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Carboniferous-Permian provenance shift in the southeastern Ordos Basin: Tracing early-stage uplift-erosion history of the western Qinling-Dabie orogen
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Chuang Yang1, Jiaopeng Sun1, Zonglin Li1, Yukun Qi1, Kai Ye1, Junxiang Zhang1, Zhigang Wang1
Acta Geochimica | 2025, 44(5) : 945 - 961
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Acta Geochimica | 2025, 44(5): 945-961
• ORIGINAL ARTICLE •
Carboniferous-Permian provenance shift in the southeastern Ordos Basin: Tracing early-stage uplift-erosion history of the western Qinling-Dabie orogen
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Chuang Yang1, Jiaopeng Sun1, Zonglin Li1, Yukun Qi1, Kai Ye1, Junxiang Zhang1, Zhigang Wang1
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Published: 2025-02-13 doi: 10.1007/s11631-025-00765-y
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An enhanced understanding of the history of the western Qinling-Dabie orogen is pivotal in reconstructing geological processes of the east Asian mainland. However, less attention has been paid to its early-stage uplift-erosion history after closure of surrounding oceanic basins at the mid-Paleozoic. In this study, we undertook a comprehensive study including paleocurrent reconstruction, sandstone petrology, and detrital zircon U–Pb dating on Late Carboniferous to Early Permian successions in the southern Ordos neighboring the northern Qinling-Dabie. New provenance data reveal a significant provenance shift at the Carboniferous-Permian transition. The older Benxi Formation was sourced southerly from the North Qinling Terrane that provided detritus mostly of Neoproterozoic and Early Paleozoic ages. In contrast, Early Permian samples yield age relation dominated by Neoarchean, Paleoproterozoic, Early Paleozoic, and Late Paleozoic age populations, with a significant gap of ca. 1600–550 Ma, implying a sediment derivation from the Inner Mongolia Continental Arc. This shift is further verified by paleocurrent transition from south to north then. We suggest that the North Qinling Terrane experienced a significant uplift history from ca. 500 Ma and remained as a highland until end-Carboniferous. From Early Permian, the North Qinling Terrane was submerged, covered by widespread deltaic sedimentation there. Northerly source from the Inner Mongolia Continental Arc began to be accumulated in the northern flank of the North Qinling Terrane, before termination approximately along the southern North Qinling Terrane, where shallow-water carbonate shelf sedimentation sustained from Devonian to Triassic. This new finding indicates that uplift of the North Qinling Terrane lasted about 150 Ma after the Proto-Tethys Ocean closure.

Carboniferous-Permian transition  /  Provenance shift  /  Southern Ordos  /  Uplift history  /  Western Qinling-Dabie orogen
Chuang Yang, Jiaopeng Sun, Zonglin Li, Yukun Qi, Kai Ye, Junxiang Zhang, Zhigang Wang. Carboniferous-Permian provenance shift in the southeastern Ordos Basin: Tracing early-stage uplift-erosion history of the western Qinling-Dabie orogen[J]. Acta Geochimica, 2025 , 44 (5) : 945 -961 . DOI: 10.1007/s11631-025-00765-y
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1　Introduction
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Depicting the history of the construction and evolution of the Central China Orogenic System is a crucial and fundamental issue to understand the amalgamation history of the east Asian mainland and, therefore, has been the topic of intense studies for several decades (Zhang et al. 2001; Huang et al. 2018; Zhao et al. 2018). Most of these works focused on the geologic architecture, subduction-collision tectonism along the ancient ocean margins, and Cenozoic to present intracontinental uplift (Dong et al. 2011, 2021; Dong and Santosh 2016; Richards 2015; Liu et al. 2021). However, controversy remains on the uplifterosion history of the western Qinling-Dabie orogen at the central part of the Central China Orogenic System after intense mid-Paleozoic collision, due in part to the lack of conclusive thermal geochronological limits. At the transition from Proto-Tethys oceanic branch closure along the Shangdan and Erlangping sutures (Dong et al. 2011, 2021; Dong and Santosh 2016) to Paleo-Tethys Ocean closure along the Manlue suture farther south during the Silurian-Devonian (Sun et al. 2022), less attention has been paid to paleogeographic and tectonic evolution of the western part of the Qinling-Dabie orogen. This ambiguity has greatly hampered our understanding of the depositional history of the Ordos Basin and paleogeographic relation between the Ordos Basin and the south Qinling carbonate shelf. In particular, most recent studies prefer to regard the Ordos Basin as paleogeographically isolated from the Mianlue Ocean, separated by highland stretching the North Qinling (Li et al. 2021a).
Most ancient basins, where the original basin-source relation of which may no longer exist (Dickinson and Suczek 1979; Sun et al. 2020), have experienced multiple stages of uplift and subsidence cycles. The once-existing highlands may have been deeply eroded. Hence, many uncertainties exist in directly reconstructing the ancient basin-range framework (Dickinson and Suczek 1979; Dickinson 1985; Yang et al. 2014a, 2016). Yet, sedimentary records, fed by detritus from the nearby highland, deposited in sags adjacent to the orogen may preserve more complete clues on the deeply eroded orogen. The northwestern segment of the Qinling-Dabie orogen, represented by the North Qinling Terrane, is a deeply eroded orogen, as much of the North Qinling Terrane basement is now exposed to the surface, with limited Jurassic to present cover (Zhang et al. 2001; Dong et al. 2011; Dong and Santosh 2016), as a consequence of multiple-stage of uplift-subsidence history after its accretion onto the southern North China Bock at the mid-Paleozoic (Dong et al. 2018; Sun et al. 2022). Therefore, whether the North Qinling Terrane has been intensely uplifted after the mid-Paleozoic collision and how long did erosion of the orogen sustain are still unclear.
In this work, we conducted an integrated provenance study including paleocurrent reconstruction, sandstone petrology, and detrital zircon U–Pb geochronology on the Late Carboniferous to Early Permian successions in the southern Ordos that is located directly to the north of the North Qinling Terrane. Together with published geological approaches, we generate a new paleogeographic model on the southern Ordos- North Qinling Terrane. On the basis of this model, we provide a new estimate the erosion history of the North Qinling Terrane.
2　Geological background
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2.1　Tectonic outline and geological setting
The North China Block bridges the Central China Orogenic System to the south and the Central Asian Orogenic System to the north (Fig. 1a), which are relics of the Tethys Ocean and Paleo-Asian Ocean, respectively (Dong et al. 2011, 2021; Xiao et al. 2015; Sun et al. 2024). On top of the North China Block basement to the north of the Jinning-Longhua fault, a NEE-trend zone of continental arc is known as the Inner Mongolia Continent Arc (Fig. 1b), construction of which was triggered by the Paleozoic to Triassic subduction and closure of the Solonker-Enger Us Ocean (Xiao et al. 2015; Sun et al. 2022, 2024; Song et al. 2023). Part of the southern North China Block was structurally involved in the rim of the Qinling-Dabie orogen during Mesozoic basin-ward thrusting of the orogen to the north (Fig. 2a; Dong and Santosh 2016; Dong et al. 2018). The Qinling-Dabie orogen is separated from the North and South China Blocks by the mid-Paleozoic Erlangping Suture and Triassic Mianlue Suture (Fig. 2a; Dong and Santosh 2016). It extends westward from the Tanlu Fault, via Dabie, Wudang, to Tongde (Dong and Santosh 2016), and can be further divided into two geologic units with distinct lithological assemblages and contrasting Precambrian geological histories, i.e., North and South Qinling Terranes, delineated by the Devonian Shangdan Suture (Zhang et al. 2001; Dong et al. 2011). The North Qinling Terrane is characterized by high-grade Archean to Paleoproterozoic basement rocks, which have been reworked by ca. 1000–940 Ma (peaking at ca. 950 Ma) and ca. 520–400 Ma (peaking at ca. 450 Ma) of plutonism and metamorphism (Dong et al. 2011; Sun et al. 2022) before Permian deltaic strata deposition. The South Qinling Terrane is dominated by a Neoproterozoic basement that was mostly formed ca. 850–680 Ma and was then covered by a nearly uninterrupted subdimension from Tonian to Triassic (Dong et al. 2012, 2011; Zhao et al. 2012; Sun et al. 2022). The Mesoproterozoic to present outcrops are widespread in the southern Ordos Basin along the Weibei Uplift, extending from Hejin in the east, via Tongchuan, Linyou, to Longxian in the west.
2.2　Carboniferous-Permian stratigraphy and paleogeography of the study area
The study area lies in the eastern portion of the Weibei Uplift, separated from the Qinling-Dabie Orogen by the Weihe Graben. Previous paleogeographic reconstructions have shown that sequences in the Weibei Uplift were accumulated in a vast depression of the Proto-Ordos Basin (Liu et al. 2009; Guo et al. 2019; Li et al. 2021a; Sun et al. 2024). At the Carboniferous to Permian, the North and South Qinling Terranes were accreted onto the southern portion of the North China Block as its seaward margin, rimming the Mianlue Ocean of the northeastern limb of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean (Liu et al. 2015; Huang et al. 2018; Zhao et al. 2018). In contrast to the dominance of thick shallow-water carbonate successions in the South Qinling Terrane (Qian et al. 2015, 023), corresponding sequences are absent prior to deposition of the Benxi Formation at ca. 315 Ma in the southern North China Block and until deposition of the lower Shihezi Formation at ca. 290 Ma in the North Qinling (Dong and Santosh 2016; Li et al. 2021b, 2023; Shen et al. 2022).
Further to the north is the southern Ordos Basin, where an epeiric sea commenced at end-Carboniferous (Fig. 3a), represented by deposition of the Benxi Formation on top of thick bedded Ordovician carbonate rocks (Fig. 3b). The Benxi Formation is composed of tidal flat facies associations (Li et al. 2023), dominated by thick shale, mudstone interbedded with sandstone (Fig. 3c), having been inferred to be deposited in ca. 315–300 Ma (Wu et al. 2021). The Taiyuan Formation was accumulated in a short age span between 300 and 298 Ma (Yang et al. 2020), consisting of a lower unit of shale and mudstone and an upper part of bioclastic limestone (Fig. 3d, e; Li et al. 2021a, b; Peng and Guo 2023). The Shanxi Formation, with a stratigraphic age of ca. 298–295 Ma (Wu et al. 2021), is of deltaic facies (Zhu et al. 2008; Li et al. 2021a) composed mainly of thick bedded coarse-grained sandstone within coal-bearing mudstone (Fig. 3f). The Shihezi Formation is dominated by alternating sandstone and mudstone of various colors (Fig. 3g), having been interpreted to be accumulated at ca. 295–280 Ma (Wu et al. 2021) in a delta front sedimentary environment (Yu et al. 2017; Li et al. 2022). A sedimentary hiatus of ca. 280–260 Ma has been proposed to have occurred after the deposition of the Shihezi Formation (Wu et al. 2021; Shen et al. 2022), followed by the deposition of thick-layered fuchsia mudstone (Fig. 3h, i) alternating with grayish-red sandstone that indicates a seasonal lake environment (Sun et al. 2024). In summary, stratigraphy of the southern Ordos displays an upward shallowing sequence from a tidal flat-lagoon, via marine delta and nearshore, to a lake from Late Carboniferous to Early Permian.
3　Analytical methods
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3.1　Paleocurrent, sandstone petrography, and modal composition
Analytical procedures for paleocurrent study and sandstone petrography followed standard procedures and related references that have been detailed in Sun et al. (2024). The peer-counting results and calculated modal composition data of 20 selected sandstone samples, along with parameters of principal grain types, are compiled in Supplementary Table 1. Representative photomicrographs are labeled in Fig. 4. For better clarifying distinction of major framework grains, modal composition data are plotted on Qt–F–L, Qm–Pl–K, and Lm–Lv–Ls diagrams of Fig. 5a–c. We also invoked the Qt–F–L and Qp–Lv–Ls (Fig. 5d, e) proposed by Dickinson and Suczek (1979) to interpret the tectonic settings of the source areas.
3.2　Zircon U–Pb geochronology
Each of the sandstone samples was sent to the Langfang Regional Geological Survey, China, using the conventional heavy liquid and magnetic techniques to separate the zircons. Under a binocular microscope, high-quality zircons were mounted in epoxy resin blocks. Then, the zircon was polished until it obtained a flat surface for the next step. Zircon cathodoluminescence imaging and U–Pb dating were conducted at the State Key Laboratory of Continental Dynamics, Northwest University, China. Zircons were dated in situ on a laser ablation instrument inductively coupled with a plasma mass spectrometer (LA–ICP–MS). The LA–ICP–MS was a GeoLas 200 M equipped with a 193 nm ArF excimer laser and a homogenizing and optical imaging system (Micro-Las, Güttingen, Germany). Analyses were performed on an ELAN 6100 ICP–MS (PerkinElmer/SCIEX, Canada) with a dynamic reaction cell. The laser ablation spot size is about 30 μm, with a repetition rate of 10 Hz and energy of up to 90 mJ. GLITTER 4.0 (Macquarie University) software was used to calculate the 207 Pb/206 Pb, 206 Pb/238 U, 207Pb/235 U, and 208Pb/232 Th ratios. The Harvard zircon 91500 was used as the external standard. The ages were computed by ISOPLOT 3.0 (Ludwig 2003). The detailed experimental procedures are shown in Liu et al. (2007). The Andersen (2002) method was used to make common Pb corrections. Age uncertainties are within a 90% confidence level. The 207Pb/206 Pb ages were chosen for grains older than 1000 Ma, and the 206Pb/238 U ages were utilized for grains younger than 1000 Ma (Black et al. 2003). A full list of analytical results and trace elements of dated zircons are shown in Supplementary Tables 2 and 3, respectively. Representative cathodoluminescence (CL) images along with analytical numbers, Th/U ratios, and zircon U–Pb ages of dated zircon can be seen in Fig. 6. All data are plotted on U–Pb concordia diagrams, while only data with discordance < 10% are labeled in probability density distribution curves (Fig. 7) and are used for discussion (Fig. 8). Furthermore, the trace element data from detrital zircons provide valuable insights into the tectonic setting (Fig. 9) and facilitate the reconstruction of crustal thickness (Fig. 10). The methodology for reconstructing crustal thickness is based on the europium anomaly (Eu/Eu*) in detrital zircons, as detailed in Tang et al. (2021). After data synthesis, the chondrite-standardized values were calculated for zircons younger than 500 Ma to determine their Eu/Eu* values. These calculated values were then applied to the empirical equation z = (84.2 ± 9.2) × Eu/Eu* + (24.5 ± 3.3) to estimate the crustal thickness z (in kilometers).
4　Results
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4.1　Paleocurrent directions
We retrieved paleocurrent data by measuring orientations of gravel imbrications and large-scale plate- and trough-cross beddings preserved in thick- and massive-bedded sandstones of the Benxi, Shanxi, and Shihezi Formations. We prefer not to use data from paleocurrent indicators preserved in beds with thickness less than 0.5 m, as we are afraid that these beds may be generally formed by sedimentary rework of waves and tides, directions of which cannot be used to trace the position of sources.
The obtained data exemplified by rose diagrams indicate a change of source-to-sink in the southern Ordos (Fig. 3). Paleocurrent data of the Benxi Formation display complex patterns. The rose diagram for the Benxi Formation samples contains three groups of paleocurrent directions, i.e., northeastward, westward, and southward, but imply a dominantly north-northeastward paleoflow direction, while paleocurrent data of Early Permian Shanxi and Shihezi Formations are generally unidirectional. Paleocurrent data of the Shanxi Formation vary freely from 120° to 300°, while the rose diagram refers to a clear averaged direction of about 190° that implies a south-southward flowing deltaic system then. Paleocurrent data from the Shihezi Formation are consistently southward-directed, varying slightly from about 160° to 230°, with most results concentrating at about 210°. The paleocurrent data suggest that sediment deviation of the Shanxi and Shihezi Formations were from the north.
4.2　Petrographic data
The petrologic signatures of sandstones from Late Carboniferous to Early Permian successions fall into two mutually exclusive categories (Fig. 5). Samples of the Benxi Formation are all quartz arenite, with dominance of monocrystalline quartz (92%–95%) and a rare amount of polycrystalline quartz (5%–8%). Samples of the Shanxi Formation and Shihezi Formation are mostly sub-feldspathic arenite, with some of the Shanxi Formation samples falling in the field of quartz arenite (Fig. 5a). Monocrystalline quartz is predominant in all samples, ranging from 62% to 94% (Fig. 5b). Feldspar accounts for 1%–22% of all grains, including plagioclase feldspar (0%–17%) and K-feldspar (0–7%). Lithic fragments make up 4%–17% of all grains, comprising mainly 1%–5% of metamorphic lithics and 3%–7% of metamorphic lithic fragments. Almost no volcanic lithic fragments were found.
Average compositions of sandstones from the Benxi Formation are %Qt, F, L = 98, 0, 1; %Qm, Pl, K = 93, 0, 0; and %Qp, Lv, Ls = 0, 0, 0. These compositions all fall within the stable craton interior provenance field (Fig. 5e) of Dickinson (1985). Average sandstone framework compositions for the Shanxi Formation samples are %Qt, F, L = 91, 3;, 7 and %Qp, Lv, Lm = 2, 0, 1. Average sandstone framework compositions for the Shihezi Formation samples are %Qt, F, L = 78, 14, 8 and %Qp, Lv, Lm = 2, 1, 4. These are plotted in the recycled orogen and stable craton provenance fields in the Qt–F–L diagram (Fig. 5e) and in the collision suture, fold-and-thrust belt, and mixed orogen sources in the Qp–Lv–Ls diagram (Fig. 5f). A clear compositionally immature trend can be viewed in all diagrams, presented by an increasing amount of feldspar and lithic fragment grains.
4.3　LA–ICP–MS zircon U–Pb dating
Four representative medium- to coarse-grained sandstone samples were selected for zircon U–Pb dating by LA–ICP–MS spectrometry. Of these three sandstone samples, sample M-13 is from the Benxi Formation, sample 24BS-02 is from the Shanxi Formation, sample 24HC-03 is from the lower Shihezi Formation, and sample SOSSHZ from the upper Shihezi Formation. Approximate geologic locations and stratigraphic levels of these samples from this and published studies are shown in Fig. 3.
Zircons from the Benxi Formation sample M-13 are well rounded and sorted with clear margins of abrasion. Diameters of unbroken grains range from 70 to 120 μm (Fig. 6a). Most zircons show clear oscillatory zoning and nebulous internal structures, with a few grains being sector zoned or structureless. A total of 100 analyses on 100 grains produced 98 ages with sufficient precision for geochronological interpretation. Most analyses are concordant; the ages range from 495 to 423 Ma (34 grains), from 1034 to 883 Ma (20 grains), from 1793 to 1512 Ma (9 grains), and from 2595 to 2238 Ma (13 grains) (Fig. 7a, b).
Sample 24BS-02 was collected from medium- to coarse-grained sandstone layers in the lower portion of the Shanxi Formation. Zircons in the samples range from 80 to 140 μm in length, ranging from colorless and euhedral crystals to well-rounded and highly spherical grains (Fig. 6b). Up to 98 of 100 analyses are concordant, ranging widely from ca. 2600 to 276 Ma. The Paleozoic age components are predominant, with 67 ages of 276–457 Ma constituting the largest concentration, with an age peak at ca. 290 Ma. Two secondary age clusters occur in ca. 1.7–1.9 Ga (n = 10) and ca. 2.2–2.5 Ga (n = 7) (Fig. 7c, d).
A total of 100 analyses on lower Shihezi Formation sandstone 24HC-03 collected yielded 97 reliable ages with discordance of less than 10% (Fig. 7e, f). The notable age cluster occurs at ca. 1860 Ma, with secondary age peaks at ca. 275 and 2500 Ma (Fig. 7c). The sample from upper Shihezi Formation sandstone SOSSHZ displays a detrital zircon U–Pb age relation, defined by 87 concordant ages (Fig. 7g, h), which is similar to that of the sandstone 24HC-03, dominated by Archean to Paleoproterozoic ages with two separated age peaks at ca. 1870 and 2300 Ma. A total of 17 zircons have ages of Paleozoic, defining a youngest age peak of 285 Ma. A notable age gap between 1600 and 600 Ma can be found.
In summary, the Late Carboniferous and Early Permian sandstones have different detrital zircon U–Pb age patterns (Fig. 8), reflected by observation that common ages of ca. 1000–800 Ma in the Late Carboniferous sandstones are absent in Early Permian samples and that common age components of ca. 320–280 Ma in the Early Permian sandstones are absent in Late Carboniferous samples.
Trace element analyses reveal that the analyzed detrital zircons exhibit averaged Hf > 8000 ppm and averaged Nb < 170 ppm, consistent with derivation from a granitic protolith with SiO 2 content lower than 75% (Belousova et al. 2002). The resulted Th/U ratios fall within a narrow span of 0.2–1, whereas the Nb/Hf values range widely from 0.00001 to 0.01 (Fig. 9a). The Th/Nb and Hf/Th ratios scatter widely in 1–600 and 10–800 (Fig. 9b), respectively. The Eu/Eu* values calculated for Late Carboniferous and Early Permian samples indicate distinct differences in crustal thickness (Fig. 10). The Permian samples have Sm content of 0.67–125.65 ppm (averaged 8.29 ppm), Eu content of 0.04–33.78 ppm (averaged 1.72 ppm), and Gd content of 3.36–464.61 ppm (averaged 31.27 ppm). The resulting Eu/Eu* values for Permian samples range from 0.02 to 0.95, showing two increasing trends with ages from ca. 460 to ca. 390 Ma and ca. 320 to ca. 280 Ma. The Carboniferous samples have Sm content of 0.23–109.5 ppm (averaged 4.13 ppm), Eu content of 0.04–4.04 ppm (averaged 0.53 ppm), and Gd content of 1.49–114.5 ppm (averaged 14.9 ppm). These samples exhibit Eu/Eu* values ranging from 0.02 to 1.15, characterized by an increase–decrease pattern peaking at ca. 390 Ma. Reconstruction of crustal thickness based on Eu/Eu* calculations reveals that the Inner Mongolia Continental Arc experienced thickening to about 60 km at ca. 440–400 Ma, followed by thinning to about 30–40 km at ca. 370–330 Ma, and renewed thickening to about 60 km at ca. 280 Ma (Fig. 10a). The North Qinling Terrane crust increased in thickness from ~ 43 to ~ 65 km during ca. 500–390 Ma, before thinning to ~ 40 km at ca. 300 Ma (Fig. 10b).
5　Discussion
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5.1　Evolving sedimentary provenances at Carboniferous-Permian transition
Sandstones of the Benxi Formation are mostly quartz arenites, with dominance of quartz grains, although morphologies of quartz grains are irregular (Fig. 5a, b). In contrast, sandstones from the Taiyuan, Shanxi, and Shihezi Formations are mostly lithic arenite or sublitharenite, characterized by enrichment of lithic fragments and paucity of feldspar grains. The difference in petrology can also be viewed from the tectonic discrimination diagram, considering that the Permian samples generally fall into mixed sources including craton basement, arc orogen, and collision belt (Fig. 5). For samples of this study, the detrital zircon U–Pb age spectrum for the Benxi Formation is rather distinct from those for the overlying Shanxi and Shihezi Formations, exemplified by the presence of a Neoproterozoic age cluster and the absence of Late Carboniferous age cluster (Figs. 7, 8). Furthermore, Th/U versus Nb/Hf and Th/Nb versus Hf/Th discrimination diagrams unveil an arc-related and orogenic tectonic background (Fig. 9), in which detrital materials of our Early Permian samples were eroded and accumulated (Hawkesworth and Kemp 2006).
We compiled detrital zircon U–Pb samples from the Benxi, Taiyuan, Shanxi, and Shihezi Formations in the southern Ordos (Fig. 8). The Benxi Formation samples are characterized by the presence of ca. 900 Ma age clusters, which are commonly absent from the overlying Permian successions, defining a significant provenance shift that occurred during the transition of the deposition of Benxi and Taiyuan Formation at ca. 300 Ma. The change in provenance can be further verified by the contrasting paleoflow directions, as the Benxi Formation displays north-flowing results, whereas data from the Shanxi and Shihezi Formations are south-directed (Fig. 3).
For potential source areas, first, we must highlight that much of the western North China Block was inundated by a vast basin that stretched from the southern Inner Mongolia Continental Arc to the northern Qinling (Chen et al. 1989; Li et al. 2012; Shao et al. 2015), precluding the possibility of sediment injection from the western North China Block basement and covers. Hence, the Inner Mongolia Continental Arc and the Qinling orogen should be the only two candidates (Fig. 8a, b), consistent with the fact that in both regions, the Carboniferous to Permian deposits are thinner or even absent (Yang et al. 2014b, 2021; Sun et al. 2020; Dong et al. 2021).
For the Benxi Formation, a southerly provenance is observed. Paleogeographic reconstructions show that during the Late Carboniferous to Early Permian to the south of Pingliang–Linyou–Hejin, there was no sedimentation (Guo et al. 2019; Li et al. 2023), supported by the fact that the Permian Shanxi or Shihezi Formations directly cover pre-Silurian units in Pingliang (Sun et al. 2020) and Luonan (Yang et al. 2018, 2021). The southern margin of highland extends to the north of Shangdan Suture, considering that thick shallow carbonate shelf depositions sustained from Devonian to Triassic (Yu and Meng 1995) throughout the South Qinling. Hence, the source area covered the North Qinling Terrane and southern North China Block, where bed rocks jointly provide suitable detritus for the Benxi Formation (Fig. 8a, c). The oldest age population of ca. 2600–2400 Ma could be attributed to the basement rocks of either the north Qinling Terrane or the southern North China Block. We prefer the former as a more likely candidate, because the common tectonic units formed at ca. 2000–1800 Ma in the southern North China Block (Zhao et al. 2012; Dong and Santosh 2016) are not substantial. However, this phenomenon is common in samples from the North Qinling Terrane basement (Fig. 8a; Sun et al. 2022). The major age concentrations of ca. 1000–800 Ma and ca. 550–400 Ma match well with two major tectonic events in the North Qinling Terrane (Fig. 8c; Dong and Santosh 2016; Sun et al. 2024). The ca. 1000–800 Ma imprints have been related to the Rodina supercontinent assemblage, exemplified by voluminous S-type plutonism peaking at ca. 900 Ma and a small amount of ca. 750 Ma mafic dikes (Dong et al. 2021). The ca. 550–400 Ma tectonism identified in the North Qinling Terrane has been explained to be a consequence of subduction-closure of the Shangdan Ocean and the Erlangping back-basin (Dong et al. 2011; Sun et al. 2022). Collectively, three major clusters observed from the age spectrum of the Benxi Formation are compatible with three major geologic events that built the North Qinling Terrane. In addition, a paucity of ca. 320–300 Ma age components fits well with an epoch of magmatic quiescence then.
For the Permian samples, a significant age population of ca. 1000–800 Ma is absent, but the age population of ca. 2000–1800 Ma is predominant (Fig. 8d). Lacking ages in the prolonged age span from ca. 1700 to 550 Ma is a robust signal indicating a North China Block basement source, which experienced a long period of magmatic lull at that stage, excepting for some mafic dikes and volcanic eruptions (Peng 2015). The North China Block is characterized by two Archean-Paleoproterozoic tectonic flare-ups of ca. 2600–2400 Ma and ca. 2000–1800 Ma (Zhao et al. 2012; Sun et al. 2024), which can be clearly viewed from those Permian sandstones. Some samples display major age peaks of ca. 290 Ma, corresponding well with the Permian magmatic flare-up that generated a large number of plutons and eruptions in the Inner Mongolia Continental Arc, the construction of which was induced by the southward subduction of the southern Paleo-Asian Ocean lithosphere (Xiao et al. 2003; Sun et al. 2024). Also, two major peaks at ca. 420 Ma and 290 Ma separated by a lull between them are consistent with two major tectonic fluctuations in these two stages (Sun et al. 2024). Therefore, we conclude sediment derivation of Permian succession from the Inner Mongolia Continental Arc, a Paleozoic Andes-type continental arc built upon the northern North China Block basement.
5.2　Implications for tectonic evolution of the northern North China Block margin
According to the calculated results, the Inner Mongolia Continental Arc crustal thickness thickened to about 60 km at ca. 440–400 Ma, then thinned to about 30–40 km during ca. 370–330 Ma (Fig. 10a). The inferred Late Ordovician crustal thickening event is synchronous with the accretion of the Bainaimiao Arc onto the northern North China Block (Sun and Dong 2020), while the subsequent crustal thinning can be attributed to post-collision extension along the northern North China Block (Sun et al. 2024). From ca. 295 Ma, the Inner Mongolia Continental Arc crust thickened continuously to about 60 km at ca. 280 Ma, consistent in error with 58 ± 11 km proposed by Song et al. (2023), and can be verified by a stage of magmatic flare-up and fold-thrust activity in the Inner Mongolia Continental Arc (Song et al. 2018). Rapid uplift and erosion of the Inner Mongolia Continental Arc can be viewed from the common appearance of basement components in the sedimentary rocks, represented by the dominance of ca. 2600–1800 Ma-aged detrital zircons (Figs. 7, 8) and the enrichment of high-grade metamorphic rock fragments in the southern North China Block (Fig. 5). In addition, samples of the Shihezi Formation contain a significant amount of older basement rocks, in comparison to the Shanxi Formation sandstone that consists of equal amounts of Paleozoic arc-derived zircons and Archean to Paleoproterozoic basement-derived zircons. This evidence accords with the reconstructed crustal thickness variation of the Inner Mongolia Continental Arc, as surface erosional response to structural uplift of the arc system. Phases of rapid crustal thickening and subsequent denudation of the Inner Mongolia Continental Arc were also identified by Ma et al. (2014), who also highlighted the dynamic relation with the southward subduction of the Paleo-Asian Ocean (Xiao et al. 2003). The approximately 15-km-thick upper crust was eroded, predominantly during the Permian–Triassic (Zhang et al. 2007), resulting in direct exposure of widespread high-grade basement complexes there and enrichment of sedimentary lithics in Permian–Middle Triassic sediments. Rapid exhumation of the Inner Mongolia Continental Arc sustained throughout the Carboniferous to Permian, in view of the presence of Devonian-Permian-aged detrital zircons and Proterozoic–Ordovician sedimentary gravels in sediments of each stage, consistent with our observations.
5.3　Implications for early-stage uplift history of the western Qinling-Dabie Orogen
The North Qinling Terrane crust obviously thickened from ca. 500 Ma, with peak thickness of ~ 70–80 km at ca. 440 Ma (Fig. 10b), reflecting arc lithospheric shortening in response to back-arc basin closure that resulted in collision between the North Qinling Terrane and southern North China Block at ca. 450 Ma (Dong et al. 2011, 2021; Sun et al. 2020, 2022). One result indicating ~ 45 km crust thickness at ca. 300 Ma coincided with Late Carboniferous transgression from Late Carboniferous (Chen et al. 1989; Yang et al. 2014b; Sun et al. 2020, 2024), although more data are needed to strengthen this assumption. This interpretation shows that the North Qinling Terrane has been evaluated to ~ 4 km at the mid-Paleozoic. We note that provenances of the Benxi Formation from the southern North China Block are rare, whereas those originating from the North Qinling Terrene in the further south are predominant. This insight indicates that the North Qinling Terrene was significantly high at the Late Carboniferous (Fig. 11a), concordant with the calculated paleo-evaluation conclusion. Furthermore, the sedimentary facies of the Benxi Formation are dominated by tidal flat successions, without input transported by river delta, hinting that the nearby southern North China Block was relative flat then. Hence, we conclude that the topography of the southern North China Block and North Qinling Terrane was relatively stable with low relief but was hindered from the marine system opening to the Proto-Tethys Ocean by the North Qinling highland.
For the Early Permian stage, the North Qinling Terrane was submerged and flooded by a marine basin (Fig. 11b), above which deltaic associations covered the southern Ordos and the North Qinling Terrane (Yang et al. 2014b, 2016, 2021; Li et al. 2021a). A northerly source from the Inner Mongolia Continental Arc began to accumulate in the northern flank of the North Qinling Terrane, before termination approximately along the southern North Qinling Terrane, where shallow-water carbonate shelf sedimentation sustained from the Devonian to Triassic (Yang et al. 2021; Cheng et al. 2022). Hence, paleoflow data from the Shanxi and Shihezi Formations generally dip southward (Fig. 3a). This also leads to a new assumption that the proto-Ordos Basin was marine throughout the Late Carboniferous to Early Permian, being the continent ward part of a vast basin extending from the Inner Mongolia Continental Arc of the Paleo-Asian Ocean margin to the South Qinling carbonate shelf rim of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean rim (Fig. 11).
Collectively, our new interpretation further indicates that the North Qinling Terrane experienced a significant uplift history from ca. 500 Ma and remained as a relatively lowrelief highland until end-Carboniferous. The Permian submergence of the North Qinling Terrane, covered by deltaic facies, indicates that uplift of the western Qinling-Dabie orogen lasted ~ 150 Ma after the Proto-Tethys Ocean closure.
6　Conclusions
Less
The Late Carboniferous Benxi Formation was sourced from the south, where the North Qinling Terrane provided detritus mostly of Neoproterozoic and Early Paleozoic ages, with additional sources from the southern North China Block basement.
The Early Permian successions are dominated by Neoarchean, Paleoproterozoic, Early Paleozoic, and Late Paleozoic age populations, with an age gap between 1600 and 550 Ma, characterizing a sediment derivation from the Inner Mongolia Continental Arc.
The distinct sandstone petrologic compositions, detrital zircon U–Pb age patterns, and paleoflow shift from northto south-directed jointly reveal a provenance shift at the Carboniferous-Permian transition.
The North Qinling Terrane experienced a significant uplift history from ca. 500 Ma and remained as a highland until end-Carboniferous, indicating that the uplift of the western Qinling-Dabie orogen lasted ~ 150 Ma after the Proto-Tethys Ocean closure.
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doi: 10.1007/s11631-025-00765-y
  • Receive Date：2024-11-05
  • Online Date：2026-02-12
  • Published：2025-02-13
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  • Received：2024-11-05
  • Revised：2025-01-12
  • Accepted：2025-01-23
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    1State Key Laboratory of Continental Dynamics, Department of Geology, Northwest University, Northern Taibai Str. 229, Xi'an 710069, China

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✉ Jiaopeng Sun
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表12种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family		 属数
Number of
genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)		 属
Genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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