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Zircon U-Pb geochronology, Hf isotopes, and geochemistry constraints on the age and tectonic affinity of the basement granitoids from the Qiongdongnan Basin, northern South China Sea
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Lijun Mi1, A, Xiaoyin Tang2, 3, 4, *, A, Haizhang Yang1, Shuchun Yang1, Shuai Guo1
Acta Oceanologica Sinica | 2023, 42(3) : 19 - 30
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Acta Oceanologica Sinica | 2023, 42(3): 19-30
• Genesis of Coal-type Petroleum in China Offshore •
Zircon U-Pb geochronology, Hf isotopes, and geochemistry constraints on the age and tectonic affinity of the basement granitoids from the Qiongdongnan Basin, northern South China Sea
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Lijun Mi1, A, Xiaoyin Tang2, 3, 4, *, A, Haizhang Yang1, Shuchun Yang1, Shuai Guo1
Affiliations
  • 1 China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) Research Center, Beijing 100028, China
  • 2 Institute of Geomechanics, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
  • 3 Key Laboratory of Paleomagnetism and Tectonic Reconstruction, Ministry of Natural Resources, Beijing 100081, China
  • 4 Key Laboratory of Petroleum Geomechanics, China Geological Survey, Beijing 100081, China
Published: 2023-03-25 doi: 10.1007/s13131-022-2078-1
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Studies in the northern South China Sea (SCS) basement remain important for understanding the evolution of the Southeast Asian continental margin. Due to a thick cover of sediments and scarce borehole penetration, little is known about the age and tectonic affinity of this basement. In this study, an integrated study of zircon U-Pb geochronology, Hf isotopes, and whole-rock major and trace elements on seven basement granitoids from seven boreholes of Qiongdongnan Basin has been carried out. New zircon U-Pb results for these granitoids present middle-late Permian ((270.0±1.2) Ma; (253±3.4) Ma), middle to late Triassic ((246.2±3.4) Ma; (239.3±0.96) Ma; (237.9±0.99) Ma; (228.9±1.0) Ma) and Late Cretaceous ages ((120.6±0.6) Ma). New data from this study, in combination with the previous dataset, indicates that granitoid ages in northern SCS basement vary from 270 Ma to 70.5 Ma, with three age groups of 270–196 Ma, 162–142 Ma, and 137–71 Ma, respectively. Except for the late Paleozoic-Mesozoic rocks in the basement of the northern SCS, a few old zircon grains with the age of (2708.1±17) Ma to (2166.6±19) Ma provide clues to the existence of the pre-Proterozoic components. The geochemical signatures indicate that the middle Permian-early Cretaceous granitoids from the Qiongdongnan Basin are I-type granites formed in a volcanic arc environment, which were probably related to the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate.

Qiongdongnan Basin  /  basement granitoids  /  geochemistry  /  U-Pb and Hf isotopes  /  Paleo-Pacific Plate subduction
Lijun Mi, Xiaoyin Tang, Haizhang Yang, Shuchun Yang, Shuai Guo. Zircon U-Pb geochronology, Hf isotopes, and geochemistry constraints on the age and tectonic affinity of the basement granitoids from the Qiongdongnan Basin, northern South China Sea[J]. Acta Oceanologica Sinica, 2023 , 42 (3) : 19 -30 . DOI: 10.1007/s13131-022-2078-1
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1 Introduction
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The South China Sea (SCS) is one of the biggest marginal seas in the western Pacific region. Affected by the India-Eurasia collision to the northwest (Morley, 2002), the subduction of the Pacific Plate and then the compression from the Philippine Sea plate in the east (Zhou et al., 2002), as well as the slab-pull of the proto-SCS in the south (Taylor and Hayes, 1983), the evolution of the SCS is a key element in understanding tectonics in Southeast Asian. Previous studies of SCS have mainly focused on its Cenozoic tectonic evolution and several competing models have been proposed to explain the rifting to spreading process (Taylor and Hayes, 1980; Tapponnier et al., 1986; Cullen et al., 2010; Barckhausen et al., 2014). To better understand the Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the SCS, studies must be underpinned by the pre-Cenozoic tectonic framework within the basement, which exerted significant influence on the following evolutionary events. Therefore, the SCS Basin basement study has been the focus of structural geology and regional geodynamic reconstruction (Braitenberg et al., 2006; Cui et al., 2021).
Since the beginning of the 1980s, a series of studies have been performed on the basement of the northern SCS (Su et al., 1995; Liu et al., 2004a, b; Wang et al., 2002). Due to the thick Cenozoic sedimentary blanket and scarce borehole penetration, only the northeastern SCS region (Zhujiang River Mouth Basin) was modestly dated (Qiu et al., 1996; Li et al., 1999a; Zhou et al., 2002; Xu et al., 2017) while the extensive basement on northern SCS remains roughly constrained by petrographic observation and geophysical data, which lacked high-precision dating analyses (Lu et al., 2011, 2015; Sun et al., 2014). The limited geochronological investigation has long been a hindrance to the SCS Basin basement interpretation.
In this study, we reported new zircon U-Pb age, Hf isotopic compositions, and whole-rock major and trace elements of basement granitoids from the Qiongdongnan Basin (QDNB) on the northwestern end of the northern margin of the SCS. Integrated with previous data, the present study not only offers a substantial input to the geochronological knowledge of the northern SCS basement but also provides insights into the tectonic setting and evolution of the northern SCS.
2 Geological setting
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The areas of northern SCS, as shown in Fig. 1a, are generally considered a southward extension of the South China Block (SCB) (Hayes and Nissen, 2005; Xu et al., 2013; Lei et al., 2016). The SCB, a major continental block in Southeast Asia, comprises the Yangtze Block in the northwest and the Cathaysia Block in the southeast. Since the amalgamation of the Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks in the early Neoproterozoic (Zhao and Cawood, 1999; Wang et al., 2013), the SCB has undergone complex tectonic events. There were events related to the Neoproterozoic supercontinent Rodinia breakup, featuring widespread bimodal igneous rocks, and continental rifting (Li et al., 1999b; Li et al., 2005a); subsequently, an early Paleozoic orogenic event was recorded by the angular unconformity between post-Silurian strata and the strongly-deformed pre-Devonian sediments with widespread granitic intrusions (Ren, 1964; Li et al., 2010); furthermore, a late Paleozoic-early Mesozoic orogenic event which resulted in the transition from a stable carbonate platform to clastic facies, orogenic uplift, and the formation of a basin-and-range style magmatic province (Li, 1998; Zhou et al., 2006; Li and Li, 2007). Widespread Mesozoic igneous rocks have been identified in the SCB, which formed over three main intervals: the early Mesozoic or Indosinian (Triassic), the early Yanshanian (Jurassic), and the late Yanshanian (Cretaceous) (e.g., Zhou et al., 2006). It is generally accepted that these Mesozoic igneous rocks were related to the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate, although it remains ambiguous how and when the Paleo-Pacific Plate subduction affected the continental margin of the SCB (Zhou and Li, 2000; Li and Li, 2007; Chen et al., 2008; Li et al., 2018).
The QDNB, overall NE trended, is located on the northwestern SCS margin. This basin is surrounded by the Hainan Island in the north, Yinggehai Basin in the west, Zhujiang River Mouth Basin in the east, and Xisha Block in the south (Fig. 1b). From north to the south, the QDNB consists of five first-order units: the Northern Depression, the Northern Uplift, the Central Depression, the Southern Uplift, and the Southern Depression (Liu et al., 2015; Meng et al., 2021). The Northern Depression could be further divided into the Yabei, Songxi, and Songdong sags from the west to the east, while the Central Depression consists of the Yanan, Ledong, Lingshui, Beijiao, Songnan-Baodao, and Changchang sags (Fig. 1c). The QDNB mainly underwent two structural evolution stages, i.e., the Eocene-Oligocene rifting stage and the Neogene-Quaternary post-rifting stage, and four tectonic events including the Shenhu, Zhujiang, Nanhai, and Dongsha movements (Zhu et al., 2009; Huang et al., 2016; Su et al., 2018). The filling sequences, from bottom to top, are Eocene, Yacheng formation (early Oligocene), Lingshui formation (late Oligocene), Sanya formation (early Miocene), Meishan formation (middle Miocene), Huangliu formation (late Miocene), Yinggehai formation (Pliocene), and Ledong formation (Quaternary), respectively (Cao et al., 2015; Su et al., 2018).
3 Sampling and methods
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Seven basement granitoids from seven boreholes were collected from the core library of China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) Co., Ltd., Shenzhen, China (locations see Fig. 1c). Zircon grains were separated using standard density and magnetic separation techniques at the Chengxin Geological Services Co. LTD, Langfang, China. Typically, more than 300 zircon grains from each sample were randomly adhered to adhesive tape and then cast in an epoxy mount before the polishing process. The analytical spots were chosen based on careful examination of transmitted and reflected light micrographs as well as cathodoluminescence (CL) images for internal morphology before analysis.
3.1 U-Pb dating
Zircon U-Pb dating was performed by laser-ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) at the State Key Laboratory of Earthquake Dynamics, Institute of Geology, China Earthquake Administration. The Resolution M50-LR laser-ablation system equipped with a 193 nm excimer ArF laser-ablation system was used, which is connected with an Agilent 7900 ICP-MS. Helium was used as the carrier gas to enhance the transport efficiency of the ablated material. The helium carrier gas inside the ablation cell was mixed with argon gas before entering the ICP to maintain stable and optimum excitation conditions. The analyses were conducted with a beam diameter of 26 μm with analysis time including ~30 s background measurement with the laser off and a 60 s measurement of peak intensity. Harvard Zircon 91500 was used as an external standard, with a recommended 206Pb/238U age of (1065.4±0.6) Ma (Wiedenbeck et al., 1995). Zircon standard GJ-1, with a recommended 206Pb/238U age of (608±0.4) Ma (Jackson et al., 2004) was used as the second external standard and analyzed as an unknown sample to verify the accuracy of the method. The glass standard NIST 610 was used as an internal standard to optimize the machine. The trace element concentrations were calibrated using 29Si as an internal standard and NIST 610 as external reference material for zircon. Isotope ratio and trace elemental raw data were processed with the Glitter 4.0 (Macquarie University, Australia) program. The 206Pb/238U and 207Pb/206Pb ages were finally adopted for zircons younger and older than 1000 Ma, respectively. For statistical purposes, ages that display more than ±10% discordance were rejected in this study. The weighted mean U-Pb ages and age spectra plots were made using ISOPLOT (version 3.0).
3.2 Zircon Hf isotope analysis
In situ Hf isotopic analyses were conducted at the Analytical Laboratory Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology, using a Coherent Geolas 193 laser-ablation system and a Nu Plasma Ⅱ multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS). The spot diameter and pulse rate of the laser were 44 μm and 10 Hz, respectively. The energy density was 10 J/cm2. Helium was applied as the carrier gas and merged with argon (make-up gas) via a T-connector. Small amounts of nitrogen were added to the make-up gas to improve the sensitivity of Hf isotopes. Harvard zircon 91500 (Blichert-Toft, 2008) was used as an external standard, and Zircon Plešovice (Sláma et al., 2008) was analyzed as unknown during the analyses.
The isobaric interference of 176Lu on 176Hf was corrected by measuring the intensity of the interference-free 175Lu isotope, with a recommended 176Lu/175Lu ratio of 0.02655 (Blichert-Toft et al., 1997). Similarly, the isobaric interference of 176Yb on 176Hf was corrected by measuring the interference-free 173Yb isotope and using a recommended 176Yb/173Yb ratio of 0.79381 (Fisher et al., 2014) to calculate 176Hf/177Hf ratios. Applying an exponential fractionation law, the mass fractionations of Hf and Yb were calculated using values of 0.7325 (Blichert-Toft et al., 1997) for 179Hf/177Hf and 1.132685 for 173Yb/171Yb (Fisher et al., 2014), respectively. Because Lu and Yb have similar physicochemical properties, the mass fractionation of Yb was used to correct the mass fractionation of Lu.
The initial Hf isotope ratios are denoted as εHf(t) values that were calculated with the Chondritic Uniform Reservoir (CHUR) at the time of zircon crystallization, and the present-day 176Hf/177Hf and 176Lu/177Hf ratios of chondrite and depleted mantle of 0.28277 and 0.0332, 0.28325 and 0.0384, respectively (Blichert-Toft and Albarède, 1997). Initial 176Hf/177Hf values were calculated based on 176Lu decay constant of 1.867×10−11 a−1 reported (Söderlund et al., 2004). The single-stage model Hf ages (TDM1) were calculated relative to the depleted mantle with a present-day (176Lu/177Hf)DM=0.0384 and (176Hf/177Hf)DM=0.28325 (Griffin et al., 2000); the two-stage continental model ages (TDM2 ) were calculated by projecting the initial 176Hf/177Hf of zircon back to the depleted mantle growth curve using 176Lu/177Hf=0.015 for the average continental crust (Griffin et al., 2002).
3.3 Whole-rock major and trace element analyses
Whole-rock major and trace elements were also analyzed at the Analytical Laboratory Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology. Major elements were determined using an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (XRF). Analytical uncertainties were 3% for major elements. Trace elements were analyzed according to the solution ICP-MS technique using a NexION 300D. About 50 mg of powdered sample was dissolved in Telfon bombs using a HF+HNO3 mixture. An internal standard solution containing the single element Rh was used to monitor signal drift during counting. The USGS rock standards (BCR-2 and BHVO-2) and the Chinese national rock standards (GSR-1 and GSR-2) were chosen for calibrating element concentrations of measured samples. Analytical uncertainties were generally <5%.
4 Results
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A total of 190 concordant zircon U-Pb ages obtained from the seven samples are listed in Supplementary Table S1. In situ Hf isotope data are listed in Supplementary Table S2. Whole-rock major, trace element compositions from six of the samples are presented in Supplementary Table S3.
4.1 Zircon U-Pb geochronology
The zircon grains are euhedral-subhedral in shape, display fine-scale oscillatory growth zoning (Fig. 2), and have high Th/U ratios (0.11–1.58) (Fig. 3 and Supplementary Table S1), indicating a magmatic origin (Koschek, 1993; Belousova et al., 2002).
The U-Pb concordia plots and weighted mean age results are presented in Fig. 4. Twenty-seven effective data were obtained from Sample Q2, with ages varying from 246.2 Ma to 2538.6 Ma. Among them, eighteen grains define a late Permian weighted mean 206Pb/238U ages of (253±3.4) Ma (MSWD=6.0), while the other nine grains yield significantly higher ages of 2538.6 Ma to 2166.6 Ma (Neoarchean-Paleoproterozoic) (Fig. 4a). Twenty-nine effective data from Sample Q9 yield an early Cretaceous age with a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of (120.6±0.6) Ma (MSWD=1.13) (Fig. 4b). Twenty-two effective data points from Sample Q12 define a middle Permian age, with a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of (270.0±1.2) Ma (MSWD=0.85) (Fig. 4c). Thirty-two effective data from Sample Q18 produce a Middle Triassic age with a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of (237.9±0.99) Ma (MSWD=0.17) (Fig. 4d). Twenty-seven effective data from Sample Q1 yield a weighted mean 206Pb/238U ages of (228.9±1.0) Ma (MSWD=0.15) (Fig. 4e). Besides the late Triassic grains, two Neoarchean zircon grains with 207Pb/206Pb ages of (2558±17) Ma and (2708±17) Ma were also identified in Sample Q1 (Fig. 4e). Eight effective data from Sample Q5 yield a middle Triassic age with a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of (246.2±3.4) Ma (MSWD=5.3) (Fig. 4f). Thirty-three effective data from Sample Q6 produce a middle Triassic age with a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of (239.3±0.96) Ma (MSWD=0.43) (Fig. 4g).
In summary, the 190 zircons from the studied samples yield U-Pb ages varying from 119 Ma to 2708 Ma, including six Neoarchean (from 2516.6 Ma to 2708 Ma) and five Paleoproterozoic ages (from 2166.6 Ma to 2434.3 Ma). The Late Paleozoic-Mesozoic weighted mean ages of the 7 analyzed samples are interpreted as the crystallization age, while the significantly older Neoarchean to Paleoproterozoic ages is reflective of xenocryst grains.
4.2 In situ zircon Hf isotopes
The 190 zircon grains have variable initial 176Hf/177Hf ratios of 0.281190 to 0.282965, corresponding to εHf(t) values of −11.1 to 11.3, with one-stage Hf Model ages (TDM1) ranging from 2841 Ma to 421Ma, and two-stage Hf Model ages (TDM2) ranging from 3127 Ma to 557 Ma (Fig. 5a).
For Sample Q2, eighteen late Late Paleozoic-Early Mesozoic zircons of 270–246.2 Ma possess εHf(t) values from 1.6 to 11.3, corresponding to TDM1 of 903–443 Ma, and TDM2 of 1180 Ma to 557 Ma. The other nine Neoarchean-Paleoproterozoic zircons with a large age range of 2538.6–2166.6 Ma, have εHf(t) values ranging from −6.3 to 3.9, with TDM2 of 3127 Ma to 2786 Ma. Zircon grains from Sample Q9 have εHf(t) values of 3.8 to 9.4, corresponding to TDM1 of 643–421 Ma and TDM2 age of 937–581 Ma. Sample Q12 presents εHf(t) values from −6.6 to −3.4, corresponding to TDM2 of 1710–1504 Ma. Zircon grains from Sample Q18 show εHf(t) values ranging from −6.9 to −0.8, corresponding to TDM2 of 1704–1314 Ma. For Sample Q1, excluding two Neoarchean spots of 2708.1 Ma and 2558.5 Ma, with positive εHf(t) values of 3.9 and 1.5, corresponding to TDM1 of 2922 Ma and 2951 Ma, respectively, other twenty-seven Early Mesozoic zircons of 226.4–230.8 Ma present εHf(t) values ranging from −1.7 to 4.1, corresponding to TDM2 of 1365–999 Ma. The determined εHf(t) values of Sample Q5 spread between −8.5 and 1.6, correspondingly, their TDM2 range from 1 809 Ma to 1165 Ma. Zircon grains from Sample Q6 have εHf(t) values of −11.1 to 5.1, with the TDM2 of 1 965–942 Ma.
Excluding the Neoarchean-Paleoproterozoic zircon grains, grains from Sample Q12 with an emplacement age of ~270.0 Ma, have εHf(t) values varying from −6.6 to −3.4 (Fig. 5b), corresponding TDM2 ranging from 1710 Ma to 1504 Ma, suggesting the reworking of crustal components older than 1504 Ma. Grains from samples with emplacement age of ~253–228.9 Ma have εHf(t) values varying from −11.1 to 11.3, the corresponding TDM2 of 1965.1–557.3 Ma, implying the melting of ancient crustal components and the possible addition of juvenile material. The εHf(t) values for grains from Sample Q9, with of emplacement age of ~120.6 Ma, vary from 3.8 to 9.4, and their corresponding TDM1 range from 643 Ma to 421 Ma, indicating the addition of juvenile mantle-derived material.
4.3 Whole-rock major and trace element compositions
The six samples exhibit contents of SiO2 (44.47%–68.05%), Al2O3 (11.35%–16.07%), MgO (0.42%–4.28%), Fe2O3 (1.63%–7.02%), and CaO (1.76%–11.70%). They plot into the monzodiorite, monzonite, and quartz monzonite fields in the TAS classification diagram (Fig. 6a). To be noticed, the diagrams generated based on the Whole-rock major and trace element compositions here and after are just for reference since the LOI is relatively high (5.72–15.25).
The granitoids have A/CNK values of 0.37–1.03, i.e. metaluminous (Fig. 6b). They range across high K calc-alkaline series and shoshonite series (Fig. 6c). In the Harker diagrams, P2O5 decreases with increasing SiO2 (Fig. 6d), Y and Th increase with increasing Rb (Figs 6e and f). The granodiorites and quartz monzonites have moderate rare earth element (REE) contents (100.0×10–6–172.2×10–6). Chondrite-normalized REE diagrams for these granitoids show light REE (LREE) enrichment and Eu negative anomalies (Fig. 7a). In the primitive mantle-normalized variation diagrams, all the rocks show distinct negative anomalies in Nb, Ta, P, Zr, and Ti, and positive anomalies in K, Pb (Fig. 7b).
5 Discussion
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5.1 Geochronological framework of the basement granitoids on northern SCS
The newly acquired U-Pb ages of the basement granitoids in the QDNB in this study indicate Middle to Late Permian (270–253 Ma), Triassic (246.2–228.9 Ma), and Early Cretaceous (120.6 Ma) crystallization ages. These new data, in combination with published K-Ar dating results (Qiu et al., 1996; Li et al., 1999a), and U-Pb ages from northern SCS basins (Shi et al., 2011; Xu et al., 2016; 2017; Cui et al., 2021), range from 270 Ma to 70.5 Ma, falling into three groups, i.e. 270–196 Ma, 162–142 Ma, and 137–71 Ma (Fig. 9). This dataset defines the Indosinian, Early Yanshanian, and Late Yanshanian tectono-magmatism, which are widespread in the SCB (Zhou et al., 2006; Li and Li, 2007; Wang et al., 2013; and references therein).
5.2 Unexposed Paleozoic and pre-Proterozoic components beneath northern SCS
Studies in the SCS Basin basement are of crucial significance in structural geology and regional geodynamic reconstruction (Braitenberg et al., 2006). However, the age and distribution of the basement rocks remain enigmatic. Based on comprehensive gravity-seismic-magnetic inversion analyses, it was previously postulated that there are four lithospheric layers in the basement of the northern SCS basin, which were assigned pre-Sinian, Sinian-early Paleozoic, late Paleozoic, and Mesozoic ages (Sun et al., 2014). Extrapolation suggested that the basement for the QDNB and western Zhujiang River Mouth Basin east of Hainan Island is dominated by Paleozoic strata (Liu et al., 2011; Sun et al., 2014). The basement of the Xisha area has a previously reported Precambrian Rb-Sr isochron age (Qin, 1987). However, updated U-Pb age determinations suggest a Late Jurassic amphibole plagiogneiss basement for the Xisha area, which was later intruded by Early Cretaceous plutons (Zhu et al., 2017). In particular, recent works also suggest that the northern SCS is composed of a uniform Mesozoic basement while the Precambrian rocks are only constricted along the Red River Fault Zone (Zhou et al., 2002; Cui et al., 2021). Therefore, it remains unclear whether the northern South China Sea basin has ever been floored by Paleozoic or even Precambrian components.
Two samples with weighted average ages of (253±3.4) Ma (MSWD=6.0) (Sample Q2) and (270.0±1.2) Ma (MSWD=0.85) (Sample Q12) in this study demonstrated that there may be Paleozoic components beneath the northern SCS. In addition, six Neoarchean ages (2708.1–2516.6 Ma) were obtained in the study (Supplementary Table S1, Fig. 10a). They have positive εHf(t) of 0.6 to 3.9 and yield similar TDM1 and TDM2 ages (2841–2690 Ma and 2922–2786 Ma), suggesting that there may have been some addition of juvenile material in Mesoarchean-Neoarchean. Five Paleoproterozoic zircons with the age of 2468.7 Ma to 2166.6 Ma have εHf(t) values of −6.3 to 2.2 and yield TDM2 of 3127 Ma to 2838 Ma, implying the melting of ancient crustal components older than 2.9 Ga and the possible addition of juvenile material in Mesoarchean. These data are likely to imply that there might also be pre-Proterozoic components beneath the northern SCS.
Due to scarce borehole penetration, the northern SCS Basin basement is hard to trace and data here indeed is insufficient to support the existence of such old basement components. Under such circumstances, achievements from neighboring areas may offer clues. A compilation of 812 Precambrian U-Pb ages of xenocrystic/inherited zircons from the Cathaysia Block presents a wide age range between 3866 Ma and 545 Ma, with three major populations of 2700–2400 Ma, 2050–1750 Ma, and 1100–700 Ma, peaking at 2470 Ma, 1 850 Ma, and 715 Ma, respectively (Fig. 10b). Although there are no exposed Archean rocks, Archean ages found in xenocrystic/inherited zircons in different parts of the Cathaysia Block may imply the possible presence of Archean crust beneath this block (Fig. 10b) (Jiang et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020a, b and references therein). In addition, xenocrystic/inherited zircons U-Pb ages (Jiang et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020a, 2020b), combined with the Paleoproterozoic outcrops discovered in the Badu Group (Yu et al., 2012), as well as the Paleo-proterozoic source of late Mesozoic volcanic in the Yandangshan area (Yan et al., 2016), probably suggests a widespread existence of Paleoproterozoic basement beneath eastern Cathaysia. It is supposed that the northern SCS Basin basement was the southward extension of the Cathaysia Block (Hayes and Nissen, 2005; Lei and Ren, 2016; Xu et al., 2013). Thus, the identification of Paleoproterozoic to Neoarchean zircons in this study (Fig. 10a) might provide clues to the potential existence of the pre-Proterozoic components beneath northern SCS, though much more reliable rock information from the unexposed basement is necessary to get this statement.
5.3 Tectonic affinity of the basement granitoids and tectonic implication
While there is a consensus that the Jurassic to late Cretaceous Yanshanian magmatism in southeastern China has resulted from the subduction of the Pale-Pacific Plate (Li and Li, 2007; He and Xu, 2012; Liu et al., 2012), the tectonic setting of the Late Permian to Triassic magmatism remain controversial due to the superimposed effect of Palaeo-Pacific and Palaeo-Tethys tectonic regimes. Some works have interpreted the Late Permian to Triassic magmatism as being caused by continent-continent collision related to the closure of the Paleo-Tethyan ocean to the southwest of South China (Zhou et al., 2006; Yan et al., 2007; Yan et al., 2014, 2017). The alternative model proposed that this period may record the initiation of a continental arc resulting from the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate beneath the Eurasian plate including Hainan Island (Li and Li, 2007).
The plot of Ga/Al versus Nb is an effective discriminator that allows the separation of A-type granite from other types (Whalen et al., 1987). The granitoids from the QDNB basement have low Nb (less than 14.5×10−6) and low Ga/Al ratios (less than 2.2), placing them in the I- and S-type field (Fig. 8a). Moreover, the A/NK versus A/CNK plot (Fig. 6b), the negative correlations between SiO2 and P2O5 (Fig. 6d), the positive correlation between Y and Rb (Fig. 6e), and the positive correlation between Th and Rb (Fig. 6f) further defined them to be the I-type. They mainly belong to the high K calc-alkaline series (Fig. 6c). K-rich calc-alkaline granites are preserved in various geodynamic environments, where transition happened from a compressional regime to an extensional regime, including subduction and active continental margin or post-collisional uplift (Barbarin, 1999). In the plots of Rb vsrsus Y + Nb (Fig. 8b) (Pearce et al., 1984), Sr/Y vsrsus Y (Defant et al., 2002) (Fig. 8c), and (La/Yb)N vsrsus (Yb)N (Martin, 1993) (Fig. 8d), granitoids in this study plot in the field of the volcanic arc. Moreover, the rocks exhibit well-defined negative Nb, Ta, and Ti anomalies (Fig. 7b), typical of subduction-related magmas (Sajona et al., 1993).
In addition, studies on Permian to Triassic gneissic granites in central Hainan Island, which is next to the Qiongdongnan Basin, show well-developed schistosity, with dominant NNE−NE strike directions (e.g., Li et al., 2005b; Li et al., 2006; Xie et al., 2006), and these granitic plutons all exhibit NE−SW extension, which is incompatible with the NW-trending Paleo-Tethyan tectonic regime. Moreover, Permian magmatism reported in the Hainan Island (267–245 Ma) (Li et al., 2006; Shen et al., 2018), southeastern Korea (257–250 Ma; Cheong et al., 2014; Yi et al., 2012), and the Hida Belt of Japan (256–250 Ma; Horie et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 2013), have been identified as arc-related magmatism ascribed to subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate beneath eastern Asia.
From the discussion above, we prefer that the granitoids described in this study occurred in a volcanic arc setting induced by the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate, although the mechanism may be more complicated and unclear.
6 Conclusions
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Based on an integrated study of zircon U-Pb geochronology, Hf isotopes, and whole-rock major and trace elements analysis on basement granitoids of the Qiongdongnan Basin, as well as previous age data on the northern South China Sea, we draw the following major conclusions:
(1) Granitoids ages in the northern South China Sea cover a range of 270 Ma to 70.5 Ma, falling into three age groups of 270–196 Ma, 162–142 Ma, and 137–71 Ma, which correspond to the Indosinian, Early Yanshanian, and Late Yanshanian tectono-magmatism in the South China Block.
(2) Besides the Late Paleozoic to Mesozoic basement rocks of the northern South China Sea, the old grain ages of 2708–2166.6 Ma reals the potential presence of the Neoarchean-Paleoproterozoic components beneath the northern South China Sea.
(3) The Late Permian-Early Cretaceous granitoids of the Qiongdongnan Basin belong to I-type granites, with volcanic arc affinity. Typical signatures of subduction-related magmas suggest that the granitoids likely resulted from the subduction of the Paleo-Pacific Plate.
Acknowledgements
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We are grateful to Jianzhang Pang and Guanggao Zheng for their help during the analyses of the samples.
Funding
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  • The National Natural Science Foundation of China under contract No. 42072181.
References
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doi: 10.1007/s13131-022-2078-1
  • Receive Date：2022-03-01
  • Online Date：2025-11-21
  • Published：2023-03-25
Article Data
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  • Received：2022-03-01
  • Accepted：2022-07-17
Funding
The National Natural Science Foundation of China under contract No. 42072181.
Affiliations
    1 China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) Research Center, Beijing 100028, China
    2 Institute of Geomechanics, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
    3 Key Laboratory of Paleomagnetism and Tectonic Reconstruction, Ministry of Natural Resources, Beijing 100081, China
    4 Key Laboratory of Petroleum Geomechanics, China Geological Survey, Beijing 100081, China

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表12种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family		 属数
Number of
genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)		 属
Genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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