, pubDateStr=2025-03-25, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1773812526124, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-03-18, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1773812526124, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773812526124, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1241022939957621542, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227665162245664772, year='2025', volume='52', issue='6', pageStart='961', pageEnd='1152', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1773812525976, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1773815469296, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1241035285174219432, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227665162245664772, issueId=1241022939957621542, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1241035285174219433, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227665162245664772, issueId=1241022939957621542, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=967, endPage=976, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1241022942331597615, articleId=1241022940574184233, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1227665162245664772, language=EN, title=Epidemiological characteristics of mpox transmission and research progress, columnId=1240977221687497207, journalTitle=Modern Preventive Medicine, columnName=Special Column On Major Disease Prevention and Control, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Mpox is a zoonotic disease that was endemic in Africa in the past. Since May 2022, a large number of cases of mpox have been reported in non-endemic areas outside of Africa, and China has been affected to some extent. The emergence of new mpox virus (MPXV) variants type Ⅱb and Ib clades and the changes in the epidemiological characteristics and disease transmission of mpox, the expansion of the epidemic region and increase in epidemic intensity, as well as high morbidity and high mortality in children and other high-risk populations alarm bells for global health and public health security. The World Health Organization hence declared mpox a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) twice, in July, 2022 and August, 2024 respectively. In this article, we review the epidemiological characteristics, modes of transmission, susceptible populations and related epidemiological research progress of different periods and subtypes of MPXV, and discuss the possible impact of viral adaptation on the transmission of infectious diseases of animal origin during the evolution and mutation of MPXV, with a view to providing key evidence to support China’s optimization of the policy of monkeypox control and the emergency response and preparedness for future pandemics.

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猴痘是一个既往局限在非洲流行的人兽共患病。2022年5月以来,非洲以外的非流行地区报告了大量的猴痘病例,我国也受到了一定程度的波及。猴痘病毒(MPXV)变异株Ⅱb型和Ⅰb型分支的出现和疾病传播特征的改变,疾病流行范围的扩大和流行强度的增加,以及疫情中重点人群的高患病率、高儿童死亡比例等疫情现状,为全球健康和公共卫生安全敲响了警钟。2022年7月和2024年8月,世界卫生组织先后2次宣布猴痘为国际关注的突发公共卫生事件。本文回顾了不同时期、不同亚型MPXV的流行特征、传播方式、易感人群等方面的特征和相关流行病学研究进展,讨论了MPXV进化和变异过程中病毒适应对动物源性传染病传播的可能影响,以期为我国优化猴痘防治政策和未来大流行应急响应和准备提供关键证据支撑。

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李中杰和杨维中为共同通信作者。李中杰,E-mail:
杨维中,E-mail:
, copyrightStatement=本刊刊出的所有文章不代表中华预防医学会和本刊编委会的观点,除非特别声明。, copyrightOwner=中华预防医学会和四川大学华西公共卫生学院, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=ofpLAko4c7nNgT5Y2fBd5g==, magXml=grRE5qaXb9jSsk+wob3oaA==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=Hey3gzaz6Lf+pxbyNL8gKA==, pdfFileSize=996616, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=/hPPqcz6FDaNDA+JAGVncw==, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=

黄学峰(1999—),男,硕士在读,研究方向:流行病与卫生统计学

李中杰,中国医学科学院北京协和医学院群医学及公共卫生学院,研究员,准聘副教授,博士研究生导师。曾先后在中国疾病预防控制中心、国家卫生健康委疾病预防控制局和国家疾控局工作,主要从事全国传染病监测、现场应急处置、防控技术支撑和政策研究制定。目前的主要研究领域涉及传染病流行病学、疾病监测与预警、疾病负担与干预措施效果评价等。近五年,作为项目负责人主持国家重点研发计划、科技支撑计划、国自然基金项目多项,研究成果为全国性传染病防控方案和防控政策制定提供支撑。2021年获“全国科技系统抗击新冠肺炎疫情先进个人”,2024年荣获国家科学技术进步奖二等奖。

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李中杰,中国医学科学院北京协和医学院群医学及公共卫生学院,研究员,准聘副教授,博士研究生导师。曾先后在中国疾病预防控制中心、国家卫生健康委疾病预防控制局和国家疾控局工作,主要从事全国传染病监测、现场应急处置、防控技术支撑和政策研究制定。目前的主要研究领域涉及传染病流行病学、疾病监测与预警、疾病负担与干预措施效果评价等。近五年,作为项目负责人主持国家重点研发计划、科技支撑计划、国自然基金项目多项,研究成果为全国性传染病防控方案和防控政策制定提供支撑。2021年获“全国科技系统抗击新冠肺炎疫情先进个人”,2024年荣获国家科学技术进步奖二等奖。

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李中杰,中国医学科学院北京协和医学院群医学及公共卫生学院,研究员,准聘副教授,博士研究生导师。曾先后在中国疾病预防控制中心、国家卫生健康委疾病预防控制局和国家疾控局工作,主要从事全国传染病监测、现场应急处置、防控技术支撑和政策研究制定。目前的主要研究领域涉及传染病流行病学、疾病监测与预警、疾病负担与干预措施效果评价等。近五年,作为项目负责人主持国家重点研发计划、科技支撑计划、国自然基金项目多项,研究成果为全国性传染病防控方案和防控政策制定提供支撑。2021年获“全国科技系统抗击新冠肺炎疫情先进个人”,2024年荣获国家科学技术进步奖二等奖。

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猴痘病毒传播特征研究进展
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黄学峰 1, 2 , 黄蔷如 1 , 王小莉 3 , 王文玲 4 , 余建兴 1 , 杨维中 1, 5 , 李中杰 1, 5
现代预防医学 | 重大疾病防控专栏 2025,52(6): 967-976
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现代预防医学 | 重大疾病防控专栏 2025, 52(6): 967-976
猴痘病毒传播特征研究进展
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黄学峰1, 2, 黄蔷如1, 王小莉3, 王文玲4, 余建兴1, 杨维中1, 5 , 李中杰1, 5
作者信息
  • 1.中国医学科学院北京协和医学院群医学及公共卫生学院,北京 100730
  • 2.大连医科大学公共卫生学院
  • 3.北京市疾病预防控制中心
  • 4.中国疾病预防控制中心病毒病预防控制所
  • 5.公共卫生应急管理创新中心
  • 黄学峰(1999—),男,硕士在读,研究方向:流行病与卫生统计学

    李中杰,中国医学科学院北京协和医学院群医学及公共卫生学院,研究员,准聘副教授,博士研究生导师。曾先后在中国疾病预防控制中心、国家卫生健康委疾病预防控制局和国家疾控局工作,主要从事全国传染病监测、现场应急处置、防控技术支撑和政策研究制定。目前的主要研究领域涉及传染病流行病学、疾病监测与预警、疾病负担与干预措施效果评价等。近五年,作为项目负责人主持国家重点研发计划、科技支撑计划、国自然基金项目多项,研究成果为全国性传染病防控方案和防控政策制定提供支撑。2021年获“全国科技系统抗击新冠肺炎疫情先进个人”,2024年荣获国家科学技术进步奖二等奖。

通讯作者:

李中杰和杨维中为共同通信作者。李中杰,E-mail:
杨维中,E-mail:
Epidemiological characteristics of mpox transmission and research progress
Xue-feng HUANG1, 2, Qiang-ru HUANG1, Xiao-li WANG3, Wen-ling WANG4, Jian-xing YU1, Wei-zhong YANG1, 5 , Zhong-jie LI1, 5
Affiliations
  • School of Population Medicine and Public Health, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, China
出版时间: 2025-03-25 doi: 10.20043/j.cnki.MPM.202411495
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猴痘是一个既往局限在非洲流行的人兽共患病。2022年5月以来,非洲以外的非流行地区报告了大量的猴痘病例,我国也受到了一定程度的波及。猴痘病毒(MPXV)变异株Ⅱb型和Ⅰb型分支的出现和疾病传播特征的改变,疾病流行范围的扩大和流行强度的增加,以及疫情中重点人群的高患病率、高儿童死亡比例等疫情现状,为全球健康和公共卫生安全敲响了警钟。2022年7月和2024年8月,世界卫生组织先后2次宣布猴痘为国际关注的突发公共卫生事件。本文回顾了不同时期、不同亚型MPXV的流行特征、传播方式、易感人群等方面的特征和相关流行病学研究进展,讨论了MPXV进化和变异过程中病毒适应对动物源性传染病传播的可能影响,以期为我国优化猴痘防治政策和未来大流行应急响应和准备提供关键证据支撑。

猴痘  /  人兽共患病  /  国际关注的突发公共卫生事件  /  传播特征

Mpox is a zoonotic disease that was endemic in Africa in the past. Since May 2022, a large number of cases of mpox have been reported in non-endemic areas outside of Africa, and China has been affected to some extent. The emergence of new mpox virus (MPXV) variants type Ⅱb and Ib clades and the changes in the epidemiological characteristics and disease transmission of mpox, the expansion of the epidemic region and increase in epidemic intensity, as well as high morbidity and high mortality in children and other high-risk populations alarm bells for global health and public health security. The World Health Organization hence declared mpox a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) twice, in July, 2022 and August, 2024 respectively. In this article, we review the epidemiological characteristics, modes of transmission, susceptible populations and related epidemiological research progress of different periods and subtypes of MPXV, and discuss the possible impact of viral adaptation on the transmission of infectious diseases of animal origin during the evolution and mutation of MPXV, with a view to providing key evidence to support China’s optimization of the policy of monkeypox control and the emergency response and preparedness for future pandemics.

Mpox  /  Zoonotic diseases  /  Public Health Emergency of International Concern  /  Transmission
黄学峰, 黄蔷如, 王小莉, 王文玲, 余建兴, 杨维中, 李中杰. 猴痘病毒传播特征研究进展. 现代预防医学, 2025 , 52 (6) : 967 -976 . DOI: 10.20043/j.cnki.MPM.202411495
Xue-feng HUANG, Qiang-ru HUANG, Xiao-li WANG, Wen-ling WANG, Jian-xing YU, Wei-zhong YANG, Zhong-jie LI. Epidemiological characteristics of mpox transmission and research progress[J]. Modern Preventive Medicine, 2025 , 52 (6) : 967 -976 . DOI: 10.20043/j.cnki.MPM.202411495
猴痘(mpox)是由猴痘病毒(Mpox virus,MPXV)感染引发的一种人兽共患传染病,主要临床特征包括发热、皮疹以及淋巴结肿大[1-2]。猴痘感染部分临床特征与天花类似[3-4],因此一度被视为是继天花根除后,人类所面临最重要的正痘病毒感染威胁。2022年之前,猴痘主要流行于非洲中部和西部的热带雨林地区[4-6],然而,自2022年起,这一局势发生了显著变化,猴痘开始跨越非洲边界,在全球范围内多个国家和地区广泛传播[7]。截至2024年9月30日,全球已有123个国家报告了实验室确诊猴痘病例,总数高达109 699例,其中死亡236人[8]。鉴于MPXV传播范围日益扩大且呈现出显著增强的人际间传播能力,2022年7月23日和2024年8月14日,世界卫生组织(World Health Organization,WHO)先后2次将猴痘列为国际关注的突发公共卫生事件(Public Health Emergency of International Concern,PHEIC)[9-10],其重要性、不确定性、严峻性以及病毒对人类健康和公共卫生体系构成的威胁不言而喻。
在我国猴痘属于乙类传染病,按照《中华人民共和国传染病防治法》的相关规定,必须及时进行疫情报告并对病例采取严格的管理措施[11]。2022年9月,我国重庆市首次报告了一例猴痘输入性病例[12],随后,在2023年5月,北京市首次确认了国内首例本土感染猴痘病例[13]。截至2024年9月30日,全国30个省份(除西藏及新疆生产建设兵团外)累计报告猴痘确诊病例2 173例,无重症和死亡病例报告。猴痘作为一个严重的人兽共患传染病,对我国人民健康以及公共卫生安全具有一定威胁,其传播模式和流行特征的变化尤其值得我国关注。通过深入分析现有文献资料中的证据线索,阐明MPXV的传播机制与流行病学特征参数,进而揭示该病毒在不同人群间的传播模式和规律,对于我国有效应对全球新一轮猴痘疫情挑战、保障人民群众健康,具有至关重要的指导意义。本文系统分析了不同亚型MPXV传播途径、传播能力、易感人群特征,以及流行病学研究进展,以期为我国精确识别猴痘疫情防控重点、填补知识空白、制定干预策略,以及加速开展新型疫苗与药物的研发进程,提供科学依据与理论支撑。
MPXV为痘病毒科正痘病毒属病毒,是4种对人类致病的正痘病毒之一(即天花病毒、痘苗病毒、牛痘病毒和MPXV)[1]。MPXV最早于1958年由丹麦病毒学家在食蟹猴中分离得到[14],全球首例人间感染病例于1970年在刚果民主共和国(金)报道[15]。痘苗病毒、天花病毒与MPXV在抗原性和遗传学上存在关联,接种天花疫苗能在一定程度上预防MPXV感染[16-17]。MPXV包括2个进化分支,分支Ⅰ(曾称为刚果盆地分支,包含两个亚分支:Ⅰa和Ⅰb)和分支Ⅱ(曾称为西非分支,包含两个亚分支:Ⅱa和Ⅱb),分支Ⅰ的病死率(10%)显著高于分支Ⅱ(3%)[18],现有数据显示Ⅰb分支可能更容易传播[19-20],疾病严重性可能更高[21]
猴痘是一种典型的动物源性传染病,其流行病学特征体现了动物源性疾病的典型特点,包括以散发形式为主、呈地方性流行趋势,并伴随有明显的季节性发作规律。根据流行范围与强度的差异,猴痘的历史流行历程可大致分为以下三个阶段。
(1)人际传播有限,以动物为传染源的人兽共患病阶段。
在2022年之前,猴痘主要局限于中非与西非区域,以散发形式流行[22-24]。1981—2017年期间,MPXV分支Ⅰ在刚果(金)多次引发暴发疫情,其中大部分病例的感染途径是直接接触受感染的动物,确诊病例的病死率1%~12%[25-28]。在这些疫情中,病毒通过由动物向人类的跨物种传播进入人群,并能在有限范围内实现人际间进一步传播,期间偶有少量病例传播到非洲以外的国家。这一时期,病毒的人际传播能力十分有限,未能造成持续的人间传播,据文献记载,最长的传播链不超过6代[29-32]。因此,在2022年之前,全球范围内对于猴痘的认知普遍较为匮乏。
在2022年之前,猴痘具有明显的地域性分布特点,其中超过95%的病例集中分布在以刚果(金)为中心的中非地区。随着全球化进程的加快和人口流动性的增强,猴痘疫情的影响范围显著扩大,自2003年至2019年间,猴痘开始在非洲以外的多个国家和地区散发,包括美国、英国、新加坡等国,均有散发病例的报道[33]。通常情况下,在人间疫情暴发之前,会先观察到动物群体中的疫情发生。
据文献记载,猴痘可能具有季节性流行的特征。其流行态势受到人类活动及与受感染动物接触机会的影响。在赤道附近地区,猴痘呈全年流行的态势;而在北半球的非洲地区,则主要在雨季及随后的干燥的季节(即8月至次年3月间)流行风险显著增高[34]
(2)第二阶段 以男男性传播为主,动物源性传播并重的人兽共患病阶段。
2022年5月,MPXV Ⅱb型病毒出现并迅速在全球范围内蔓延,波及超过100多个国家,引发了广泛的疫情。这场疫情最终导致全球范围内感染病例超过10余万例,值得关注的是,其主要影响群体为男男性行为者[35]。在这一时期,新出现的Ⅱb型病毒在传播途径上发生了一些变化,男男性行为传播成为主要传播方式,这一转变提示病毒的人际间的传播能力有所增强。然而,其传播方式仍相对单一,通过异性性传播和家庭内部人际传播导致的病例占比较低,表明病毒的人际传播能力仍局限在一定范围内,并未达到广泛扩散的程度。2022年7月23日,世界卫生组织WHO首次宣布将猴痘疫情列为PHEIC[36],标志着猴痘威胁需要引起高度关注。随后,在全球各国政府与医疗卫生相关部门的积极应对下,全球猴痘确诊病例数持续下降。2023年2月至5月期间报告的猴痘病例数量,相较于前3个月,减少了近九成。2023年5月11日,WHO宣布2022年至2023年间多国暴发的猴痘疫情已不再构成PHEIC[37]。然而,目前Ⅱb型MPXV仍在全球多个国家低水平持续流行。
(3)第三阶段 传播方式多样化阶段。
2023年9月,刚果(金)东部的南基伍省矿区突然暴发猴痘疫情[38]。此次疫情由分支Ⅰ变异株Ⅰb所引发。以往,分支Ⅰ病毒主要集中在刚果(金)的西部地区流行;然而,Ⅰb变异株出现后,迅速向刚果(金)的东部地区蔓延,并波及以往从未报告过猴痘病例的周边国家[2,21]。截至 2024年8月,刚果(金)已报告了高达1.8万疑似猴痘病例,以及615例死亡病例。值得注意的是,感染者女性占比达到44%,而15岁以下儿童占比高达68%,其中5岁以下儿童占比高达39%。在死亡病例中,15岁以下儿童占比高达85%。
此次疫情中,与第二阶段以男性病例为主的情况不同,当前阶段出现了大量女性病例(其中很大一部分为性工作者)以及儿童病例并存的局面。病毒的传播方式也因此呈现出多样化的特点,可能已能够通过性传播、家庭内部的人际传播以及母婴传播等多种途径进行传播[21,39]
Ⅰb变异株病毒基因组中存在APOBEC3脱氨酶介导的突变,提示病毒人传人的能力增强[21,40]。鉴于分支Ⅰ病毒的高病死率、疫情波及范围显著扩大,以及病毒传播特征可能出现根本性变化,WHO于2024年8月14日再次将猴痘疫情确定为PHEIC[10]。截至2024年10月30日,除非洲地区外,仅有英国、德国、瑞典、印度和泰国等少数国家报告了MPXV Ⅰb型的境外输入病例,且均未发现本土病例[41-42],目前,尚无确凿证据证明Ⅰb型猴痘病毒已经具备了持续的人际传播能力。因此,猴痘未来是否会发展为以人类为主要宿主的人兽共患病疫情,尚不确定。
MPXV的主要动物宿主及传染源为非洲地区多种啮齿类动物,如非洲松鼠、树松鼠、冈比亚袋鼠以及睡鼠等[6]。多数情形下,人类及猴子是通过与啮齿类动物的直接接触(如捕猎、剥皮、烹制或食用等活动)而偶然受到感染[43]。在以往的非洲猴痘疫情中,通过周密设计与实施的暴发调查工作,通常能够成功溯源到传染源。以2018年中非共和国西南部的一起暴发疫情为例,研究者发现,指示病例在发病前2周,曾在野外猎捕和屠宰松鼠、果子狸等动物[44]
早期研究结果显示,人类感染MPXV后,虽然患者有可能将病毒传播给其他人或灵长类动物,但作为传染源,其进一步传播病毒的能力十分有限,表明该病毒并不具备持续的人际间传播能力。多数情况下,病毒的传播链会在历经数代感染后就无法继续传递给后续的易感个体[29]。关于猴痘患者的传播能力,早期的研究数据(大多基于非洲地区的研究数据)显示,猴痘的基本传染数(R0)大约为1.2~1.8[45-46]。猴痘的继发感染率显著受到天花疫苗接种情况的影响:在未接种天花疫苗的人群中,续发率高达15%;相比之下,接种过天花疫苗的人群其续发率仅为0.4%左右[7]
此外,猴痘的潜伏期一般为6~13天,最长可达21天。该疾病具有一定自限性,多数患者仅出现轻、中度症状。典型临床表现包括发热、皮疹、及淋巴结肿大,其中皮疹的形态与天花类似,且在痂皮脱落后会形成凹陷性瘢痕。猴痘病程一般为2~4周。猴痘的病死率与病毒分支有很大关系,不同亚型之间的病死率存在显著差异[47-48],例如中非国家流行的Ⅰa型分支病死率为5%~11%[7],明显高于Ⅱb型(1.7%~3.6%)和Ⅱa型(尚无死亡病例报告),而Ⅰb型感染的病死率尚不明确。除了病毒分支这一因素外,猴痘患者的病死率还受到感染途径、疫苗接种史以及医疗卫生状况等多重因素的影响。例如,相较于非咬伤患者,遭受动物咬伤的患者临床症状更为严重;大部分死亡病例发生在未接种过疫苗的15岁以下儿童;农村地区的患者病死率相对更高;而免疫功能低下的个体更容易罹患危及生命的并发症等[49-51]
目前,有关不同MPXV亚型的传播参数,包括R0、传染性、二代续发率等)数据仍十分缺乏。同时,关于MPXV感染后的临床严重性和自然病程的详细资料也尚不完整。未来,亟需加强这方面的工作,收集更多高质量的流行病学传播参数,以便能够针对每种分支及其亚型实施精准的防控措施,从而有效降低感染风险。
研究显示,猴痘患者在潜伏期内便已携带并能向体外排出病毒,这意味着在患者出现症状前的1~4天内就已具备了传染性[52]。关于患者临床症状消失后,处于疾病恢复期的个体的是否携带病毒以及携带状态持续时间尚不明确;另外,对于猴痘是否存在健康携带状态,以及完全无症状的感染者是否具有传染性,目前同样缺乏相应的研究数据。
人类可通过直接或间接接触受感染动物的血液或其它体液,或皮肤及黏膜的病变区域,从而感染猴痘病毒。1988年,在刚果(金)进行的一项涉及338例猴痘病例的研究显示,72.5%(245/338)的病例推测为动物源性感染,其余27.5%(93/338)的病例推测是通过人际间传播而感染[53]。近期一项针对尼日利亚猴痘疫情暴发的调查结果显示,62.3%(76/122)的病例感染来源不详。具有明确感染来源的46例病例中,有36例在发病前与已知猴痘患者存在流行病学上的关联或有过直接接触,而另外10 例则报告了与动物的接触史[54-56]。就目前从全球范围内的病例数来看(尤其是欧美地区的病例),动物源性传播所占的比例已显著下降。
人际直接接触传播,包括血液传播、性接触传播、飞沫传播,以及家庭成员间的密切接触传播等多种途径。在Ⅱb 分支疫情暴发期间,病例主要通过性接触传播[49,56],且多见于男男性行为者(Men who have sex with men,MSM)[56-57]。2023年9月至12月期间,越南开展的一项研究显示,在纳入研究的25例猴痘患者中,有88%(22/25)为MSM[57]。在MSM患者的精液中可检测到猴痘病毒DNA[44]。此外,2024年8月在葡萄牙进行的另一项关于猴痘的传播动力学研究显示,大多数病例为男性(119/121;98.3%),其中自我认定为MSM的人群占比高达98.3%(118/120),而女性病例仅2例(2/120;1.7%),该研究还指出,在MSM人群中高性活动组对猴痘传播的贡献率是低性活动组的120倍[58]。刚果(金)矿区Ⅰb分支疫情暴发期间,异性间的性传播,特别是通过女性性工作者的传播,成为推动疫情扩散的一个重要因素;同时,家庭成员间的密切接触也是猴痘的主要传播方式之一,尤其是在由Ⅰa分支引发的15岁以下儿童的疫情中[59]。在家庭接触传播中,未接种天花疫苗的易感者的感染率为0%~12.3%[45,60-61]。此外,通过接触衣服、床单或其他与感染性皮疹或体液接触的物品发生的间接传播,其占比为2.7%~7.6%,然而,这种传播方式对接种过天花疫苗的人群影响相对较小[62]
目前,文献中尚无MPXV通过空气、水、食物以及媒介生物等途径进行传播的明确报道[52]。关于MPXV通过空气和水等途径传播的证据尚不充分。虽然有个别研究报告指出,食用未充分煮熟的感染动物肉制品后可能导致感染[63],但并不能完全排除其他直接传播造成的干扰(例如皮肤或口腔黏膜破损等)。
目前,孕妇感染MPXV的信息较少。已有研究表明,MPXV与天花病毒类似,可以通过胎盘实现母婴垂直传播,在孕晚期导致胎儿死亡和先天性感染的风险增加[64]
在医疗机构中,医护人员在照护猴痘患者的过程中,若防护措施不当,偶有医务人员感染MPXV的病例报道[65]
人群对MPXV普遍易感。既往接种过天花疫苗者对猴痘病毒存在一定程度的交叉保护。如2024年欧洲国家一项研究用筛选法评估既往接种天花疫苗对MPXV Ⅱb型猴痘的保护效果为70%(95% CI:23%~89%)[66];而另一项综述研究则报道天花疫苗可以提供约80.7%的保护作用[67]。值得注意的是,有文献指出疫苗所提供的保护效力会随时间的推移而逐渐衰减,接种疫苗30年后,其对猴痘感染的保护作用微乎其微[48,68]。我国于1982年全面停止天花疫苗接种,1982年后出生的人将普遍缺乏保护;而对于1982年前出生的人群,考虑到文献中有关交叉保护持久性结果报道的不一致性,我国有必要针对1982年前出生的人群开展血清流行病学抽样调查评价他们对不同亚型MPXV感染的易感性。此外,国外的相关研究显示,不同年龄组的人群所感染的MPXV亚型存在一定差异。例如,Ⅰa型主要感染儿童,而Ⅰb、Ⅱa以及Ⅱb型主要感染成年人[7,31,69-70],基于这些发现推测,不同年龄组人群感染MPXV特定分支和亚型的差异一方面可能和人群易感性有关,另一方面也可能与不同年龄组人群接触病毒的机会以及传播途径的多样性有关。如性传播途径在Ⅰb型的感染和传播中发挥了重要作用,而家庭传播、母婴传播在Ⅰa型的感染和传播中发挥了显著作用。此外,还需要关注HIV感染者、男男性行为者、母婴以及老年人等猴痘病毒感染的高风险人群。
根据来自美国和欧洲的几份报告显示,40%~90%的猴痘病例为HIV阳性者(people living with HIV,PWH),同时38%~57%的病例伴随HIV并发感染,高危性行为和体液接触传播是该群体猴痘高发的主要原因[71-73]。相较于未感染HIV的病例,PWH感染猴痘病毒后的临床症状表现得更持久且更为严重[74]。对于CD4+细胞计数低于200个/mm3的患者,可能出现大型溃疡性、合并性坏死病变,并且溃疡愈合过程较长(<4周),并伴有剧烈疼痛以及细菌或真菌性的多重感染。相较于未感染艾滋病毒的人群,PWH更频繁报告出现肛门/直肠疼痛、张力下降、直肠出血、化脓性或血性大便以及直肠炎等症状。葡萄牙、美国和西班牙的队列研究结果表明,PWH中直肠相关症状的出现频率更高[75]。据报道,处于艾滋病毒感染晚期的患者还可能累及其他器官系统,具体表现包括肺结节、胸腔积液、心包炎、胃肠道出血、结肠炎,以及中枢神经系统症状,如脑炎等[76]
过去两年中所报告的猴痘病例,大多数涉及男男同性性行为者或性少数人群(包括女同性恋者、男同性恋者、双性恋者和跨性别者)。一些研究报告指出,高达98%的病例是同性恋或双性恋男性,其中41%的患者携带HIV,73%的病例观察到的病变发生在肛门和生殖器区域[77-78]。在2022年开始的持续至今的疫情暴发中,同性恋人群间的直接性接触已成为感染的主要途径。MPXV可通过密切的皮肤接触传播给他人,具体传播途径包括:经口腔、肛门及阴道性交,或触摸患者的生殖器部位(如阴唇、睾丸和阴道)及肛门区域(臀部);以及拥抱、按摩、接吻等密切接触;接触患者使用但未经消毒的织物和物品,如床上用品、毛巾、恋物癖装备和性玩具,也有可能导致传播[79]。同性恋人群感染猴痘病毒后的临床表现与典型症状不同,主要表现为生殖器、肛门或肛周区域出现病变,或这些区域同时受累;患者常伴随全身性症状,如发热、淋巴结肿大、肌肉疼痛等;且多数患者在发病前已有皮肤损伤的迹象;此外,多数患者还报告了直肠疼痛以及阴茎肿胀的症状[80]。多数患者在出现症状后仍与男性同伴发生性行为,且其中大部分患者已感染艾滋病毒,因此,在防治时需要考虑同HIV感染者相似的严重并发症风险。
虽然以往的几轮疫情中,绝大多数病例发生在男男性行为者中,但至少有58例(实际数量可能更多)孕妇被感染[81]。宫内感染的风险因病毒分支而异[82]。值得注意的是,Ⅰb分支病毒在日常生活接触、母婴传播等人际间传播途径中的传播能力和致病性可能已有所增强,这导致疫情的扩散风险正在进一步增加[83]。垂直传播主要通过产前母婴途径、产后接触及母乳喂养期间进行[84],母亲感染MPXV后,常易出现发热、皮疹、不适等一般症状;而在严重时,可能导致流产、胎儿宫内死亡、早产以及胎儿先天性感染等严重后果。胎儿表现多种情况,如有研究报告显示死产胎儿病理检查可发现水疱性皮疹、肝肿大和病毒载量较高。此外,新生儿在出生时便出现类似猴痘的全身性皮疹症状,易夭折[85-86]
在此次大规模分支Ⅰ病毒引发的疫情暴发期间,截至2023年底刚果(金)累计报告了14 000多例疑似病例,病死率为4.6%,其中70%以上的死亡病例为15岁以下儿童,在5~9岁儿童中,据估算,其发病率为18.1/10万。与2022年全球疫情的患病人群有所不同,2024年疫情中儿童病例占比和死亡比例均较高[18],原因可能是多方面的,一方面,Ⅰ分支MPXV传播方式多样化(性传播、家庭内密切接触传播、母婴传播等),在动物源性感染事件发生后,性工作者将病毒引入社区,在社区中,病毒进一步通过家庭内人传人方式传给儿童,而不是像Ⅱb型一样局限在MSM人群中传播;另一方面,儿童没有接种过天花疫苗也没有既往感染史,因此更为易感;最后,儿童感染MPXV导致的疾病更严重[87],由于当地诊断能力受限[88],更多的严重的儿童病例被报告出来。从临床表现来看,在儿童中,MPXV最常见的临床特征包括皮疹、发烧和淋巴结病变,大多数儿科并发症为继发性细菌感染引起的。
除了感染猴痘的一般症状,如皮疹(包括斑疹、丘疹、水疱、脓疱、结痂和痂皮脱落)以及全身症状(包括发热、畏寒、肌痛或不适、淋巴结肿大)外,由于儿童免疫力相对低下,感染猴痘的病情严重程度、并发症发生率和病死率可能与成人存在显著差异,如儿童遭受其他正痘病毒(包括天花病毒和痘苗病毒)感染所引起的严重并发症后,其死亡风险远远高于成年人,因此儿童感染猴痘后需要给予特殊照顾[87]
尽管1980年以前出生的人群幼时可能已接种天花疫苗,对猴痘具有一定的交叉保护,但与1980年以后出生的人群相比,他们可能面临更多的合并症风险,并且发生重症的风险也相对更高。常见症状包括头痛、背痛、肌肉酸痛、淋巴结肿大、畏寒和疲乏,甚至可能波及多个重要器官,如肺部、心脏和肾脏[89]。因此,对于老年人感染猴痘的情况需给予特别关注,他们可能需要接受更具针对性的住院治疗,并施以更为严密的医疗监护。
目前,临床上尚无特异性抗猴痘病毒药物,针对猴痘感染者的治疗主要还是对症和支持性治疗。虽然确切疗效仍有待验证,但在猴痘疫情暴发期间,美国已紧急授权使用4款药物以应对疫情[90],这些药物包括:已获得美国食品药品监督管理局(FDA)批准用于治疗天花的Tecovirimat(ST-246)和Brincidofovir(CMX001)[91];用于治疗巨细胞病毒感染的Cidofovir;以及用于治疗痘苗病毒接种后引发的并发症的痘苗病毒免疫球蛋白(VIGIV)。早期的动物实验结果显示,Tecovirimat可以延长攻毒动物的存活时间。但在刚果(金)开展的随机对照临床试验结果显示,与安慰剂组相比,Tecovirimat并未能显著减少猴痘症状的持续时间。值得注意的是,此项临床试验中,无论受试者接受的是Tecovirimat还是安慰剂,其病死率都低于刚果(金)总体病死率(1.7% vs. 3.6%)[92],该结果提示,除了特异性药物治疗之外,其他综合治疗措施(如住院治疗、营养支持等)对于提升患者的生存率起到了重要的作用。当前,国内外均迫切需要安全且具备确切疗效的猴痘治疗药物。
当前,全球尚无预防猴痘的特异性疫苗。以下4款天花疫苗可在紧急情况下用于猴痘的暴露前、暴露后预防接种。包括:①JYNNEOS。该疫苗利用活的、不可复制的、改良的安卡拉牛痘毒株培养,属于非复制性第三代天花疫苗。欧盟与美国批准了该疫苗的使用。2024年10月14日,世界卫生组织批准该疫苗用于12岁至17岁青少年,此前已于2024年9月13日批准其紧急使用授权申请,允许其用于18岁以上成人。多项临床试验证实JYNNEOS对猴痘具有良好的保护效果[93-94];②ACAM2000。该疫苗是利用牛痘活病毒减毒培养研制的有复制能力的第二代天花疫苗。美国食品药品监督管理局(FDA)已批准该疫苗用于高风险人群预防猴痘病毒感染。ACAM2000的不良反应和疫苗禁忌比JYNNEOS多;③LC16m8。该疫苗是低复制力的减毒活疫苗,在日本获批用于预防天花和猴痘。④OrthopoxVac疫苗。OrthopoxVac疫苗是由俄罗斯生产的一款疫苗,在猴痘疫情暴发的情况下,已获批用于预防猴痘。⑤天坛株疫苗。该疫苗是我国由天花患者的痂皮中分离、经多次传代减毒得到的第一代天花疫苗。天坛株疫苗在我国使用广泛,安全可靠,紧急情况下也可用于猴痘预防,但目前缺乏针对猴痘的相应的临床有效性数据[95]
监测和检测在传染病预防控制中是重要的防控措施之一。截至目前,我国尚未发现MPXV分支Ⅰ毒株感染病例,我国需重点关注境外输入和本地流行情况,根据我国颁布的《猴痘防控方案(2023年版)》和《猴痘防控技术指南(2022年版)》要求[1],我国应持续加强猴痘的监测和实验室检测工作。值得关注的是,2023年以来在刚果(金)发现的Ⅰb分支病毒,该病毒在OPG032基因区域发生了突变,有可能会导致检测结果呈假阴性[96],实验室应高度重视这一情况,做好检测方法和试剂的调整和优化。此外,针对即将前往中非猴痘流行地区工作或旅行的人员,以及从这些地区返回的人员,应提供旅行建议、健康教育,并开展必要的检测服务。
在全球化日益加深和“同一健康”理念广泛传播的当下,猴痘疫情对国家安全和社会稳定造成的威胁,其影响范围与程度超越了以往任何时候。MPXV仍在持续进化与变异,以实现从动物宿主向人体跨种传播适应,并最终在人群中建立稳定、持续的传播。在这个过程中,病毒的变异及其对宿主的适应至关重要,这一进程往往伴随着疾病流行病学特征和传播模式的显著变化。充分了解猴痘传播途径、传播能力、易感人群和疾病谱等流行病学特征及传播规律的变化,对于深化我们对猴痘疫情的理解,并有效指导猴痘防控,有着重要的现实意义。
2022年之前,猴痘一直被认为是一种以动物源性传播方式为主的人兽共患病,然而,随着2022年MPXV新变异株Ⅱb型分支的出现更新了我们的认识。疫情导致MPXV自然疫源地以外的全球多个国家和地区出现了一轮规模较大的疫情,此次疫情中,观察到猴痘传播途径(男男性传播)和传播能力的显著改变。Ⅱb分支导致的疫情仍在持续,Ⅰb型分支的突然出现,无疑为全球公共卫生和国家安全敲响了警钟。遗憾的是,对这些新毒株的传播特征和流行病学模式,我们的研究仍显不足,存在大量的知识空白。MPXV分支Ⅰ因其具有较高的病死率以及包括性传播、家庭密切接触传播在内的多样化的传播途径,已经引起包括我国在内的全球多国公共卫生部门高度警觉与重视。未来,我国应持续开展猴痘监测和检测工作,加强国际合作与交流,早期布局新型疫苗、药物及新诊断试剂的研发和评价工作。这些举措对于我国有效应对未来可能出现的猴痘大流行,具有至关重要的战略意义。
  • 中国医学科学院医学与健康科技创新工程(2023-I2M-3-011; 2021-I2M-1-044)
  • 国家重点研发计划(2023YFC2308701)
  • 北京市自然科学基金(L242053)
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2025年第52卷第6期
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doi: 10.20043/j.cnki.MPM.202411495
  • 接收时间:2024-11-26
  • 首发时间:2026-03-18
  • 出版时间:2025-03-25
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  • 收稿日期:2024-11-26
基金
中国医学科学院医学与健康科技创新工程(2023-I2M-3-011; 2021-I2M-1-044)
国家重点研发计划(2023YFC2308701)
北京市自然科学基金(L242053)
作者信息
    1.中国医学科学院北京协和医学院群医学及公共卫生学院,北京 100730
    2.大连医科大学公共卫生学院
    3.北京市疾病预防控制中心
    4.中国疾病预防控制中心病毒病预防控制所
    5.公共卫生应急管理创新中心

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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