Objective To systematically analyze the blood-absorbed and brain-absorbed components of the classical formula Kaixin San (KXS) in normal and depression model rats, and preliminarily elucidate the pharmacological material basis of its antidepressant effect. Methods A depression model rat was established using the chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) method, and behavioral verification was performed through open field test, novel object recognition test, sucrose preference test, and forced swimming test. The components in the serum and brain tissue from normal and model rats after intragastric administration of KXS were comprehensively analyzed by UPLC-Q-Exactive Orbitrap MS/MS. Results In the control rats, 143 (including 47 prototypes and 96 metabolites) and 11 components were identified in serum and brain tissue, respectively. In contrast, the overall number in the depression model rats significantly decreased, with only 83 (including 28 prototypes and 55 metabolites) and 4 components detected in serum and brain tissue, respectively. Among them, four prototype components were confirmed to cross the brain in serum and brain tissue samples of the CUMS model rats, including β-asarone, ginsenoside Rg₁, ginsenoside Rb₁, and polygalaxanthone III. Conclusion This study identified four key active components from the blood-absorbed and brain-absorbed components of KXS in normal and depression model rats, providing experimental evidence for screening quality markers of KXS and in-depth analysis its antidepressant mechanism.

Objective To investigate the mechanism of total triterpenes from fruits of Chaenomeles speciosa (CST) in alleviating N-methyl-N′-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG) and (NIG)-induced human gastric mucosal epithelial cells damage based on microRNA-210 (miR-210)/nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB)/NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome signaling pathway. Methods MNNG and NIG induced GES-1 cells model were constructed, and then GES-1 cells were treated with CST and/or miR-210 mimic, miR-210 inhibitor, NF-κB siRNA, NLRP3 siRNA. MTT assay was used to detect cell viability, immunofluorescence was utilized to measure reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, flow cytometry was used to test pyroptosis, colorimetric and ELISA methods were utilized to measure the levels of interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, IL-18, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in cell supernatant. The colorimetric method was used to determine the levels of catalase (CAT), glutathione (GSH), malondialdehyde (MDA), myeloperoxidase (MPO), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) in cells. The dual luciferase reporter assay was employed to verify the targeted intervention between miR-210 and NF-κB. Immunofluorescence was utilized to detect the NF-κB p65 nuclear translocation, the co-localization of NLRP3, apoptosis related spot like protein (ASC) and pro-cystein-asparate protease-1 (pro-Caspase-1). qRT-PCR was used to detect the mRNA expression levels of miR-210, NF-κB, NLRP3. Western blotting was utilized to determine the protein expression levels of cytoplasmic NF-κB, nuclear NF-κB, NIMA-related kinase 7 (NEK7), thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP), NLRP3, ASC, Caspase-1, pro-Caspase-1, gasdermin D (GSDMD), N-terminal domain of GSDMD (GSDMD-N), pro-IL-18 and pro-IL-1β. Results miR-210 was a pro-inflammatory/pyroptosis factor, the dual luciferase reporter assay confirmed that it could bind to 3’-UTR in mRNA of NF-κB. Compared with model group, CST significantly inhibited pyroptosis and LDH release in MNNG and NIG induced GES-1 cells (P < 0.01), reduced levels of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-18, TNF-α in supernatant and ROS, MPO, MDA in cells (P < 0.01), elevated levels of IL-4, IL-10 in supernatant and activities of CAT, GSH, SOD, T-AOC in cells (P < 0.01), suppressed the NF-κB p65 nuclear translocation and the co-localization of NLRP3, ASC and pro-Caspase-1 (P < 0.01), downregulated the mRNA expressions of miR-210, NF-κB, NLRP3 and the protein expressions of nuclear NF-κB p65, TXNIP, NEK7, NLRP3, ASC, pro-Caspase-1, Caspase-1, GSDMD, GSDMD-N, pro-IL-1β, pro-IL-18 (P < 0.01), upregulated the cytoplasmic NF-κB p65 protein expression (P < 0.01). The combination of CST with miR-210 inhibitor, NF-κB siRNA and NLRP3 siRNA transfection could further improve the above indicators (P < 0.01). Conclusion CST has a good preventive and therapeutic effect on MNNG and NIG-induced GES-1 cell injury, and its mechanism is closely related to inhibiting the abnormal elevation of miR-210 and activation of NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathway, alleviating oxidative stress and subsequent suppressing pyroptosis.

Objective To study chemical constituents and neuroprotective activities of the branches and leaves of Aphanamixis polystachya. Methods Monomer compounds were obtained through separation and purification using various chromatographic techniques including silica gel column chromatography, reversed-phase ODS column, Sephadex LH-20, semi-preparative HPLC, and recrystallization. Their structures were elucidated by modern spectroscopic methods including nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HRESIMS), infrared spectroscopy (IR), ultraviolet spectroscopy (UV), and single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. Results A total of 21 compounds were isolated from the branches and leaves of A. polystachya, identified as, (2R,5R,8S,9S,10R)-1-[(E)-5-hydroxy-3-methylpent-3-en-1-yl]-4,4,8,10-tetramethyldecahydronaphthalene-2,8-diol (1), (1S,4aS,7R,8R,8aS)-decahydro-8-[(3E)-5-hydroxy-3-methyl-3-penten-1-yl]-4,4,7,8a-tetramethyl-1,7-naphthalenediol (2), 3β,8α,15-trihydroxy-13-labdane (3), 8β,15-dihydroxy-ent-labda-13E-en-3-one (4), labd-13(E)-ene-8α,15-diol (5), labd-13(E)-ene-8α-hydroxy-15-acetate (6), labda-7,13E-dien-15-ol (7), labda-8,13E-dien-15-ol (8), brachytylin D (9), labda-8(17),13E-dien-15-ol (10), selin-11-en-4α-ol (11), (±)-selin-11-en-4α-ol (12), (1S,5R,9R)-10,10-dimethyl-2,6-dimethylenebicyclo[7.2.0]undecane-5-ol (13), caryophyllenol-II (14), ciwujiatone (15), lyoniresinol (16), isolariciresinol (17), (±)-ficusesquilignan A (18), ficusesquilignan B (19), syringaresinol (20), methyl rosmarinate (21). Conclusion Compound 1 is a novel compound designated as labdane diterpenoid Z. Compounds 2-4, 9, 11-15, and 18-21 are isolated from genus Aphanamixis for the first time, which further enriches the chemical component database of the genus Aphanamixis. Furthermore, biological activity assays reveals that compound 21 exhibits neuroprotective activity.

Objective To investigate the effect of catalpol on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory injury, extracellular matrix (ECM) metabolic dysregulation and pyroptosis in chondrocytes, and to explore whether these effects involve the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)/nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB)/NOD like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) signaling axis. Methods Network pharmacology was used to screening the intersection targets of catalpol, knee osteoarthritis and pyroptosis and enrichment analysis were performed. LPS was used to establish an inflammatory injury and induce pyroptosis model, followed by pretreatment with catalpol (20, 50 μmol/L) for 1 h. Protein expressions of collagen type II alpha 1 chain (COL2A1), aggrecan (ACAN), matrix metalloproteinase 3 (MMP3), MMP13 and key molecules in AMPK/NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling axis were detected by Western blotting. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release assay was performed to assess cell membrane integrity-related injury. The levels of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-18 in supernatants were detected by ELISA. The mRNA levels of NLRP3, IL-1β, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were detected by qRT-PCR. The cystein-asparate protease-1 (Caspase-1) inhibitor VX-765 was used as a positive control, the mechanism was further validated using AMPK inhibitor Compound C. Results Compared with control group, LPS stimulation could induce a decrease in ECM synthesis and an increase in ECM decomposition, significantly activate the NLRP3 related pyroptosis pathway (P < 0.001). Compared with model group, catalpol could significantly upregulate the expressions of COL2A1, ACAN and downregulate the expressions of MMP3, MMP13 (P < 0.05, 0.01, 0.001), while significantly reduce the release of LDH, IL-1β and IL-18 (P < 0.01, 0.001), and inhibit NLRP3, cleaved Caspase-1, N-terminal fragment of gasdermin D (GSDMD-N) and other pyroptosis related indicators (P < 0.05, 0.001). In addition, catalpol could significantly upregulate the expressions of p-AMPK/AMPK and phosphorylated acetyl CoA carboxylase (p-ACC)/ACC (P < 0.05, 0.001), and downregulate the expression of p-p65/p65 (P < 0.001), while downregulate the expressions of NLRP3, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α inflammation related genes (P < 0.05, 0.001). AMPK inhibitor Compound C could partially reverse the above-mentioned effects of catalpol (P < 0.05, 0.01, 0.001). Conclusion Catalpol may protect the matrix homeostasis of chondrocytes by activating AMPK and promoting downstream ACC phosphorylation, inhibiting NF-κB/NLRP3 related pathways.

Objective To explore the chemical profile variations of Glycyrrhiza uralensis from different origins and screen origin-specific characteristic markers by using UPLC fingerprinting integrated with chemometrics. This approach provides a scientific basis and reference for the quality evaluation of G. uralensis with unified attributes. Methods This study established UPLC fingerprints for 30 batches of G. uralensis collected from five origins and validated the analytical method. The quality consistency of the samples was preliminarily analyzed through similarity evaluation. Subsequently, chemometric methods such as principal component analysis (PCA), hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) were used to identify the patterns and differences of G. uralensis samples from different origins by SIMCA 14.0 software. Further, the key discriminant markers were identified based on the variable importance projection (VIP) values. Finally, the contents of the five characteristic markers were determined. Results UPLC fingerprints of 30 batches of G. uralensis samples were established. The similarities between each sample batch and the reference fingerprint varied but all exceeded 0.849. This indicates that while the overall chemical profiles of the samples were generally consistent, quantitative differences existed. Chemometric analysis showed clear clustering trends for samples from different origins, and the consistent results of PCA and HCA confirmed the presence of chemical differences among the origins. The OPLS-DA model effectively distinguished different origins, and the permutation test confirmed the reliability of the model. Five key characteristic markers were selected based on VIP > 1. The content determination results indicated that the contents of the five characteristic markers in G. uralensis from different origins varied significantly, further confirming the differences in chemical components among the origins. Conclusion The UPLC fingerprint combined with chemometrics (PCA, HCA, OPLS-DA) analysis method established in this study can effectively distinguish G. uralensis from different origins, and glycyrrhizin, glycyrrhizic acid, liquiritin apioside, glycyrrhizin B, and violanthin can be used as key characteristic markers for origin discrimination. This analytical system provides a reliable strategy and data support for objectively evaluating the quality differences of G. uralensis from different origins, identifying their origin sources, and improving future quality standards.

Objective This study focused on the concentration process in the manufacturing of Guizhi Fuling Capsules (GFC, 桂枝茯苓胶囊). By analyzing the correlations among effective components, physical properties, and process parameters, it aimed to identify critical quality attributes (CQAs) and critical process parameters (CPPs), explore quality control indicators and their acceptable ranges, and assess the potential for using physical properties of intermediate to guide its quality control. Methods The variations in process parameters (temperature, relative density at endpoint), physical properties (particle size, polydispersity index, ζ potential, conductivity, pH value, viscosity and refractive index), and effective components and total solid content during the concentration process were systematically investigated. Chemometric methods, including Pearson correlation coefficient, grey relational analysis, and partial least squares regression, were applied. Linear models between effective components and physical properties under different process parameters were established to elucidate the correlations among them. Results Analysis of effective component content and physical properties revealed strong correlations between effective components and ζ potential, conductivity, viscosity, and total solids content. For instance, viscosity was positively correlated with total solids, and the contents of amygdalin and paeoniflorin were both positively correlated with total solid content. Analysis of the active ingredients and physical property parameters of samples under various process parameters revealed that the concentration temperature is a key factor influencing the correlation between active ingredients and physical property parameters. Conclusion Correlation analysis of process parameters, physical properties, and effective components revealed interactive and dynamically linked relationships among these variables. Precise control of the concentration temperature during the manufacturing is essential to improve the quality and batch-to-batch consistency of the extract. To a certain extent, parameters such as viscosity, relative density, refractive index and pH value can reflect the quality of intermediates during concentration, providing a reference for the development of online intelligent monitoring in the concentration process of traditional Chinese medicine extracts.

Objective To establish a fingerprint and multi-indicator component content determination method for Juemingzi (Cassiae Semen), and combine it with chemometrics to evaluate the quality of Cassiae Semen from different origins. Methods Waters HSS T3 C₁₈ (150 mm × 3.0 mm, 1.8 μm) was used as the chromatographic column, acetonitrile-methanol (3∶1) was used as mobile phase A, 0.1% phosphoric acid solution was used as mobile phase B, and gradient elution was performed. The flow rate was 0.40 mL/min, the column temperature was 40 ℃, the detection wavelength was 285 nm, and the injection volume was 2 μL. Traditional Chinese medicine fingerprint similarity evaluation software was used for similarity evaluation, chemometrics was applied to analyze Cassiae Semen from different origins, and the content of 11 indicator components in Cassiae Semen was determined. Results The established fingerprint identified a total of 26 common peaks, and 13 components were identified through reference standards. Through cluster analysis and principal component analysis (PCA), different Cassiae Semen samples can be clustered into 4 categories, and through the application of orthogonal partial least squares-discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) method with VIP > 1 as the criterion, peaks 3 (emodin-1-O-β-D-glucoside), 6 (cassiaside), 7 (rubrofusarin-6-O-β-gentiobioside), 8 (aurantio-obtusin-6-O-D-glucoside), 9 (cassiaside C), 10, 17 (aurantio-obtusin), 21, and 23 (rubrofusarin) were selected as differential markers for distinguishing Cassiae Semen from different origins. The content ranges of isorhamnetin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, cassiaflavone B2, cassiaflavone, isorhamnetin-6-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, chrysin-6-O-glucoside, cassiaflavone C, cassiaflavone B, chrysin, chrysin-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, isorhamnetin, and chrysophanol in 18 batches of Cassiae Semen were 0.425-1.315, 4.129-8.790, 0.453-1.849, 2.617-4.739, 0.792-2.372, 1.424-3.533, 0.496-1.439, 0.630-1.359, 0.483-2.298, 2.130-9.516, and 2.006-3.841 mg/g, respectively. According to the methodology, each component exhibited a good linear relationship. Conclusion The established fingerprint of Cassiae Semen, combined with the chemical pattern recognition, can effectively distinguish Cassiae Semen from different origins. The multi-component content determination method is stable and reliable, providing a reference for the quality evaluation and control of Cassiae Semen.

Objective To conduct a bibliometric analysis of Chinese and English literature on the prevention and treatment of knee osteoarthritis (KOA) by traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) from 1995 to 2025, and visualize its research status, development context, cooperation network, hot topics and frontier trends. Methods Relevant Chinese literature from January 1995 to December 2025 were retrieved from CNKI, Wanfang and VIP, and relevant English literatures from January 1998 to December 2025 were retrieved from Web of Science (WOS). CiteSpace and VOSviewer software were used to visually analyze the trend of publication, countries, institutions, authors, keywords, etc., and draw a knowledge map. Results A total of 6 093 literature were included, including 5 242 Chinese literature and 851 English literature. The overall number of publications showed a fluctuating upward trend, and Chinese research output and cooperation in this field were dominant. The core research institutions are represented by Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Beijing University of Chinese Medicine. Keyword analysis showed that the current research hotspots focused on traditional therapies such as clinical efficacy, mechanism of action, traditional Chinese medicine compound, acupuncture and massage. Emergent words and cluster analysis showed that the frontier trend was turning to the mechanism exploration and application research of interdisciplinary and new drug delivery systems such as network pharmacology, metabolomics, programmed cell death, intestinal flora-articular axis, self-assembled nanocarriers and metal-organic frameworks. Conclusion Research on TCM for KOA prevention and treatment has entered a phase of rapid development and deep integration. While continuing to validate clinical efficacy, it is increasingly converging with modern technologies, shifting the research paradigm toward systems biology, precision medicine, and intelligent drug delivery. Through the integration of multi-omics, molecular subtyping, and the development of innovative formulations, TCM holds promise for playing a more pivotal role in the prevention, early intervention, and disease-modifying treatment of KOA.

The safety of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) is of paramount importance. Sulfur fumigation, a traditional processing and preservation technique for TCMs, serves to prevent mold during storage and improve product appearance. However, excessive sulfur fumigation leads to sulfur dioxide (SO₂) residues in the herbs, posing potential health risks. Currently, the SO₂ residue detection methods suffer from limitations including long analysis time, high cost, and operational complexity, making them inadequate for meeting the market demand for rapid testing. Fluorescent probe technology, with its advantages of high sensitivity, portability, simple preparation, and rapid response, has been widely applied in pharmaceutical development, biotechnology, and food safety. In recent years, the use of highly selective and sensitive fluorescent probes for the quantitative or semi-quantitative detection of SO₂ residues in TCMs has emerged as a significant research focus. This review systematically summarizes fluorescent probes developed in recent years for detecting SO₂ residues in TCMs, categorizing them based on their recognition mechanisms or structural features. It focuses on application progress of these probes in practical detection scenarios, analyzes the current technical challenges, and discusses future development directions. This review aims to provide theoretical foundations and technical references for enhancing the medicinal safety and quality control of TCMs.

Plant-associated microorganisms, as important components of the plant holobiont, affect the health and survival of plants and thus have attracted much attention. The growth and development of medicinal plant Salvia miltiorrhiza, the accumulation of active ingredients, and the process of disease control are closely related to the interaction with root microorganisms. Previous studies have shown that rhizosphere and endophytic microorganisms can promote the synthesis of phenolic acids and tanshinones, secondary metabolites, by regulating plant hormone levels, signal pathways, and the activity of key metabolic enzymes, and enhance the plant stress resistance and medicinal material quality. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, plant growth-promoting bacteria, and antagonistic fungi play significant roles in alleviating continuous cropping obstacles, inhibiting soil-borne pathogens, and maintaining rhizosphere ecological balance. Based on a systematic review of relevant research literature, this article focuses on summarizing the composition types, functional roles, and interaction mechanisms between S. miltiorrhiza and root microorganisms, and discusses their application potential of these microbes in S. miltiorrhiza cultivation. Finally, this paper discusses the existing problems in the current research and the future development directions, aiming to provide references for the microecological regulation of S. miltiorrhiza cultivation and the development and utilization of functional microorganisms of S. miltiorrhiza.