¹ Department of Automation，Tsinghua University，Beijing 100084，China

² School of Computer Science and Engineering， Shanghai Jiao Tong University，Shanghai 200240，China

³ College of Control Science and Engineering，Zhejiang University， Hangzhou 310027，China

⁴ Research Center for Ubiquitous Computing Systems，Institute of Computing Technology，Chinese Academy of Sciences，Beijing 100190，China

⁵ School of Science and Engineering，The Chinese University of Hong Kong，Shenzhen 518172，China

⁶ School of Engineering，Westlake University，Hangzhou 310030，China

⁷ Department of Electronic Engineering，Tsinghua University，Beijing 100084，China

⁸ School of Software，Zhejiang University，Hangzhou 310058，China

⁹ State Key Laboratory of Computer-Aided Design and Computer Graphics，Zhejiang University，Hangzhou 310058，China

¹⁰ School of Artificial Intelligence，Beijing Normal University，Beijing 100875，China

¹¹ School of Big Data，Fudan University，Shanghai 200433，China

¹² College of Information and Electronic Engineering，Zhejiang University，Hangzhou 310027，China

¹³ School of Information Science and Technology，ShanghaiTech University，Shanghai 201210，China

¹⁴ Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering，The University of Hong Kong，Hong Kong 999077，China

¹⁵ School of Intelligent Science and Technology，Nanjing University， Suzhou 215163，China

¹⁶ College of Computer Science and Software Engineering，Shenzhen University，Shenzhen 518060，China

¹⁷ Institute for Interdisciplinary Information Sciences，Tsinghua University，Beijing 100084，China

¹⁸ School of Electronics and Communication Engineering，Sun Yat-sen University，Shenzhen 518107，China

¹⁹ Wangxuan Institute of Computer Technology，Peking University，Beijing 100080，China

²⁰ School of Computing and Data Science，Nanyang Technological University， Singapore 639798，Singapore

²¹ School of Intelligence Science and Technology，Peking University，Beijing 100871，China

Received	Accepted	Published
2026-03-02
Issue Date
2026-10-30