Article(id=1261343848236761201, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1260987677001138203, issueId=1261336272929472630, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2025060212, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1750176000000, receivedDateStr=2025-06-18, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1778657408054, onlineDateStr=2026-05-13, pubDate=1777564800000, pubDateStr=2026-05-01, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1778657408054, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-05-13, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1778657408054, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1778657408054, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1261336272929472630, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1260987677001138203, year='2026', volume='47', issue='9', pageStart='1', pageEnd='504', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1778655601961, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1778657530282, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1261344361019728695, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1260987677001138203, issueId=1261336272929472630, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1261344361019728696, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1260987677001138203, issueId=1261336272929472630, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=481, endPage=492, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1261343851936137347, articleId=1261343848236761201, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1260987677001138203, language=EN, title=Research Progress on Extraction, Function and Application of Peptidoglycan, columnId=1261343851327906245, journalTitle=Science and Technology of Food Industry, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Peptidoglycan (PG) is a class of microbial polysaccharides with the functions of immunomodulation, anti-tumor, anti-inflammation, adsorption and toxicity reduction, which mainly exists in the bacterial cell wall. Due to its unique biological functions and structural properties, it has attracted much attention in scientific research and practical applications, and is now widely used in many fields such as medical, aquatic, and food. This paper summarizes the research progress of peptidoglycan in terms of its structure, biosynthetic pathway, extraction, function and application. In terms of extraction, the traditional physical and chemical methods, enzyme digestion and the emerging combined extraction method are described, and the advantages and disadvantages of each method are analyzed. The potential link between the biological functions of peptidoglycan and bacterial pathogenicity and immunomodulation is explored in depth. The results and challenges in practical applications are discussed, and the broad prospects of peptidoglycan research in multiple fields are envisioned for the future. By reviewing the current status of peptidoglycan research from multiple perspectives, it provides a reference for the subsequent in-depth study of its properties and the expansion of its applications.

, correspAuthors=Chen ZHANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright © 2026 Science and Technology of Food Industry. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Yawen WEI, Chen ZHANG), CN=ArticleExt(id=1261343864233836753, articleId=1261343848236761201, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1260987677001138203, language=CN, title=肽聚糖的提取、功能与应用研究进展, columnId=1261343852603031688, journalTitle=食品工业科技, columnName=专题综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

肽聚糖(Peptidoglycan,PG)是具有免疫调节、抗肿瘤、抗炎、吸附减毒等功能的一类微生物多糖,主要存在于细菌细胞壁中,因其独特的生物功能与结构特性,在科学研究与实际应用中备受关注,目前在医疗、水产、食品等诸多领域有着广泛应用。本文综述了肽聚糖的结构、生物合成途径、提取、功能及应用等方面的研究进展。在提取方面,阐述了传统物理、化学法,酶解法及新兴的联合提取法,分析各方法的优势与劣势。深入探讨了肽聚糖的生物功能与细菌致病性和免疫调节的潜在联系。讨论实际应用中的成果与挑战,展望未来肽聚糖研究在多领域的广阔前景。通过对肽聚糖多角度研究现状的综述,为后续深入研究其特性与拓展应用提供参考。

, correspAuthors=张晨, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
张晨(1990−),女,博士,副教授,研究方向:食品营养与健康,E-mail:
, copyrightStatement=版权所有 © 2026《食品工业科技》编辑部, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=inS2TtfCZ5UXmp5k4RHI6A==, magXml=zhQlDMYiYynfHT0RCV02BA==, pdfUrl=null, pdf=p5ZZ4EGBpbdeFVM+EL77Rg==, pdfFileSize=1722851, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=YK7uBa6HIgjrC3yzA+auQA==, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=gXPBIb/n5xeeBALFIZ/lTA==, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=

位雅雯(2004−),女,本科,研究方向:食品科学与工程,E-mail:

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位雅雯(2004−),女,本科,研究方向:食品科学与工程,E-mail:

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位雅雯(2004−),女,本科,研究方向:食品科学与工程,E-mail:

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Effect of different peptidoglycan on Clostridium perfringens spore germination and quantitative prediction[J]. Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineering, 2020, 36(4): 287−293., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1261343994668302887, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1260987677001138203, articleId=1261343848236761201, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[109], rfOrder=168, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=CHEN Yan, YANG Ruizhi, QI Bin, et al. Peptidoglycan-Chi3l1 interaction shapes gut microbiota in intestinal mucus layer[J]. eLife, 2024, 13: RP92994., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1261343994798326312, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1260987677001138203, articleId=1261343848236761201, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[110], rfOrder=169, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=GABANYI I, LEPOUSEZ G, WHEELER R, et al. Bacterial sensing via neuronal Nod2 regulates appetite and body temperature[J]. 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Characteristics of peptidoglycan in gram-positive bacteria, negative bacteria and archaea

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
特征革兰氏阳性菌[20]革兰氏阴性菌[21]古细菌(假肽聚糖)[22]
位置[23]细胞壁最外端细胞质膜与外膜周质内细胞壁内侧
特点多层大分子结构,多达30~40层[24]单层大分子结构类似网状结构
双糖单位GlcNAc-MurNAcGlcNAc-MurNAcN-乙酰-氨基葡萄糖和N-乙酰-D-塔罗糖醛酸残基组成
糖苷键β-1,4糖苷键β-1,4糖苷键β-1,3糖苷键
四肽尾L-Ala→D-Glu→L-Lys→D-AlaL-Ala→D-Glu→meso-DAP→D-Ala仅有L-氨基酸组成的肽亚单位交联(L-Ala→L-Glu→L-Lys)
肽桥由5个甘氨酸连接而成,但其组成会发生变化,具有多样性一般为直接交联,无肽桥无D-氨基酸交联
结构修饰O-乙酰化、N-脱乙酰化脂蛋白修饰五肽链存在一些不同的修饰(氨基酸置换)
优点三维立体结构,交联程度高,机械强度大交联程度低,易酶解极端环境下呈稳定性
缺点提取过程困难需去脂处理研究不足
), ArticleFig(id=1261343904901808806, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1260987677001138203, articleId=1261343848236761201, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

革兰氏阳性菌、阴性菌、古菌肽聚糖特征

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
特征革兰氏阳性菌[20]革兰氏阴性菌[21]古细菌(假肽聚糖)[22]
位置[23]细胞壁最外端细胞质膜与外膜周质内细胞壁内侧
特点多层大分子结构,多达30~40层[24]单层大分子结构类似网状结构
双糖单位GlcNAc-MurNAcGlcNAc-MurNAcN-乙酰-氨基葡萄糖和N-乙酰-D-塔罗糖醛酸残基组成
糖苷键β-1,4糖苷键β-1,4糖苷键β-1,3糖苷键
四肽尾L-Ala→D-Glu→L-Lys→D-AlaL-Ala→D-Glu→meso-DAP→D-Ala仅有L-氨基酸组成的肽亚单位交联(L-Ala→L-Glu→L-Lys)
肽桥由5个甘氨酸连接而成,但其组成会发生变化,具有多样性一般为直接交联,无肽桥无D-氨基酸交联
结构修饰O-乙酰化、N-脱乙酰化脂蛋白修饰五肽链存在一些不同的修饰(氨基酸置换)
优点三维立体结构,交联程度高,机械强度大交联程度低,易酶解极端环境下呈稳定性
缺点提取过程困难需去脂处理研究不足
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肽聚糖的提取、功能与应用研究进展
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位雅雯 , 张晨 *
食品工业科技 | 专题综述 2026,47(9): 481-492
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食品工业科技 | 专题综述 2026, 47(9): 481-492
肽聚糖的提取、功能与应用研究进展
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位雅雯 , 张晨*
作者信息
  • 山东农业大学食品科学与工程学院,山东泰安 271018
  • 位雅雯(2004−),女,本科,研究方向:食品科学与工程,E-mail:

通讯作者:

张晨(1990−),女,博士,副教授,研究方向:食品营养与健康,E-mail:
Research Progress on Extraction, Function and Application of Peptidoglycan
Yawen WEI , Chen ZHANG*
Affiliations
  • College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an 271018, China
出版时间: 2026-05-01 doi: 10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2025060212
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肽聚糖(Peptidoglycan,PG)是具有免疫调节、抗肿瘤、抗炎、吸附减毒等功能的一类微生物多糖,主要存在于细菌细胞壁中,因其独特的生物功能与结构特性,在科学研究与实际应用中备受关注,目前在医疗、水产、食品等诸多领域有着广泛应用。本文综述了肽聚糖的结构、生物合成途径、提取、功能及应用等方面的研究进展。在提取方面,阐述了传统物理、化学法,酶解法及新兴的联合提取法,分析各方法的优势与劣势。深入探讨了肽聚糖的生物功能与细菌致病性和免疫调节的潜在联系。讨论实际应用中的成果与挑战,展望未来肽聚糖研究在多领域的广阔前景。通过对肽聚糖多角度研究现状的综述,为后续深入研究其特性与拓展应用提供参考。

肽聚糖  /  结构  /  提取工艺  /  功能  /  应用

Peptidoglycan (PG) is a class of microbial polysaccharides with the functions of immunomodulation, anti-tumor, anti-inflammation, adsorption and toxicity reduction, which mainly exists in the bacterial cell wall. Due to its unique biological functions and structural properties, it has attracted much attention in scientific research and practical applications, and is now widely used in many fields such as medical, aquatic, and food. This paper summarizes the research progress of peptidoglycan in terms of its structure, biosynthetic pathway, extraction, function and application. In terms of extraction, the traditional physical and chemical methods, enzyme digestion and the emerging combined extraction method are described, and the advantages and disadvantages of each method are analyzed. The potential link between the biological functions of peptidoglycan and bacterial pathogenicity and immunomodulation is explored in depth. The results and challenges in practical applications are discussed, and the broad prospects of peptidoglycan research in multiple fields are envisioned for the future. By reviewing the current status of peptidoglycan research from multiple perspectives, it provides a reference for the subsequent in-depth study of its properties and the expansion of its applications.

peptidoglycan  /  structure  /  extraction process  /  function  /  application
位雅雯, 张晨. 肽聚糖的提取、功能与应用研究进展. 食品工业科技, 2026 , 47 (9) : 481 -492 . DOI: 10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2025060212
Yawen WEI, Chen ZHANG. Research Progress on Extraction, Function and Application of Peptidoglycan[J]. Science and Technology of Food Industry, 2026 , 47 (9) : 481 -492 . DOI: 10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2025060212
多糖是由多个单糖分子脱水缩合构成的聚合糖高分子碳水化合物,其分子结构十分庞大且复杂,通常以α型或β型糖苷键结合为支链或分支结构[1]。多糖在自然界分布极广且具有重要生物学意义,主要来源于动物、植物和微生物[2]。随着生物技术的快速发展,微生物多糖因生产周期短、结构易调控、功能可塑性高等优点[3],在食品、医药等领域的研究及应用更为广泛[4]。微生物多糖按存在位置主要分为胞内多糖、胞壁多糖和胞外多糖[5],这类生物高聚物对微生物具有保护作用[6]。其中,胞壁多糖中的肽聚糖因其独特的结构和功能成为微生物学和医学研究等多领域的重要对象,受到大家的密切关注。
在“健康中国”战略持续推进的背景下,食品与药品等诸多领域对功能性天然产物的需求持续增长,兼具天然特性与多元生物活性的物质正成为研究热点。作为微生物细胞壁的标志性成分,肽聚糖拥有免疫调节[7]、抗肿瘤[8]、抗感染[9]等重要生理功能,在益生元、靶向药物等方面应用具有巨大潜力。然而肽聚糖的产业化发展目前仍面临三大主要问题,实际生产应用中提取工艺复杂,且易破坏其活性结构;分子结构与功能机制之间的联系不明确;高纯度制备的成本较高,这些问题导致肽聚糖无法充分发挥作用。本文主要围绕肽聚糖的结构性质、提取工艺、功能及应用方向进行综述,关注跨界领域的潜在价值,突破单一应用限制,并对未来肽聚糖发展进程进行了展望,为进一步开发与利用微生物多糖提供参考。
肽聚糖(Peptidoglycan,PG),主要存在于细菌细胞壁中,其基本结构主要由糖类骨架、肽桥两部分构成[10],糖类骨架由交替的N-乙酰葡萄糖胺(GlcNAc)和N-乙酰胞壁酸(MurNAc)单元组成[11],糖类单元之间通过β-1,4糖苷键连接。每个MurNAc残基都与一个四肽尾相连,在不同的细菌中四肽尾可能有所不同[12],具有菌种特异性。但通常包含L-丙氨酸(L-Ala)、D-谷氨酸(D-Glu)、L-赖氨酸(L-Lys)和D-丙氨酸(D-Ala)[13](如图1所示)。其中,D-Glu作为肽聚糖重要的物质,在食品、医学、美妆、制药等方面应用前景广阔,是具有开发潜力的新品种之一[14]。在某些细菌中,由外消旋二氨基庚二酸(meso-DAP)代替四肽尾的第三个氨基酸L-Lys。基于此种差异,可根据四肽尾中第三位氨基酸种类划分,将肽聚糖分为DAP型(m-A2pm型)和Lys型[15]
革兰氏阴性菌四肽尾一般是直接交联,形成低交联度的薄层网状结构,其组成与交联方式比较稳定。而阳性菌与阴性菌不同,通常有额外一段肽桥间接交联,而且每种菌株的交联方式可能不尽相同,交联位点也呈现多样性。目前除了肽亚单位的第3位和另一肽亚单位的第4位氨基酸间交联,肽亚单位的第2位和另一肽亚单位的第4位氨基酸间交联[16],还有肽亚单位的第3位和另一肽亚单位的第3位氨基酸间交联等形式[17]
表1将不同种类微生物中的肽聚糖进行了对比,其中革兰氏阳性菌肽聚糖具有多样性,结构复杂[18],这与四肽尾组成和交联模式有着密切联系。例如枯草芽孢杆菌(Bacillus subtilis)细胞壁比金黄色葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus aureus)更具有刚性结构,是因为枯草芽孢杆菌肽聚糖四肽尾由L-Ala(1)-D-Glu(2)-M-A2PM(3)-D-Ala(4)-D-Ala(5)组成,肽聚糖链最长可达5000个二糖单位,远长于金黄色葡萄球菌和大肠杆菌等[19]
由于研究的技术和手段有限,在实验室可以培养的古细菌(Archaea)主要有产甲烷细菌、极端嗜盐细菌和极端嗜热细菌。古细菌中的假肽聚糖肽链仅含L-氨基酸且无D型交联,目前对于合成机制等理论研究不足,还需进一步深入。
肽聚糖的生物合成易受外界环境因素干扰,如温度、pH、金属离子以及抗生素等,肽聚糖结构一旦遭到破坏,细胞就可能面临裂解死亡的风险[25]。现阶段,有关于肽聚糖生物合成调控的研究,大多数围绕翻译后水平展开,而细菌在转录水平如何调控肽聚糖生物合成的表达尚不清楚,特别是在革兰氏阴性菌中,这方面的报道极为少见[26]
肽聚糖合成过程十分复杂,需要多种蛋白质和酶参与调控,不同类型细菌的肽聚糖所涉及的生物合成方式也有所不同[27]。肽聚糖的生物合成过程与细菌中的功能区域有关[28],涉及细胞质、细胞膜和细胞膜外三个阶段的协同作用(如图2所示)。
肽聚糖生物合成在细胞质中开始,首先合成前体物质尿苷二磷酸N-乙酰葡萄糖胺(UDP-GlcNAc)。在MurA和MurB酶的催化下生成UDP-N-乙酰胞壁酸(UDP-MurNAc),其主要作用是参与细胞壁的合成与调控[29]。进一步被酶MurC、MurD、MurE和MurF先后催化,五个氨基酸被连续添加到UDP-MurNAc上,形成Park核苷酸(UDP-MurNAc-五肽)。
肽聚糖组装的后续步骤发生在细胞膜的内侧面。在这一步中,MraY酶催化Park核苷酸形成脂质Ⅰ(Lipid Ⅰ)。转移酶MurG将UDP-GlcNAc分子转移到Lipid Ⅰ形成脂质Ⅱ(Lipid Ⅱ)[30]。Lipid Ⅱ随后通过翻转酶被转移到细胞膜的外侧。MurJ是负责Lipid Ⅱ跨膜转运的关键翻转酶,从结构上看,MurJ属于MOP转运蛋白超家族,具有多个跨膜螺旋,研究发现MurJ通过关键精氨酸残基与LipidⅡ的焦磷酸头部发生特异性结合,完成底物识别。这种识别作用会触发MurJ构象由面向细胞质的向内开放转为面向周质空间的向外开放,从而实现LipidⅡ的跨膜转运[3132]
膜外侧肽聚糖的聚合主要通过青霉素结合蛋白(Penicillin-binding proteins,PBPs)来完成[23]β-内酰胺酶的产生是最普遍的耐药机制,这类酶通过丝氨酸残基(A、C、D类酶)或锌离子(B类金属酶)破坏抗生素的β-内酰胺环。其次PBPs结构变异显著降低抗生素亲和力,如耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌(MRSA)的PBP2a因β3-折叠位移导致与β-内酰胺的结合能力显著下降,但仍能维持肽聚糖交联功能,从而导致抗生素失去抑制作用[3334]
肽聚糖的生物合成过程对细菌的生存至关重要,其生物合成及调控机制一直是微生物学中重要的基础研究和前沿研究方向[35]
肽聚糖的提取与纯化是研究其理化性质的重要依据,也为后续肽聚糖在各个领域的应用奠定基础。目前肽聚糖提取分离均采用Sekine建立的双歧杆菌完整肽聚糖提取法[36],但存在步骤繁琐、周期长、得率低的问题,在成本控制与规模化生产方面难以满足工业化需要。近年来对于肽聚糖提取有很多改进方法,主要围绕细胞壁破碎、磷壁酸的去除、蛋白质酶解与脂质脱除四大方面进行优化,分为传统的物理、化学提取法和近年作为研究热点的酶解提取法,然而传统物理、化学方法不仅实际消耗量大、能耗高,还可能因残留化学物质影响产物活性。因此,未来需要进一步开发更绿色、集成的提取工艺。而当前备受关注的酶解提取法凭借其温和条件、低污染的优势,有望成为满足产业化需求的重要方向,以推动肽聚糖的规模化应用。各提取方法总结如图3所示。
在肽聚糖提取工艺技术中,物理提取法虽然具备简单易操作的优势,但依赖较强机械力作用,易造成其他物质结构破坏,难以获取完整细胞壁,且单一物理法提升通透性的效果有限。相关研究表明,低压渗透法、反复冻融法、珠磨法等单一物理破壁无法有效提升细胞通透性[37]。因此,物理提取法仅适用于纳豆芽孢杆菌等厚壁菌种,在实际应用中常与化学法联用。例如,通过超声波破碎结合三氯乙酸(TCA)处理,乙酸钠萃取、氯仿、甲醇抽提及胰蛋白酶水解等多步分离纯化操作,可从纳豆芽孢杆菌细胞壁中获取高纯度肽聚糖,提取率为8.5%[38]。在此过程中,需对各项操作参数进行精准调控,以避免结构损伤。同时,为克服传统方法局限性,有研究以游离放线菌发酵菌渣为原料,采用机械球磨辅助法并引入少量碱性物质替代高温酸解,与传统TCA法相比,该工艺不仅大幅提升提取效果与效率,还降低了废酸排放,呈现出绿色循环的工艺特点[39]
三氯乙酸(TCA)法作为常用的化学提取法,对比超声波法、溶菌酶解法,其在提取率和操作流程上表现更优,提取率可达15.8%[40]。针对特定菌株(如地衣芽孢杆菌),优化TCA提取参数可进一步提升提取效率,形成专属工艺方案[41]。通过工艺优化与复合处理,TCA法的提取效率可显著增强。研究显示,TCA法通过裂解结合胰蛋白酶消化、乙醇沉淀、乙醚去脂等步骤,可在8 h内完成提取,产物获得率约7.5%[42]。该方法能够快速制备粗制肽聚糖,适用于对纯度要求较低的基础研究,若要拓展其应用范围,还需进一步提高产物纯度。类似的,采用10%质量分数的TCA处理结合脱脂,在70 ℃、1 h条件下,磷壁酸抽提率达到峰值;胰酶与碱性蛋白酶协同作用可实现最优酶解效果[43]。另有研究采用TCA脱磷壁酸、乙醚脱脂、十二烷基磺酸钠联合胰蛋白酶去除蛋白质的复合工艺,将肽聚糖平均得率提升至16.48%[44]
总体而言,化学提取法虽具有提取效率高、适用范围广的特点,但存在引入杂质的风险,常需与酶解提取法联用进行后续纯化。未来研究方向应聚焦于开发绿色环保的提取工艺,并针对不同菌株的生物学特性,探索特异性提取方案,以满足多样化的科研与应用需求。
溶菌酶是人体内破坏肽聚糖的一种胞壁酸酶,可以特异性水解肽聚糖中β-1,4-糖苷键,从而引发细胞裂解[45]。传统单一酶解法虽对多数含有β-1,4-糖苷键的肽聚糖有效,但仍存在一定局限性,例如古细菌的糖苷键以β-1,3构型为主,难以被传统单一酶解法分解。近年来,复合酶联用法与酶-化学提取法的创新发展提升了肽聚糖的提取效率与结构完整性,通过多种酶协同作用可高效去除蛋白质和脂质杂质。乐军等[46]采用TritonX-100预处理BL肉汤培养物,经高速离心获取沉淀后,依次用蛋白酶E、胃蛋白酶、胰酶及核酸酶消化,配合甲醇与氯仿除脂,最终通过NH2SO4处理等步骤提纯,得到精致完整的肽聚糖(WPG)。该完整肽聚糖为深入研究肽聚糖精细结构、探究肽聚糖深层次机理提供了材料。在实际应用时,研究者常采用酶-化学提取法联用策略,进一步优化提取流程。另一研究对MRS肉汤培养物采用TritonX-100预处理,高速离心获取不可溶物质,经三氯乙酸去磷壁酸,借助胰蛋白酶、核酸酶、α-糜蛋白酶复合酶系进行消化,结合甲醇与氯仿除脂等步骤,可在6 d内实现16.4%的肽聚糖得率,并且最终分离纯化出精制的肽聚糖[47]。该工艺较单一化学提取法展现出显著优势,表明了联用技术的可行性。
酶解提取法具有相对温和、高效的特点,大多能够保留肽聚糖的完整结构,适用于肽聚糖的进一步研究,不足之处在于成本较高,需要精确控制酶的用量和反应时间,未来开发低成本酶制剂将成为该技术发展的关键方向。
肽聚糖作为细菌细胞壁的重要成分,与细菌细胞的形态、大小、生长和分裂等基本生命过程密切相关[48]。肽聚糖为细菌提供了坚固的外部结构,通过网状结构维持细胞形状、稳定胞体渗透压、维持细菌完整性[11],肽聚糖有较强的机械强度[49],可以阻挡外部压力、阻止有害物质进入细菌细胞,保护细菌免受外界环境伤害,确保细胞壁的稳定性和完整性,对维持细胞形状起到关键作用[25]。最新研究发现,细菌通过一种保守的调控机制控制自溶酶系统的活性,特别是调控负责细胞自溶的裂解转糖苷酶(LTs酶)[50],防止细胞过度降解而裂解。这一发现揭示了细菌维持细胞壁完整性的新型调控机制,对于细胞壁靶向药物的研制有着重要的参考价值。除上述肽聚糖结构支持与保护作用,本文将肽聚糖生物功能划分为五个方面,其相互关系与具体作用,如图4所示。
肽聚糖作为原核细胞壁的特殊标志性成分,因其结构特异性成为真核免疫系统识别的理想靶标,在免疫调节进程中发挥着关键作用。研究证实,肽聚糖可有效激活巨噬细胞、树突状细胞等免疫细胞。巨噬细胞被激活后其吞噬功能显著提升;树突状细胞则受刺激引起特定免疫反应[51],进而调节免疫反应。另有研究表明肽聚糖可能是乳酸杆菌发挥免疫赋活作用的关键功能性物质,其通过增强巨噬细胞吞噬功能、诱导细胞因子释放,实现对机体免疫应答的调控[52]
肽聚糖的免疫调节主要通过模式识别受体(Pattern recognition receptor, PRR)介导的信号通路实现,其发挥核心作用的受体包括Toll样受体2(Toll-like receptor 2,TLR2)、核苷酸结合寡聚化结构域蛋白2(Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain containing 2,NOD2)以及肽聚糖识别蛋白(Peptidoglycan recognition proteins,PGRPs)。在上述受体中,TLR2与NOD2虽在信号传导的终效应存在共性—均可激活NF-κB等转录因子,最终促进肿瘤坏死因子-α(TNF-α)等促炎细胞因子的释放。但二者在配体识别的选择性上存在显著差异,TLR2作为细胞膜表面受体,配体识别较广,可识别革兰氏阳性菌细胞壁的脂磷壁酸(LTA)和肽聚糖整体结构;而NOD2属于胞内受体,其配体识别具有高度特异性,仅靶向肽聚糖经酶解产生的最小结构单元—胞壁酰二肽(MDP)[5355,55]。在作用机制研究方面,孙进[56]发现乳酸菌肽聚糖能够与多种受体相互作用,调节宿主先天性免疫反应;王立生等[57]和李迎雪等[58]证实双歧杆菌的完整肽聚糖能够通过信号ERK→AP-1活化巨噬细胞;此外,小鼠巨噬细胞RAW264.7在肽聚糖的作用下可以分泌NO、ROS以及TNF-α、IL-1β等免疫调节物质,进而激活免疫作用[59]。陈佳妮[60]关于纳豆芽孢杆菌的研究进一步表明,肽聚糖不仅具有免疫增强作用,还能促进小鼠炎症介质和主要细胞因子的分泌。
肽聚糖识别蛋白(Peptidoglycan recognition proteins,PGRPs)作为重要的PRR,广泛存在于低等无脊椎动物和高等哺乳动物中,具有一定保守性[61]。PGRPs可通过识别病原体细胞壁肽聚糖成分激活免疫反应[62],对抵抗病原体入侵过程具有重要意义。结合后,PGRPs主要通过Toll或IMD(Immune deficiency)信号通路诱导抗菌肽的表达,实现对病原体的直接杀伤[6365]。同时,还可直接水解肽聚糖中MurNAc和L-Ala之间的酰胺键,以达到抗菌目的[6667]。有研究发现在体外环境下,肽聚糖对于哺乳动物甚至无脊椎动物(如昆虫)细胞均具有显著的免疫激活作用,可高效活化巨噬细胞及多克隆B细胞[68]。在胃肠道粘膜免疫领域,益生菌肽聚糖表现出重要保护作用。齐盟等[69]发现枯草芽孢杆菌肽聚糖可作为免疫刺激物,体外诱导绵羊瘤胃上皮细胞(ORECs)产生β-防御素-1(SBD-1),维持粘膜屏障功能。
以上研究表明,肽聚糖通过诱导免疫调控物质释放,激活免疫细胞对病原体的识别与清除;同时作为抗原激活免疫器官及淋巴细胞,促进免疫细胞间协同作用,从而构建多层次免疫防御体系。
肽聚糖在肿瘤治疗领域的研究逐渐深入,可通过多种途径发挥抗肿瘤作用,其中激活机体固有免疫细胞诱导抗肿瘤反应和增强现有抗肿瘤治疗效果两大机制备受关注。
在激活固有免疫细胞诱导抗肿瘤反应方面,肽聚糖能激活巨噬细胞向M1型转变,促使其大量分泌TNF-α、白细胞介素-12(IL-12)等细胞因子。其中,TNF-α可以直接作用于肿瘤细胞,通过激活凋亡信号通路诱导细胞死亡;IL-12则通过增强自然杀伤细胞(NK细胞)的活性,促进对肿瘤细胞的识别与清除。多项研究从不同层面证实了肽聚糖激活免疫细胞的抗肿瘤功效。实验数据显示,肽聚糖提取物能够显著抑制肿瘤生长,延长腹水瘤小鼠的生存期并改善其生存质量[70]。还有研究表明,肽聚糖可通过抑制肿瘤相关PI3K/AKT信号通路,阻断人结肠癌细胞系SW480的上皮间质转化(EMT)进程,进而遏制肿瘤细胞的侵袭转移[71]。动物实验进一步验证了肽聚糖的体内抗肿瘤功效。在荷瘤小鼠模型中,肽聚糖通过诱导免疫原性细胞死亡,调控免疫微环境,一方面促进免疫原性细胞死亡标志物转位;另一方面抑制免疫耐受因子IL-10表达,并激活IL-12、IFN-γ和TNF-α等多种肿瘤免疫调节因子[72],最终实现肿瘤生长抑制。Sekine等[73]将双歧杆菌细胞壁完整肽聚糖及细胞壁骨架分别与Meth A纤维肉瘤细胞一起混合接种,发现都可显著抑制小鼠皮下肿瘤细胞的增长。体外实验表明双歧杆菌细胞壁完整肽聚糖对人结肠癌细胞株具有选择性杀伤作用,动物体内给药可有效降低大鼠大肠肿瘤发生率[74]
在增强现有抗肿瘤治疗效果方面,肽聚糖与放疗化疗、免疫治疗的协同作用尤为突出。肿瘤放疗联合治疗研究中,作为TLR2激动剂的肽聚糖可以通过调控免疫系统,显著促进放疗后小肠组织辐射损伤的修复进程,改善肠道屏障功能,提升放疗小鼠整体生存质量[75]。近年来,单一抗肿瘤治疗存在疗效有限、副作用大等问题[76],共输送纳米载药系统(Nano drug co-delivery system,NDCDS)的设计为化疗联合免疫治疗提供了新的解决方案[77],这为肽聚糖与PD-L1抑制剂联合应用提供了载体设计的思路,同时为开发新的化学-免疫协同抗肿瘤治疗策略提供理论依据。
综上所述,肽聚糖通过多角度免疫激活产生抗肿瘤效应,在肿瘤免疫治疗方面展现出突出的优势与潜力。随着生物技术的持续创新,肽聚糖有望成为肿瘤免疫联合治疗的关键组分。
肽聚糖在炎症调控方面发挥着重要作用,主要通过维持肠道粘膜完整性、减少病原菌入侵等方式实现抗炎效果。研究表明,金黄色葡萄球菌肽聚糖可通过激活宿主细胞相关病原识别受体,触发炎症信号通路[78]。而高浓度肽聚糖能抑制致炎因子的基因表达,同时促进抗炎细胞因子的表达,增强肠上皮细胞(IECs)的抗炎防御能力[79]。在肠道免疫调节研究中,嗜酸乳杆菌有良好的抗炎活性。该益生菌通过其功能性肽聚糖成分,增强对小肠粘膜的免疫调节作用,维持肠道免疫稳态[80]。还有研究发现肽聚糖可显著抑制牙龈卟啉单胞菌脂多糖LPS诱导的RAW264.7细胞产生细胞因子,从而减轻炎症反应[81]
综上所述,肽聚糖在免疫调控中发挥双向调节功能,既能协助免疫系统识别清除病原体,又可通过信号调控机制,避免免疫过度激活引发的炎症反应,为维持机体免疫平衡提供重要保障。
有研究已证实乳酸菌对丙烯酰胺(AA)的吸附作用主要依赖于细胞壁结构,而非胞外多糖和表面蛋白。细胞壁的粗糙程度与AA吸附能力呈正相关性,其中肽聚糖作为细胞壁的关键成分,因其较大的比表面积和丰富的化学基团,成为吸附的重要结构[82]。针对不同乳杆菌菌株的研究表明,肽聚糖结构的差异性显著影响其对AA的吸附效率,5株不同的乳杆菌肽聚糖均表现出一定的AA去除能力[83]
在减毒机制方面,肽聚糖通过双重途径发挥作用:一方面通过吸附有毒物质降低其毒性;另一方面通过调节机体生理功能,增强对毒性损伤的耐受性。邵怡豪等[84]在饲粮中添加罗伊氏乳杆菌肽聚糖,发现该菌肽聚糖能使黄曲霉毒素B1(AFB1)对雏鸭造成的生长性能下降的现象部分消除,改善AFB1所导致的免疫功能降低以及肝脏毒性,体现出机体代谢解毒和免疫调节的促进作用。此外,优化提取工艺获得的高纯度乳酸菌肽聚糖,对河豚毒素具有显著的消减效果。研究通过系统探究磷壁酸去除条件、脂质去除试剂及蛋白质酶解工艺,在保证肽聚糖关键活性组分完整性同时,大幅提升了毒素消减效率[85]
肽聚糖及其衍生物在吸附减毒方面显示出重要的应用潜力。通过直接吸附或调节机体代谢与免疫等机制在多种毒素的脱毒中具有广泛的应用前景。肽聚糖的生物学功能研究对于毒素吸附、消减作用机制提供了方法支撑和理论依据。
根据肽聚糖的不同生物功能,其应用主要分为医学、水产、食品三大领域(如图5所示)。近年来,肽聚糖因其独特的免疫调节特性成为研究热点[86]。在疫苗研发方面,肽聚糖作为免疫佐剂成分添加至疫苗中,有效激活机体免疫应答,增强疫苗的免疫原性及免疫保护效果[87]。双杰等[88]研究发现,在鸡群接种新城疫油乳剂灭活疫苗以及禽流感(H5)亚型油乳剂灭活疫苗时,添加2株乳酸杆菌来源的肽聚糖能够显著增强免疫效果。王舰等[89]以双歧杆菌肽聚糖为免疫佐剂,与汉坦病毒核蛋白(HTNV-NP)混合后接种动物,探究抗体产生情况及其对免疫系统的影响,结果表明,实验组产生的抗体高于单一接种HTNV-NP组,且未出现不良反应,证实其作为疫苗佐剂的安全性与有效性。在疫苗载体创新方面,基于化学修饰技术构建的细菌肽聚糖球囊疫苗微粒载体,兼具规模化生产优势与优于传统佐剂的稳定性及免疫性,为新型疫苗研发提供了新思路[90]
肽聚糖在疫苗领域的研究具有广阔的发展前景,但其免疫原性与潜在毒性的评估缺乏统一标准品与高效检测方法,在符合GMP标准的规模化生产中面临多重挑战,原料来源难以保证一致性,在提取工艺研究时难以达到GMP的可追溯性与可重复性的要求[91],现有纯化等技术效率低且难以连续化生产,未来研究需进一步评估免疫活性与安全性,结合免疫状态差异开发肽聚糖抗菌疫苗,实现从原料到成品的全程追溯,满足疫苗佐剂的大规模GMP生产,推动从实验室研究向产业化应用转化。
随着医学事业的发展,抗生素种类持续扩充,在临床治疗中得到广泛应用。然而,抗生素本身具有两重性,不合理应用甚至滥用的行为已对人类健康构成严重威胁[92]。近年来,抗菌类药物的研制主要聚焦于肽聚糖合成途径,通过抑制细菌细胞壁合成产生抗菌效果,此类药物从病原微生物生长的源头发挥抑菌杀菌功效[93]。现如今,抗生素与适宜的免疫调节剂联用已成为应对细菌耐药性的新型治疗策略[94]。杨向贵等[95]通过对结核分枝杆菌、铜绿假单胞菌等菌株的系统研究,深入探讨了肽聚糖循环与抗菌药物耐药性之间的关系,为新型抗菌药物的研发提供了潜在方向。
此外,参与肽聚糖生物合成的系列酶类已成为新型抗生素研发的重要靶点[96]。有报道称,Mur连接酶作为肽聚糖生物合成过程中的关键酶,其结构与功能研究为探究细菌肽聚糖合成机制提供了重要线索[97],并为新型抗生素的研发奠定理论基础。对于肽聚糖代替抗生素这一理论,Mamou等[98]揭示革兰氏阴性菌借助肽聚糖成熟过程调控外膜蛋白生物合成的分子机制,该发现可作为潜在靶标,有望推动新型抗生素的设计与开发。
肽聚糖因具有多种免疫学活性在抗肿瘤领域备受关注。该物质可通过激活补体、调节免疫应答、刺激淋巴细胞增殖及激活吞噬细胞等多重机制,抑制体内肿瘤细胞生长,增强机体抗感染能力[99],对肿瘤相关疾病有着积极影响,肽聚糖已成为抗肿瘤药物研发的重要方向。螺旋藻肽聚糖复合物胶囊(K-001)主要成分是从海洋微生物发酵产物中分离制备的抗肿瘤活性物质——肽聚糖。研究表明,K-001可能通过抑制拓扑异构酶等多种机制发挥抗肿瘤效应。前期临床研究数据显示,该药物对晚期肝癌有一定疗效,可以有效改善患者的生活质量并延长生存期[100]。此外,有研究证实肽聚糖作为生物反应调节剂,在体内外均能表现出良好的抗肿瘤免疫赋活功能,并通过NF-κB信号通路介导[101102]
然而,肽聚糖在抗肿瘤药物开发中仍面临技术挑战,其强大的免疫激活特性可能会引发过度的炎症反应,对机体造成潜在伤害。同时,为确保药物的安全有效性,在药物研制过程中需要开展系统性成分筛选、结构优化、临床验证工作,这对研发过程中的技术要求提出了更高标准。
肽聚糖作为新型生物制剂,在水产养殖领域展现出显著的应用价值与发展潜力[103]。其独特的生物学特性使其能够有效解决生物抗药性及食品药物残留等行业问题,为水产养殖技术创新提供了新思路[104]。肽聚糖具有显著的免疫调节与生长促进作用,有助于水产养殖领域健康发展。有研究通过在鲤鱼饲料中添加肽聚糖探究其对生长特性及免疫的调节作用,结果显示该处理显著提升了鱼体细胞因子及抗氧化功能[105]。类似的,肽聚糖与脂磷壁酸(LTA)联合作用改善了石斑鱼生长性能,进一步增强免疫功能[106]。朱璐璐[107]的研究进一步表明,在凡纳滨对虾饲料中添加适宜剂量的肽聚糖,可有效提升对虾抵抗白斑综合征病毒(White spot syndrome virus,WSSV)和副溶血弧菌感染的能力,显著增强其非特异性免疫防御机制。
肽聚糖在水产领域的应用成本主要包括原料与制备、养殖、隐性等成本,对于普通水产品类,每吨饲料的成本增加,市场对于溢价接受度低,经济可行性不高;对于高附加值水产品类,病害损失风险大,适量添加肽聚糖后可以有效提高存活率,促进产量提升,经济可行性显著。综上所述,肽聚糖在水产方面具有多重应用价值。不仅能够优化水产动物肠道微生物群落结构,促进有益菌增殖,进而提升生长性能与养殖经济效益;还可通过增强对病原体的特异性免疫应答,实现疾病的有效防控。未来需通过菌株改良、工艺创新、产业政策等支持,加大肽聚糖作为绿色生物制剂的应用,有助于推动水产养殖业向可持续方向发展,实现生态效益与经济效益的统一。
肽聚糖作为后生元功效分子在食品领域应用呈快速发展态势,在食品品质改良、防腐保鲜及功能性包装材料开发中具有良好的应用前景。在食品加工与安全控制领域,朱瑶迪等[108]建立了芽孢萌发快速预测模型,可以有效监控肉制品安全。其研究主要探究了产气荚膜梭菌(C. perfringens)在不同肽聚糖作用下芽孢萌发的差异及其影响。研究证实营养体肽聚糖可有效诱导产气荚膜梭菌芽孢萌发。该成果为肉制品的加工贮藏过程中的微生物风险控制提供了新的研发思路。基于这一特性,其可作为天然防腐成分应用于食品保鲜环节,有助于延长食品货架期,在肉制品、果蔬制品等易腐食品的保鲜中具有实际应用价值。
当前,肽聚糖在食品营养方面的研究主要在机理层面的探索。Chen等[109]基于无菌小鼠模型研究发现,肠道菌群可刺激宿主肠道上皮细胞表达并分泌Chi3l1蛋白,该蛋白与肠道菌群的细胞壁成分肽聚糖相互作用,在维持肠道菌群平衡、保障肠道健康中发挥着关键作用。此外,利用线虫模型发现细菌肽聚糖可作为启动食物消化的信号,显著提升线虫的环境适应能力。在代谢调控研究方面,Gabanyi等[110]发现细菌来源的肽聚糖能够直接抑制下丘脑中促进摄食的神经元活动,进而降低动物食欲和体温,且该调控效应在雌性小鼠中尤为显著。此研究揭示了在正常生理状态下,肠道微生物群通过肽聚糖与大脑之间存在直接沟通的途径,该发现有望为糖尿病、肥胖等代谢紊乱疾病的治疗开拓新的思路与方法。
基于肽聚糖自身结构特点和生物学功能,其在食源性疾病防控、毒素降解及免疫调节等方面具有潜在应用价值。然而,目前关于肽聚糖在食品中的应用研究仍处于起步阶段,后续需系统开展肽聚糖安全性评价与毒理学研究,明确其在食品中最大使用剂量和适用范围,以及对食品营养品质的影响,为肽聚糖在食品工业中安全高效的应用提供科学支撑,推动其在食品工业中的规范化应用。
综上所述,肽聚糖作为细菌细胞壁的核心功能成分,具有复杂的分子结构与多样的生物学活性,其研究价值与应用前景已得到广泛认可。然而受限于胞内及胞壁多糖提取工艺复杂与科学技术壁垒,目前基于肽聚糖开发的商业化产品相对匮乏。本文系统梳理了肽聚糖的结构、生物合成、提取、功能及应用研究进展,以期为突破肽聚糖研究与应用的技术瓶颈提供理论支持。
随着对肽聚糖研究的逐步深入,应进一步结合国家可持续发展战略,推动其实现产业化落地与深层次开发。未来研究将主要集中于三大方向:其一,提取工艺需依据菌株特性、研究目标及成本效益综合优化技术方案,深化联用工艺的参数优化与多技术融合,推动肽聚糖的高效规模化生产;其二,深入阐明肽聚糖的生物合成分子机制,通过揭示关键酶促反应与调控网络,为开发新型抗菌药物提供科学依据,助力解决耐药菌感染问题;其三,加强多学科交叉融合,从不同角度系统性研究肽聚糖的结构、功能与应用,推动肽聚糖相关基础研究与技术的协同发展。
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2026年第47卷第9期
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doi: 10.13386/j.issn1002-0306.2025060212
  • 接收时间:2025-06-18
  • 首发时间:2026-05-13
  • 出版时间:2026-05-01
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  • 收稿日期:2025-06-18
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    山东农业大学食品科学与工程学院,山东泰安 271018

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张晨(1990−),女,博士,副教授,研究方向:食品营养与健康,E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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