This review summarizes recent progress on the synthesis, mechanisms, and applications of persistent luminescent and mechanoluminescent nanomaterials. We emphasize that advances across both top-down and bottom-up routes substantially improve control over particle size, morphology, and-critically-the defect/trap structures governing carrier trapping and detrapping. We highlight a trap-centric perspective that links delayed emission in persistent luminescence with stress-assisted carrier release in mechanoluminescence via comparing the physical bases of the two phenomena. Translating these materials to the nanoscale can broad their utility, particularly for autofluorescence-free bioimaging and diagnostics, as well as self-powered, visually intuitive stress sensing and flexible optoelectronic devices. Collectively, these studies illustrate a shift from viewing luminescence as an isolated metric toward engineering integrated, stimulus-responsive nano-systems tailored to application demands.

Some key challenges remain despite a rapid development. A central limitation is the trade-off between achieving precise nanoscale structural control and preserving the deep, stable trap populations needed for strong afterglow or mechanoluminescent output. In addition, a predictive and quantitative understanding of how interfaces, surface states, and localized mechanical fields regulate carrier dynamics in nanomaterials is still lacking. For practical deployment, a long-term stability under environmental and cyclic loading, biocompatibility, and scalable yet reproducible fabrication must be addressed. Future work should involve: 1) advancing in-situ/operando characterization and computation to map trap distributions and carrier pathways, 2) developing hybrid or composite architectures that balance structural integrity with optical functionality, and 3) validating application-driven prototypes in realistic settings from deep-tissue theranostics to structural health monitoring.