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Geochemistry of the siliciclastic sediments from the Raniganj Gondwana basin, West Bengal, India, and its geological implications
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Y. Priyananda Singh1, Oinam Kingson2, K. Milankumar Sharma3, Raghavendra Prasad Tiwari1, Rajeev Patnaik4, Prosenjit Ghosh5, Anupam Sharma6, Jitendra Kumar Pattanaik1, Pankaj Kumar7, Harel Thomas8, Ningthoujam Premjit Singh9, Prem Chand Kisku10, N. Amardas Singh1
Acta Geochimica | 2025, 44(5) : 994 - 1013
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Acta Geochimica | 2025, 44(5): 994-1013
• ORIGINAL ARTICLE •
Geochemistry of the siliciclastic sediments from the Raniganj Gondwana basin, West Bengal, India, and its geological implications
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Y. Priyananda Singh1, Oinam Kingson2, K. Milankumar Sharma3, Raghavendra Prasad Tiwari1, Rajeev Patnaik4, Prosenjit Ghosh5, Anupam Sharma6, Jitendra Kumar Pattanaik1, Pankaj Kumar7, Harel Thomas8, Ningthoujam Premjit Singh9, Prem Chand Kisku10, N. Amardas Singh1
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Published: 2025-02-11 doi: 10.1007/s11631-025-00756-z
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Elemental concentrations of the siliciclastic sediments from a sedimentary basin provide clues on paleoweathering, paleoclimate, provenance, and tectonic setting of the basin. Records for Permo–Triassic mass extinction and climatic fluctuations are commonly traced from the sediments in the Gondwana basins. Nevertheless, our understanding on sedimentation, provenance, and regional tectonics of the Raniganj Basin, a Gondwana basin in the eastern India is poor. Minerals including clay particles and major and trace element concentrations of the siliciclastic sediments from different formations of the Raniganj Basin have been studied to establish the paleo-weathering, paleoclimate, provenance, and tectonic settings of the basin. This study suggests that the Talchir Formation experienced cold and dry climatic conditions at the sediment source area, while the Barakar, Raniganj, and Panchet formations had prevailing semiarid climates. The sources of the siliciclastic sediments are from the felsic rocks of the Chotanagpur Granite Gneissic Complex (CGGC). Further, the geochemical results suggest a rift-like (passive) tectonic setting for the Raniganj Basin, while few samples represent the collision tectonic setting of the basement CGGC, formed due to collision of major Indian blocks during the Paleo-Neoproterozoic time.

Siliciclastic sediments  /  Geochemistry  /  Paleoclimate  /  Provenance  /  Tectonic setting  /  Raniganj Basin
Y. Priyananda Singh, Oinam Kingson, K. Milankumar Sharma, Raghavendra Prasad Tiwari, Rajeev Patnaik, Prosenjit Ghosh, Anupam Sharma, Jitendra Kumar Pattanaik, Pankaj Kumar, Harel Thomas, Ningthoujam Premjit Singh, Prem Chand Kisku, N. Amardas Singh. Geochemistry of the siliciclastic sediments from the Raniganj Gondwana basin, West Bengal, India, and its geological implications[J]. Acta Geochimica, 2025 , 44 (5) : 994 -1013 . DOI: 10.1007/s11631-025-00756-z
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1　Introduction
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The geochemical composition of siliciclastic sediments provides important information on the factors that regulate weathering and erosion through the geologic age. Worldwide, many studies have used geochemical data to interpret paleo-weathering, paleoclimate, provenance, tectonic settings, and evolution of a basin (Wanas and Abdel-Maguid 2006; Ghosh and Sarkar 2010; Ghosh et al. 2012; Garzanti et al. 2014; Garzanti and Resentini 2016; Sawant et al. 2017; Armstrong-Altrin et al. 2019; Wanas and Assal 2021; Singh et al. 2022; Sangeeta et al. 2023; Abdulfarraj et al. 2024). The sedimentation in the Gondwana Basin has recorded the signature of the Late Paleozoic Ice Age and biotic evolution along with a transition in global climate from the cold ice house during the Permo-Carboniferous to the wet greenhouse climate of the Cretaceous (Fielding et al. 2008; Isbell et al. 2012). The Gondwana basins of peninsular India existed between the Gondwana basins of Australia and Africa during the Permian/Triassic (P/T) time, evidenced by Pangean reconstruction (Sarkar et al. 2003). The Raniganj Basin, a sub-basin of the Gondwana Basin of peninsular India, hosts an approximately 2000-m-thick sedimentary rock succession of the Gondwana Supergroup (Late Carboniferous to Early Cretaceous; Ghosh et al. 1996). The sedimentation of the Raniganj Basin partly covers the P/T mass extinction in which ~ 70% of terrestrial and ~ 81% of the marine life at the species level perished (Algeo et al. 2015; Chen et al. 2014; Fan et al. 2020).
The global catastrophe of the P/T event created a global disruption in environmental and geomorphic settings that also induced changes in sedimentation of the basins (Cui et al. 2017; Zhu et al. 2019; Jurikova et al. 2020). Previous studies commonly referred to the Permo–Triassic marine environmental settings (Algeo et al. 2011; Nabbefeld et al. 2010; Shen et al. 2016; Zhang et al. 2018). Therefore, it is equally important to study terrestrial environments like the Raniganj Basin.
Reports with detailed geochemical analysis of siliciclastic sediments from the Raniganj Basin are sparse and have not been available for entire formations of the basin (Pascoe 1956; Dutta 1983; Suttner and Dutta 1986; Sarkar et al. 2003; Bhattacharjee et al. 2018; Ghosh et al. 2019). The organic carbon isotope data of the sediments from the Raniganj Basin, India, recorded around 9‰ fall in the δ13C values during the Early Triassic across Pangea (Sarkar et al. 2003), resulting in a climatic shift from humid to warm semi-arid type and extinction of terrestrial plants (Sarkar et al. 2003). The major element analysis of the clastic sediments in the Barakar Formation, Raniganj Basin suggests an immature, moderate to strong chemical weathering under warm climatic conditions and support a passive continental–marine marginal setting (Bhattacharjee et al. 2018). However, the sedimentation after the late-Paleozoic ice age in the Gondwana basins had recorded fluvial sedimentation globally (Ghosh, and Sarkar 2010; Ghosh et al. 2012; Singh et al. 2022). Pascoe (1956) and Dutta (1983) also suggested that the Chotanagpur Granite Gneissic Complex (CGGC) likely supplied the sediments of the Raniganj Basin. The fission track dating of the apatite also supported the inferred hypothesis that the Raniganj and Panchet formation sediments were derived from the CGGC (Patel et al. 2014).
Since the geochemical studies in earlier works focus only on one or two formations of the Raniganj Basin (Pascoe 1956; Dutta 1983; Suttner and Dutta 1986; Sarkar et al. 2003; Bhattacharjee et al. 2018; Ghosh et al. 2019), a holistic approach is required to understand the variations in the paleo-weathering, paleoclimate, provenance, and tectonic settings during deposition of different formations in the Raniganj Basin. Therefore, the present work aims to reconstruct the provenance, tectonic setting, paleoclimate, and paleo-weathering of the different formations in the Raniganj Basin. To fulfil these aims, a comprehensive mineralogical–geochemical study has been carried out in the siliciclastic sediments of the studied formations of the Raniganj Basin.
2　Geological setting
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Raniganj Basin is an intra-cratonic basin in which the Talchir Formation unconformably overlies the CGGC. The basin forms within the Son-Damodar Valley lineament in eastern peninsular India. The geological map of this basin is illustrated in Fig. 1, showing all the sample locations. The Talchir Formation was deposited in glacio-lacustrine environments (Suttner and Dutta 1986). The Talchir Formation is conformably overlain by the Barakar Formation which is characterized by braided to fluvio-lacustrine alluvial deposits (Suttner and Dutta 1986; Ghosh et al. 1996). The Barren Measures Formation is conformably overlain by the Barakar Formation and was deposited in a lacustrine environment (Ghosh 2002). The Upper Permian Raniganj Formation underlies the Barren Measures Formation (Ghosh et al. 1996; Mukhopadhyay et al. 2010). The Lower Triassic Panchet Formation overlies the Raniganj Formation (Suttner and Dutta 1986; Ghosh et al. 1996; Sharma et al. 2024). The litho-sections and descriptions on stratigraphic successions of the different formations in the Raniganj Basin are shown in Fig. 2 and Supplementary material 1, respectively.
The CGGC in the eastern part of the Central Indian Tectonic Zone is formed by the continent–continent collision of major Indian blocks during Paleo-Neoproterozoic time (e.g., Acharyya 2003; Bhowmik et al. 2012). The North Singhbhum Fold Belt separates Archaean Singhbhum Craton from the southern CGGC (Fig. 1). The charnockites and porphyritic granitoids constituted as major rock types of the CGGC, while there were enclaves of khondalites, mafic granulites, calc-silicates, and minor quartzite (Sanyal and Sengupta 2012). The CGGC is traversed by several mafic dykes, such as amphibolitic dykes, gneissic amphibolites, and some doleritic dykes (Ghose et al. 2005). The dykes are considered to be of Precambrian age as they do not traverse through the overlying Gondwana deposits (Mahadevan 2002). The Bengal anorthosite is located in the south-eastern part of the CGGC (Chatterjee et al. 2008).
3　Methodology
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3.1　Petrography
Twelve sandstone samples were thin-sectioned and studied for mineralogical and textural analyses using a high-resolution trinocular polarizing microscope (Leica DM750) at the BIOPS-Lab, Department of Geology, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda.
3.2　Clay mineral analysis
Thirty clay samples from the Raniganj Basin were employed to analyze clay minerals. To prepare oriented clay fractions, standard sample processing and pretreatment techniques as per Deepthy and Balakrishnan (2005) were used. Organic matters were removed from the dis-aggregated samples by treating them with distilled water and H2O2, and the samples were finally cleaned. The settling technique (Hardy and Tucker 1988) was applied to the bulk samples for taking out the clay fraction (< 2 μm). Two oriented slides, Ca2+ ion-saturated clay slides and K+ ion-saturated clay slides, were made from each clay sample. Clay mineral slides were scanned by the Empyrean PANalytical X-ray diffractometer housed at the IUAC (Inter-University Accelerator Center), New Delhi, India, operating at 40 mA and 45 kV, equipped with a copper anode. The oriented clay slides were scanned from 2° to 30° 2θ with a scan speed of 0.6° 2θ/min and step size of 0.02° 2θ. Ca-saturated samples were examined under both air-drying and ethylene-glycol-drying conditions. K-saturated samples were scanned at room temperature after being heated at 110 °C, 300 °C, and 550 °C.
The identification of the clay fractions followed Moore and Reynolds' method (1989). The X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of different samples from the Raniganj Basin are shown in Fig. 3. Smectite peaks of air-dried samples are identified by a (001) plane having 14.03 Å d-spacing, while the peak changed to ~ 16.7 Å after glycol drying (see Supplementary material 2). In normal air-dried conditions, illite mineral shows 10.0 Å peaks of (001), but in the K-saturated sample, the peak of illite becomes acute on heating to 550 °C. Kaolinite peak displays at 7.2 Å peaks (001), and it disappeared at 550 °C in the K-saturated samples. The clay fraction of gibbsite is identified by the 4.8 Å peak that becomes intense for K-saturated samples, and the peak disappears after heating (300 °C). The goethite clay fraction is confirmed by the 4.1 Å peak. This study has used the semi-quantification formula as given below (Deepthy and Balakrishnan 2005). The peak areas for the clay minerals used in the calculation are determined using X'Pert HighScore Plus software.
3.3　Major and trace element analyses
The major and trace element concentration data [including rare earth elements (REEs)] were generated from siliciclastic sediment samples (n = 35) from the Raniganj Basin. Loss on ignition (LOI) was examined by heating 8 g of samples at 950 °C for 5 h. For geochemical analysis, 30 mg of homogenized powdered samples were digested with a mixture of HF + HNO3 + HClO4 acids in a closed Teflon® crucible (also see Xiong et al. 2012). Two United States Geological Survey (USGS) standard samples, Green River shale (SGR-1b) and Cody shale (SCO-1), were used as a calibration standard for the analysis. The concentration of major elements for the siliciclastic sediment samples from the Raniganj Basin was measured using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES; Agilent 5800 series). ICP-OES analysis used single-element solutions for the major elements (Ti, Al, Fe, K, Na, Ca, Mn, Mg, and P). The concentrations of trace elements (and REE) of each sample were measured using quadrupole inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (Q-ICP-MS; Agilent 7700 Series). The ICP-MS also measured multi-element solutions formed by mixed-element reference solutions of inorganic ventures (71A, 71B, and 71D). The ICP-MS and ICP-OES analysis had a precision of ≤ 5% and accuracy of ≤ 8%. All measurements were carried out at the analytical instrumentation facility of the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences, Lucknow, India.
4　Results
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4.1　Petrography
Sandstone samples from the Raniganj Basin are poorly sorted, and their thin sections exhibit detrital grains of quartz, K-feldspar, plagioclase laths, elongated micaceous minerals, and few lithic fragments (see Fig. 4). Monocrystalline quartz grains are more common than polycrystalline grains, and are sub-rounded to sub-angular in shapes except for a few elongated quartz minerals. Detrital quartz grains are also surrounded by a few overgrowth quartz grains. The quartz minerals show wavy extinction. The sandstones have cementing materials of calcite, neoblast quartz grains, iron oxides, and clay matrixes. Coarse to medium and angular feldspar are commonly present. Orthoclase, plagioclase, and microcline are the common feldspar minerals. Cross-hatch twinning of microclines and Carlsbad twinning of orthoclase are seen in the thin sections (see Fig. 4F). The plagioclase minerals show parallel twinning and are elongated in shape. Lithic fragments are mainly of sedimentary and igneous rocks.
4.2　Clay mineralogy
The clay fractions of the samples from different formations in the Raniganj Basin consist of smectite, illite, kaolinite, and traces of gibbsite and goethite (Fig. 3). Smectite (average value of ~ 79%), followed by illite (average value of ~ 8%) and kaolinite with an average fraction of ~ 14% are the main clay fractions in the Panchet Formation. Kaolinite becomes abundant in the Raniganj (~ 94%) and Barakar (~ 60%) formations, and illite content follows kaolinite in the Raniganj Formation (average fraction of ~ 5%) and Barakar Formation (~ 20%). The Talchir Formation has abundant clay content of illite (~ 65%) over smectite (~ 15%) and kaolinite (~ 20%). The relative content of clay fraction in the samples of different formations from the Raniganj Basin are listed in Supplementary material 3.
4.3　Major elements
The concentration of major elements (wt%) for studied samples from different formations of the Raniganj Basin are given in Supplementary material 4. The data show that SiO2 concentration of the samples varies between 44.6 and 88.2 wt%. The Panchet and Barakar formations have wide ranges of silica concentrations. Samples of the Raniganj and the Talchir formations have higher values of silica content (> 70 wt%). The Raniganj Basin has a wide range of Al2O3 (5.04–20.9 wt%). The Raniganj Formation has depleted Al2O3 content, while the Talchir Formation shows an average value of Al2O3 content. The sample contents are low for CaO (0.55–3.5 wt%), MgO (0.58–3.06 wt%), and TiO2 (0.07–1.12 wt%). Values of K2O and Na2O in the samples are 1.13–3.86 wt% and 1.25–4.41 wt%, respectively. There is wide range in values of SiO2/Al2O3 ratios (2.13–17.46), but the average ratio is 5.06.
The values of weathering indices were measured based on the relative concentrations of mobile (Ca, Na, Mg, Mn and K) and immobile major (Al and Ti) cations of the rocks (Perri 2020) in different samples, including the chemical index of alteration (CIA, Nesbitt and Young 1982), chemical index of weathering that removes K-metasomatism effects (CIW, Harnois 1988), the plagioclase index of alteration (PIA, Fedo et al. 1995); the chemical index of weathering excluded CaO (CIX; Garzanti et al. 2014), and the weathering index of Parker (WIP, Parker 1970) (see Supplementary material 4). The CaO* values used in the calculation of different weathering indices refers to only those in silicate fractions of sediments. The values of CaO are accepted as CaO* if CaO ≤ Na2O, but the values of Na2O were considered as CaO* when CaO > Na2O (Bock et al. 1998; Lin et al. 2019). The chemical index of quartz (CIQ, Guo et al. 2024), calculated based on the CIA and WIP, was also used to define quartz enrichment accurately. The Index of compositional variability (ICV), the relative abundance of other major cations over alumina, defined the sediment maturity (Cox et al. 1995). The correlation of Al2O3, Fe2O3, TiO2, and MgO with SiO2 was inversed (Fig. 5).
4.4　Trace elements
The trace element concentrations (ppm) (including REE) in the samples for different formations of the studied basin are shown in Supplementary material 5. The content of large-ion lithophile elements (LILEs) such as Rb, Pb, and Ba is comparatively equal to or greater than that in the upper continent crust (UCC) in the Panchet, Raniganj, Barakar, and Talchir formations. There are consistent values in the content of Pb. However, all the formations have low values of Sr content except for the Talchir Formation, having average Sr content (189 ppm) (Fig. 6). The values of Rb (average value = 156 ppm) and Ba (average value = 1295 ppm) in the Panchet Formation are relatively higher than that of other formations (Raniganj, Barakar, and Talchir formations).
The high-field-strength elements (HFSEs) like Th, Hf, and Nb have varied values, relative to the UCC values, but Y content is greater than or similar to the UCC values. Samples of the Panchet Formation have higher values of Hf (average value = 4 ppm) and Th (average value = 18 ppm) than the other formations. In samples of the Panchet Formation, values of transition metals such as Sc, V, Co, and Ni are comparatively similar to or greater than the UCC, while those of Raniganj and Talchir samples have values lower than or similar to the UCC. The values of Sc, V, Co, and Ni from the Barakar Formation samples are widely varied. Samples of the different formations from the Raniganj Basin show low values of Cr. The Panchet Formation has the highest Th/Sc ratio (average value = 1.08) compared to the rest of the formations. The Raniganj Formation has higher Co/Th ratios (average value = 2.85). The La/Sc ratio (average = 4.15) of Talchir Formation samples is highest compared with that of the other formations from the Raniganj Basin.
The REE concentrations of the studied samples and their parameters are given in Supplementary material 5. The UCC-normalized REE patterns of the samples are shown in Fig. 7. Siliciclastic sediment samples from the Raniganj Basin show no significant fractionation between the light rare earth elements (LREEs) and heavy rare earth elements (HREEs), as suggested by average values of (La/Yb)N = 1.29 and (ƩLREE/ƩHREE)N = 0.87 from the Raniganj Basin. Among the HREEs of the studied samples, there is depletion in Tb but enrichment in Gd and Tm (Fig). The samples have flat LREE patterns (La/Sm)N = 1.29 (average) and flat HREE patterns (Gd/Yb)N = average 1.05. Some of the samples from the Raniganj Basin have lower concentration of REE compared to the UCC, particularly in samples from Raniganj and Talchir formations (Fig. 7). The Eu anomalies of the Raniganj Basin have commonly positive values (average values of Eu/Eu* = 1.45). In the samples of the Panchet Formation, the range in values for (La/Sm)N, (Gd/Yb)N, and Eu/Eu* are 1.02–1.26, 0.97–1.35, and 1.04–2.26, respectively. In the Raniganj Formation, the samples have values of (La/Sm)N = 0.79–1.25, (Gd/Yb)N = 0.67–1.74, and Eu/Eu* = 0.21–1.14. Barakar samples have the values of (La/Sm)N = 0.91–1.08, (Gd/Yb)N = 0.67–1.74, and Eu/Eu* = 0.73–2.44. The samples of the Talchir Formation have (La/Sm)N = 1.01–1.49, (Gd/Yb)N = 0.47–1.17, and Eu/Eu* = 1.02–1.73.
5　Discussions
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5.1　Hydrodynamic sorting and sedimentary recycling effect
The source rock compositions, hydrodynamic sorting, and sedimentary recycling influence the chemical weathering and mineralogical and geochemical compositions of the sediments (Nesbitt and Young 1996; Garzanti et al. 2011; Guo et al. 2018, 2021, 2024). Hydrodynamic sorting commonly generates immature rock fragments or detrital minerals, inferring the quantity between the weathering product and unweathered source rock in the fluvial sediments (Guo et al. 2021, 2018, 2024). The CIQ vs. CIA/WIP diagram (Fig. 8; Guo et al. 2024) clearly indicates the effects of weathering intensity, hydrodynamic sorting, and sedimentary recycling on the sediment composition. Sediment samples of the Panchet Formation have low values of CIQ (ranges from 0.01 to 0.6), scattered values of CIA/WIP (1.2 to 2.04), and a positive correlation between CIQ and CIA/WIP (Fig. 8). This suggests a combination of both weathering and sedimentary recycling effects on the sedimentation of the Panchet Formation. The Raniganj Formation has sediment CIQ values (ranging from 0.6 to 1.8) and CIA/WIP values (widely ranging from 1.3 to 3.2) that have been influenced by both hydrodynamic sorting and sedimentary recycling. However, some of the samples from the Raniganj Formation are outliers to their trends in the CIQ vs. CIA/WIP diagram. The sediment samples of the Barakar Formation have a wide range of CIQ values (0.05 to 1.02) and CIA/WIP ratios (1.3 to 2.1). Therefore, compositions of some of the Barakar samples are influenced by chemical weathering, while some others are related to hydrodynamic sorting and sedimentary recycling processes (Fig. 8). The low CIA/WIP ratios (1.0 to 1.3), high CIQ values (0.4 to 0.7), and the slightly positive correlation between CIQ and CIA/WIP (Fig. 8) of the sediment samples from the Talchir Formation indicate that there were both hydrodynamic sorting and sedimentary recycling effects during the sedimentation in this particular formation.
The ratio between SiO2 and Al2O3 also indicates the effects of hydrodynamic sorting and recycling sediments, as the resistivity values of the quartz during the sedimentation are far higher than feldspar, lithic fragments, and mafic minerals (Bouchez et al. 2011; Guo et al. 2018, 2024). High values of Al2O3/SiO2 ratios are related to the suspended load sediments (in low-energy flow), while low values of the ratio (angular quartz grain rich) suggest a bed load sediment (Guo et al. 2018). The average values of Al2O3/SiO2 ratios for the samples from the Panchet and Barakar formations are 0.35 and 0.27, respectively, which are relatively higher than the average values for the Raniganj (0.11) and Panchet (0.15) formations. Therefore, the ratios also support the higher effects of hydrodynamic sorting and recycling sediments on the Talchir and Raniganj formations compared to the Barakar and Panchet formations. Cox et al. (1995) reported that mature sediments from the stable continental crust have low ICV values (< 1.0), while those of immature sediments of the arc-related volcanic and plutonic source rocks have higher ICV values (> 1.0). The average ICV values (> 1) for the Talchir, Barakar, Raniganj, and Panchet formations (Supplementary material 4) suggest compositionally immature sediments, possibly connected with the plutonic sources. The immature sediments of the Raniganj Basin inferred from the geochemical studies are also similarly suggested by the subangular- to angular-grained feldspar and quartz minerals of the sandstones from the Raniganj Basin (Fig. 4). Such immature sediments with angular grains of quartz and feldspar also suggest that the sediments were likely derived from a proximal source.
5.2　Diagenetic effect
The process of diagenesis may control the geochemical compositions of the sediments after the deposition (Hundert et al. 2006). In terrestrial depositions, water circulation in a thick succession of sedimentary rock induces diagenesis that accelerates the enrichment of some mobile elements (Nesbitt and Young 1989). It therefore makes uncertain the weathering and climatic signature of the source area. In the Raniganj Basin, the XRD analysis recorded no chlorite clay fraction from the samples (Supplementary material 3). Therefore, chloritization has no significant factor for the weathering and climatic interpretation of the Raniganj Basin. The abundant illite content in the Talchir Formation is possibly detrital clay minerals, as there is no evidence of illitization in CIA, CIW, and PIA values. Post-depositional K-metasomatism/illitization could change CIA values (Fedo et al. 1995; Wang et al. 2012). However, the values of CIA for the sediment samples from the Raniganj Basin are closer to that of CIW and PIA values than that calculated by removing K-metasomatism/illitization effects (Harnois 1988; Fedo et al. 1995), as shown in Supplementary material 4. It therefore indicates that the sedimentary rock samples of the studied area have no significant effect from the K-metasomatism/illitization. Again, in the A-CN-K (Al2O3–CaO* + Na2O–K2O) diagram as well (Fig. 9), the weathering trend is along the ideal weathering direction of granodiorite, not directed trend towards the K-apex, which therefore supports the insignificant post-depositional K-metasomatism/illitization conditions (Fedo et al. 1995; Wang et al. 2012).
Hydrodynamically sorted and immature sandstones are more common at the greater depth of the Talchir Formation compared to the upper depth of the Panchet Formation (see above discussion 5.1). The petrography of the sandstones from the Raniganj Basin (Fig. 4) also show commonly unaltered quartz, feldspar grains, simple grain contact, and no commonly pressure-solved and welded grains. Therefore, petrography and inference of immature sediments and/or detrital minerals from the geochemical characters also support a less chance of diagenetic influence on the sedimentary rocks of the Raniganj Basin. Previous studies also suggested that the basin itself had a small catchment area with a few rock types consequently characterized by clay fractions, related to syndepositional climatic changes (Suttner and Dutta 1986; Ghosh et al. 2019).
5.3　Chemical weathering and climatic changes
The weathering process significantly affects the chemical composition of sedimentary deposits (Nesbitt and Young 1982; Armstrong-Altrin et al. 2004). Different geochemical parameters are used to measure the weathering intensity of the source rock. The CIA values define chemical weathering intensity as unweathered (CIA ≤ 50), incipient weathered (CIA = 50 to 60), intermediate (CIA = 60 to 80) and intense weathered (CIA > 80) (Nesbitt and Young 1982; Fedo et al. 1995). The stratigraphic variations (sampled profiles) of CIA along with clay fraction content and certain immobile major and trace element ratios are shown in Fig. 10. The siliciclastic sediment samples of the Talchir Formation of the Raniganj Basin have low CIA (55–59), which indicates low intensity of chemical weathering at the source area, while the values of CIA for the samples of the Barakar (CIA = 63–78), Raniganj (CIA = 53–70), and Panchet formations (CIA = 51–76) suggest moderate chemical weathering conditions at the source area. The similar weathering trends of the Raniganj Basin could also be suggested from the values of the CIW and PIA weathering indices, but these proxies have yielded only slightly higher values than the CIA values of the same samples (Supplementary 4).
Moreover, the CIA is usually used along with the A-CNK (Al2O3–CaO* + Na2O–K2O) triangular diagram (Nesbitt and Young 1984; Fedo et al. 1995) to define weathering intensity. In the A-CN-K plot (Fig. 9), the Talchir samples cluster near initial weathering trends of the granodiorite, suggesting a weak weathering trend of felsic source rocks for the deposition of the Talchir Formation. In this plot, the Barakar and Panchet samples cluster within the moderate weathering trends, suggesting moderate weathering intensity. Sediments of the Raniganj Formation have experienced weak to moderate weathering conditions at the source area, as shown by scattered data points in the A-CN-K plot (Fig. 9).
Climatic conditions, mainly the temperature and precipitation, have influenced the chemical weathering intensity of the source rocks, as cold/temperate climate induces a low chemical weathering trend of bedrock, while humid and warm climate relates to intense chemical weathering conditions (e.g., Nesbitt and Young 1982; Perri 2020; Wang et al. 2020). Previous clay mineral studies have recorded that chemical weathering of bedrock under semi-arid climatic conditions could produce clay minerals such as illite/smectite mixed clay and smectite minerals (Thiry 2000; Adatte et al. 2002; Sheldon and Tabor 2009), whereas intense weathering of bedrock under warm and humid climate could produce kaolinite and gibbsite (Hieronymus et al. 2001; Beckmann et al. 2005; Ratcliffe et al. 2010). The abundant clay content of illite over the kaolinite, and smectite in the siliciclastic samples of the Talchir Formation are consistent with a physical weathering condition during cold/arid climate conditions. Also, the smectite abundance over the kaolinite and illite clay content of the Panchet Formation suggested a semi-arid climate during the deposition of these sediments. The relatively higher values of Rb and Al2O3 in the Panchet Formation indicate that the Rb may relate to the clay contained in the studied samples of the formation (see Supplementary material 4 and 5) (Hu et al. 2015; Wang et al. 2017). However, the dominant kaolinite clay content in the Barakar and Raniganj formations could suggest a humid and warm climate and also be a result from the recycled sediments that survive during intermediate weathering conditions (Weaver 1967). The CIQ vs. CIA/WIP ratio variation plot, as discussed above, also suggested that sediments of the Barakar and Raniganj formations have a recycled sediments source.
Thus, in summary, the weathering indices and clay mineralogy suggest that the climatic conditions of the Raniganj Basin could possibly have cold, arid conditions for the Talchir Formation, contrasting with the Barakar, Raniganj, and Panchet formations which had a fluctuation in climate from semi-arid condition to slightly humid during their sedimentation.
5.4　Provenance
The elemental concentrations in the sedimentary rock provide clues for the provenance study of a basin (Verma and Armstrong-Altrin 2013, 2016; Armstrong-Altrin et al. 2015, 2017; Wang et al. 2018; Wanas and Assal 2021, Sangeeta et al. 2023). The Al2O3/TiO2 ratios of the studied samples could infer their provenance, as previous studies indicate that the ratios have ranges of 3–8, 8–21, and 21–70 for mafic, intermediate, and igneous source rocks, respectively (Hayashi et al. 1997; Moradi et al. 2016; Wang et al. 2017, Wang et al. 2018). Therefore, the Al2O3/TiO2 ratio (12.56–28.82; average = 19.43) of the studied samples suggests an intermediate igneous rock source (Supplementary material 4).
Moreover, the trace elements (REE, Th, Y, Nb, Hf, Sc, Co, Cr, and Ni) remain stable in the sediments during the weathering and transportation and, therefore, are used to interpret the source rock of the sediment samples (Taylor and McLennan 1985; Bhatia and Crook 1986; Cullers and Berendsen 1998; Fedo et al. 1995; Mongelli et al. 2006; Wani and Mondal 2011; Moradi et al. 2016; Song et al. 2017). Felsic rock contains a relatively high concentration of La and Th, whereas mafic rocks generally show relatively high concentrations of Co, Sc, Cr, and Ni (Cullers 1994, 2000; McLennan 1993). It is also known that elemental ratios such as La/Sc, Th/Sc, and Cr/Th are commonly used to differentiate the felsic source from the mafic one (Armstrong-Altrin et al. 2004, 2013; Bhatia 1983; Hayashi et al. 1997; Cullers and Podkovyrov 2000; Sindhuja et al. 2021). Thus, the elemental ratios of the above trace elements are also applied in our present study.
The UCC-normalized REE patterns (Fig. 7) of the studied samples show the enrichment of Gd and Tm within the HREE. The enrichment could be related to the HREE-enriched heavy minerals such as zircon and garnet (Sawant et al. 2017; Wang et al. 2018) as the Talchir samples show positive correlation (R = 0.91) between Tm and Hf elements. The heavy mineral content in the sediment samples of the Raniganj, Barakar, and particularly the Talchir formations have also been supported by the CIQ vs. CIA/WIP diagram (Fig. 8), illustrating the effect of hydrodynamic sorting and sedimentary recycling processes on the sediment samples. However, the significant correlation (R = 0.87) between LREE and HREE of the sediment samples suggest that the REE content is distinctively controlled by a single factor, possibly the source rock (Wang et al. 2018). There is also no distinct fractionation between the LREE and HREE of the studied samples, as given by the average values of (La/Yb)N, (Gd/Yb)N, and (ƩLREE/ƩHREE)N (Supplementary material 5). Thus, it could be concluded that though there is evidence of heavy mineral content in the studied samples, the influence of heavy minerals on the REE content of the sediments in the basin is not significant.
Felsic rock has a high negative Eu anomaly, but mafic rock shows a gentle or no Eu anomaly (Roddaz et al. 2006; Armstrong-Altrin et al. 2017; Moradi et al. 2016; Wang et al. 2017). Granulite facies of felsic rock protoliths that represent the residue after partial melting usually possess positive Eu/Eu* values (McLennan and Taylor 2011). Therefore, the significant positive Eu anomalies (average 1.45) for the studied samples of the Raniganj Basin could be related to sediment sources from the granulite facies of felsic rock protoliths such as charnockite, an intermediate rock of granulite facies that is one of the main rocks of the CGGC, the basement of the Raniganj Basin (Acharyya 2003). The high values of Y in a few samples of the Talchir and Barakar formations (Fig. 6), relative to the UCC, are due to content of mineral sphene in the sediments (Ghosh and Sarkar 2010). In the Sc vs. Th/Sc diagram (Fig. 11), the studied clastic sediments are plotted towards the field of the intermediate to felsic source rocks, indicating the intermediate to felsic source of these sediments. The felsic to andesitic composition for the sediment samples of the Raniganj Basin is also evidenced from the La/Sc vs. Co/Th diagram (Fig. 12A). A similar source character in the sedimentation is again assured by the low values of Cr/Th ratio (0.2–3.78), as sediments originating from a felsic source have low Cr/Th ratios ranging from 0 to 15, whilst those of a mafic source have higher rations ranging from 22 to 500 (Cullers 2000; Roddaz et al. 2005, 2007). In the La/Sc–Sc/Th diagram (Fig. 12B), along with the available data of granite, andesite, and basalt from the basement rocks (CGGC; Saikia et al. 2014), our samples are trending close to the mixing trend of granite and basalt end members from the CGGC, plotted near the granite end member and away from the mafic end member. Thus, the source of our study sediments could be felsic to andesitic rock and possibly derived from the basement rocks (CGGC). The recycled sediments could also possibly relate to the metasediment components of the CGGC (Acharyya 2003).
The possible provenance for the sediments of the Raniganj Basin could be the CGGC, the Singhbhum folded belt, or the Archaean Singbhum Craton based on the geological setting, paleocurrent direction, and chemical composition of sediments in the basin. Pascoe (1956) and Dutta (1983) also reported that the Raniganj Basin sediments mostly came from the adjoining Precambrian basement CGGC. It was also recorded that the ages of apatites with fission track dating from the Raniganj and Panchet formations showed that the basin sediments were possibly transported from the CGGC (Patel et al. 2014). However, the provenance of the Raniganj Basin could have a lower chance of being from the Archaean Singbhum Craton and Singbhum Folded Belt for the following reasons: (1) the dominant rocks of the Singbhum Folded Belt of Proterozoic age are meta-sediments and metabasic rocks (Saha 1994; Sengupta et al. 2000; Mazumder et al. 2012), which is very different from the dominant felsic to the intermediate source of the Raniganj Basin sediments; (2) the Raniganj basin itself is within the extensive CGGC terrain; and (3) the common paleocurrent direction of the sedimentation is from the east–southeast to west–northwest direction (Casshyap and Kumar 1987). Thus, the only possible source could be the CGGC, constituted by porphyritic granitoid and charnockites (pyroxene-bearing granitoids) with enclaves of mafic granulites, khondalites (i.e., garnet-sillimanite gneiss), calc-silicates, and minor quartzite (Acharyya 2003).
5.5　Tectonic evolution of the Raniganj Basin
The major and trace element abundances of siliciclastic sediments are helpful in differentiating the source tectonic settings for a sedimentary basin (Bhatia and Crook 1986; Roser and Korsch 1986; Verma and Armstrong-Altrin 2013; Taheri et al. 2018; Absar 2021). Verma and Armstrong-Altrin (2013) introduced two discriminant diagrams based on major elements of the siliciclastic sediments for discriminating the three main tectonic settings, such as island arc or continental arc, collision, and rift settings. The two discriminant diagrams (Verma and Armstrong-Altrin 2013) of the studied siliciclastic sediments suggest rift origin (passive) tectonic settings for the Raniganj Basin (Fig. 13). The diagrams also indicate that some sediments of the Raniganj Basin are associated with collision tectonic settings. The inferred rift tectonic settings (passive margin) of the Raniganj Basin are supported by the low Th/Sc values (0.59–3.04), as the low Th/Sc (< 3) indicates the depletion of plagioclase and unstable minerals in the passive margin setting (Bhatia and Crook 1986). The tectonic setting inferred by the geochemical studies is comparable to the regional geology of the Raniganj Basin. The rift tectonic setting of the Raniganj Basin, therefore, supports the idea of a pull-apart basin in the Damodar Valley, formed due to reactivation of the deeply buried lineaments/discontinuities of Precambrian time (see Naqvi et al. 1974; Kaila 1986; Mitra 1994; Acharyya 2000 and Chakraborty et al. 2003). The affinity of the collision tectonic setting in some samples of the Panchet and Raniganj formations (Fig. 13) could suggest the basement source signature without less alteration, as the basin itself forms within the CGGC, a part of the Central Indian Tectonic Zone (CITZ), which indicates a continent–continent collision event of major Indian blocks during Paleo-Neoproterozoic time (e.g., Acharyya 2003; Bhowmik et al. 2012).
Therefore, the basement CGGC contributed the source sediments throughout the basin formation of the Raniganj Basin, while there was shifting in the prevailing climatic conditions from the cool Talchir Formation to the semi-arid Barakar, Raniganj, and Panchet formations (Fig. 14). The abundant sediment sources of the basin were the felsic to andesitic rocks from the CGGC (Fig. 12B). The sedimentation of the Raniganj Basin took place on a rift basin, formed by reactivation of a primitive lineament (Fig. 13). A few samples from the Panchet and Raniganj formations suggested the affinity of collision setting. However, this study proves that the collision signature could have resulted from the Paleo-Neoproterozoic collision event in the CITZ.
6　Conclusions
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The current study contributes new ideas towards an understanding of the paleo-weathering, paleoclimate, paleoenvironment, sources of deposited sediment, and tectonic features during the depositions of the sediments in the Raniganj Basin. Based on the study of mineralogical and geochemical studies of the Raniganj Basin, the main conclusions are given below:
1.

The weathering and paleoclimatic studies of the studied samples suggests that in the Raniganj Basin, the Talchir Formation indicates low chemical weathering during cold/temperate climates, whilst that of the Barakar, Raniganj, and Panchet formations shows moderate weathering of semi-arid climatic conditions.

2.

The trace element concentrations of studied sediment samples from the Raniganj Basin, such as REE patterns, elemental ratios like La/Sc, Cr/Th, and Co/Th, and discrimination plots such as Hf vs. La/Th, Sc vs. Th/Sc, and La/Sc–Sc/Th diagrams, suggest that the provenance of the sediments might be from the CGGC which consists of porphyritic granitoid and charnockites with enclaves of mafic granulites, khondalites, calc-silicates, and minor quartzite.

3.

The two tectonic setting discriminant diagrams based on major elements and low Th/Sc values in the studied siliciclastic sediments suggest a rift origin (passive) tectonic setting for the Raniganj Basin. The diagrams also indicate that some sediment samples of the Raniganj Basin are associated with collision tectonic settings. The affinity of the collision tectonic setting in some samples of the Panchet and Raniganj formations may be due to the basement CGGC source signature, formed by the collision of major Indian blocks, during Paleo-Neoproterozoic time.

Funding
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  • SERB-DST, New Delhi, India for Early Career Research(ECR/2016/001100)
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doi: 10.1007/s11631-025-00756-z
  • Receive Date：2024-08-12
  • Online Date：2026-02-12
  • Published：2025-02-11
Article Data
Affiliations
History
  • Received：2024-08-12
  • Revised：2025-01-03
  • Accepted：2025-01-07
Funding
SERB-DST, New Delhi, India for Early Career Research(ECR/2016/001100)
Affiliations
    1Department of Geology, Central University of Punjab, VPO Guddah, Bathinda 151401, India
    2Department of Geology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
    3Department of Geology, Central University of South Bihar, Gaya 824236, India
    4Department of Geology, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India
    5Centre for Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru 560012, India
    6Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeoscience, Lucknow 226007, India
    7Inter-University Accelerator Centre (IUAC), New Delhi 110067, India
    8Department of Applied Geology, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalay, Sagar 470003, India
    9Biostratigraphy Division, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun 248171, India
    10Geochronology Division, CSIR-National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Hyderabad 500007, India

Corresponding:

✉ K. Milankumar Sharma
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表12种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family		 属数
Number of
genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)		 属
Genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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