Article(id=1209139839585358353, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1209139833285505965, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2021.07.11, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1611849600000, receivedDateStr=2021-01-29, revisedDate=1619971200000, revisedDateStr=2021-05-03, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1766211002489, onlineDateStr=2025-12-20, pubDate=1627401600000, pubDateStr=2021-07-28, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1766211002489, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-20, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1766211002489, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766211002489, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1209139833285505965, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, year='2021', volume='46', issue='7', pageStart='637', pageEnd='742', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1766211000986, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766212174313, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1209144754630168707, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1209139833285505965, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1209144754630168708, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1209139833285505965, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=710, endPage=717, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1209139839920902688, articleId=1209139839585358353, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, language=EN, title=Recent advances in vaccine development of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, columnId=1190243275882729994, journalTitle=Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, columnName=Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a global pandemic. The pathogen responsible for this disease is a novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). It belongs to coronavirus family, a pathogen similar to SARS and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and manifests strong infectivity and pathogenicity to progress into severe pneumonia. Till now, there is no specific therapeutic drug targeting against this virus. With the rapid spread and deterioration of the epidemic situation, vaccination has become an urgent need. This review introduces the immune defense mechanism of human body against coronavirus briefly, set forth the key viral spike protein for coronavirus vaccine development, and then summarize the recent advances/progresses and potential challenges in safety and efficacy of vaccine development for SARS-CoV-2.

, correspAuthors=Zhong-Tian Qi, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*E-mail:
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新型冠状病毒肺炎(COVID-19)疫情已在全球范围内蔓延并造成大流行。引起此次疫情的病原体为新型冠状病毒(SARS-CoV-2),其与严重急性呼吸综合征(SARS)及中东呼吸综合征(MERS)的病原体均属于冠状病毒,传染性强,易引起重症肺炎,目前无特异性治疗药物。随着COVID-19疫情的蔓延及扩散,疫苗接种已成为当前的迫切需求。该文主要介绍冠状病毒感染相关的机体免疫保护机制,阐述新型冠状病毒疫苗研发的关键抗原S蛋白,并就冠状病毒目前疫苗研发的安全性、有效性及潜在问题进行总结。

, correspAuthors=戚中田, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
戚中田,E-mail:
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钱汐晶,医学博士,讲师,主要从事病毒致病机制以及抗病毒药物研发等方面的研究

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钱汐晶,医学博士,讲师,主要从事病毒致病机制以及抗病毒药物研发等方面的研究

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钱汐晶,医学博士,讲师,主要从事病毒致病机制以及抗病毒药物研发等方面的研究

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CTL. 细胞毒性T淋巴细胞;APC. 抗原提呈细胞

, figureFileSmall=Auh6i3ybdRJ5w3VtWztFag==, figureFileBig=DajqPV45VNIp7SCYKzIlvw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1209139844358476520, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1209139839585358353, language=EN, label=Tab.1, caption=

SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in middle and late clinical trials

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
类型组成免疫策略研究单位临床试验阶段临床试验注册号
灭活疫苗纯化的全病毒灭活疫苗2剂;Day0+21;IM[25]北京生物制品研究所联合国药Ⅳ期NCT04863638
2剂;Day0+14;IM[26]北京科兴中维生物技术有限公司Ⅳ期NCT04756830
2剂;Day0+21;IM[27]武汉生物制品研究所联合国药Ⅲ期ChiCTR2000034780
2剂;Day0+28;IM[28]中科院医学生物所Ⅲ期NCT04659239
2剂;Day0+21;IM[29]哈萨克斯坦生物安全问题科学研究所Ⅲ期NCT04691908
2剂;Day0+14;IM[30]印度Bharat生物技术公司Ⅲ期NCT04641481
1/2/3剂;ND;IM北京民海生物科技公司Ⅲ期NCT04852705
亚单位及纳米颗粒疫苗重组S蛋白亚基及基质蛋白M纳米颗粒疫苗2剂;Day0+21;IM[31-32]诺瓦瓦克斯医药Ⅲ期NCT04611802
重组RBD蛋白亚单位疫苗2~3剂;Day0+28(+56);IM[31]安徽智飞龙科马联合中国科学院微生物研究所Ⅲ期NCT04466085
类天然三聚体S蛋白疫苗2剂;Day0+21;IM[23]三叶草生物制药Ⅱ/Ⅲ期NCT04672395
基于S1-RBD蛋白亚基的多表位肽段疫苗2剂;Day0+28;IM[33]COVAXX联合生物医学公司Ⅱ/Ⅲ期NCT04683224
新冠病毒样颗粒疫苗2剂;Day0+21;IM[34]加拿大Medicago生物制药Ⅱ/Ⅲ期NCT04636697
病毒载体疫苗黑猩猩腺病毒牛津1号-S1~2剂;Day0+28;IM[35-36]牛津大学联合阿斯利康Ⅳ期NCT04760132
腺病毒5型载体1剂;Day0;IM[37]康希诺生物Ⅲ期NCT04526990
腺病毒26型载体1~2剂;Day0+56;IM[38-40]杨森制药Ⅲ期NCT04505722
腺病毒26型+5型载体2剂;Day0+21;IM[41]俄罗斯加马列亚研究所Ⅲ期NCT04530396
DNA疫苗DNA质粒疫苗3剂;Day0+28+56;ID[42]印度Zydus Cadila制药公司Ⅲ期CTRI/2020/07/026352
DNA质粒疫苗(INO-4800)2剂;Day0+28;ID[43]Inovio生物制药公司Ⅱ/Ⅲ期NCT04642638
DNA质粒疫苗2剂;Day0+14;IM[44]日本AnGes公司Ⅱ/Ⅲ期NCT04655625
RNA疫苗脂质体包裹的mRNA疫苗2剂;Day0+28;IM[45]Moderna/NIAIDⅣ期NCT04760132
自我扩增的mRNA疫苗2剂;Day0+21;IM[46-47]辉瑞(Pfizer)公司联合BioNTech公司Ⅳ期NCT04760132
2剂;Day0+28;IM[23]Curevac AGⅢ期NCT04674189
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类型组成免疫策略研究单位临床试验阶段临床试验注册号
灭活疫苗纯化的全病毒灭活疫苗2剂;Day0+21;IM[25]北京生物制品研究所联合国药Ⅳ期NCT04863638
2剂;Day0+14;IM[26]北京科兴中维生物技术有限公司Ⅳ期NCT04756830
2剂;Day0+21;IM[27]武汉生物制品研究所联合国药Ⅲ期ChiCTR2000034780
2剂;Day0+28;IM[28]中科院医学生物所Ⅲ期NCT04659239
2剂;Day0+21;IM[29]哈萨克斯坦生物安全问题科学研究所Ⅲ期NCT04691908
2剂;Day0+14;IM[30]印度Bharat生物技术公司Ⅲ期NCT04641481
1/2/3剂;ND;IM北京民海生物科技公司Ⅲ期NCT04852705
亚单位及纳米颗粒疫苗重组S蛋白亚基及基质蛋白M纳米颗粒疫苗2剂;Day0+21;IM[31-32]诺瓦瓦克斯医药Ⅲ期NCT04611802
重组RBD蛋白亚单位疫苗2~3剂;Day0+28(+56);IM[31]安徽智飞龙科马联合中国科学院微生物研究所Ⅲ期NCT04466085
类天然三聚体S蛋白疫苗2剂;Day0+21;IM[23]三叶草生物制药Ⅱ/Ⅲ期NCT04672395
基于S1-RBD蛋白亚基的多表位肽段疫苗2剂;Day0+28;IM[33]COVAXX联合生物医学公司Ⅱ/Ⅲ期NCT04683224
新冠病毒样颗粒疫苗2剂;Day0+21;IM[34]加拿大Medicago生物制药Ⅱ/Ⅲ期NCT04636697
病毒载体疫苗黑猩猩腺病毒牛津1号-S1~2剂;Day0+28;IM[35-36]牛津大学联合阿斯利康Ⅳ期NCT04760132
腺病毒5型载体1剂;Day0;IM[37]康希诺生物Ⅲ期NCT04526990
腺病毒26型载体1~2剂;Day0+56;IM[38-40]杨森制药Ⅲ期NCT04505722
腺病毒26型+5型载体2剂;Day0+21;IM[41]俄罗斯加马列亚研究所Ⅲ期NCT04530396
DNA疫苗DNA质粒疫苗3剂;Day0+28+56;ID[42]印度Zydus Cadila制药公司Ⅲ期CTRI/2020/07/026352
DNA质粒疫苗(INO-4800)2剂;Day0+28;ID[43]Inovio生物制药公司Ⅱ/Ⅲ期NCT04642638
DNA质粒疫苗2剂;Day0+14;IM[44]日本AnGes公司Ⅱ/Ⅲ期NCT04655625
RNA疫苗脂质体包裹的mRNA疫苗2剂;Day0+28;IM[45]Moderna/NIAIDⅣ期NCT04760132
自我扩增的mRNA疫苗2剂;Day0+21;IM[46-47]辉瑞(Pfizer)公司联合BioNTech公司Ⅳ期NCT04760132
2剂;Day0+28;IM[23]Curevac AGⅢ期NCT04674189
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新型冠状病毒疫苗研究进展
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钱汐晶 , 万彩虹 , 赵平 , 戚中田 *
解放军医学杂志 | 综述 2021,46(7): 710-717
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解放军医学杂志 | 综述 2021, 46(7): 710-717
新型冠状病毒疫苗研究进展
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钱汐晶, 万彩虹, 赵平, 戚中田*
作者信息
  • 海军军医大学海军医学系生物医学防护教研室,上海 200433
  • 钱汐晶,医学博士,讲师,主要从事病毒致病机制以及抗病毒药物研发等方面的研究

通讯作者:

戚中田,E-mail:
Recent advances in vaccine development of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
Xi-Jing Qian, Cai-Hong Wan, Ping Zhao, Zhong-Tian Qi*
Affiliations
  • Department of Biomedical Defense, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
出版时间: 2021-07-28 doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2021.07.11
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新型冠状病毒肺炎(COVID-19)疫情已在全球范围内蔓延并造成大流行。引起此次疫情的病原体为新型冠状病毒(SARS-CoV-2),其与严重急性呼吸综合征(SARS)及中东呼吸综合征(MERS)的病原体均属于冠状病毒,传染性强,易引起重症肺炎,目前无特异性治疗药物。随着COVID-19疫情的蔓延及扩散,疫苗接种已成为当前的迫切需求。该文主要介绍冠状病毒感染相关的机体免疫保护机制,阐述新型冠状病毒疫苗研发的关键抗原S蛋白,并就冠状病毒目前疫苗研发的安全性、有效性及潜在问题进行总结。

新型冠状病毒肺炎  /  冠状病毒  /  S蛋白  /  疫苗

The outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a global pandemic. The pathogen responsible for this disease is a novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). It belongs to coronavirus family, a pathogen similar to SARS and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and manifests strong infectivity and pathogenicity to progress into severe pneumonia. Till now, there is no specific therapeutic drug targeting against this virus. With the rapid spread and deterioration of the epidemic situation, vaccination has become an urgent need. This review introduces the immune defense mechanism of human body against coronavirus briefly, set forth the key viral spike protein for coronavirus vaccine development, and then summarize the recent advances/progresses and potential challenges in safety and efficacy of vaccine development for SARS-CoV-2.

coronavirus disease 2019  /  coronavirus  /  S protein  /  vaccine
钱汐晶, 万彩虹, 赵平, 戚中田. 新型冠状病毒疫苗研究进展. 解放军医学杂志, 2021 , 46 (7) : 710 -717 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2021.07.11
Xi-Jing Qian, Cai-Hong Wan, Ping Zhao, Zhong-Tian Qi. Recent advances in vaccine development of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2[J]. Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, 2021 , 46 (7) : 710 -717 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2021.07.11
人类冠状病毒最早于20世纪60年代由英国科学家分离出来,目前共发现7种,其中4种仅引起普通感冒症状,其余3种为高致病性肺炎相关冠状病毒,分别为严重急性呼吸综合征冠状病毒(SARS-CoV)、中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒(MERS-CoV)及新型冠状病毒(SARS-CoV-2)[1-2]。冠状病毒是具有包膜的RNA病毒,分为α、β、γ、δ4个属,基因组为一条单股正链RNA,长约30 kb,其中20 kb为非编码区,10 kb编码病毒蛋白,包括非结构蛋白(如一些复制相关的酶)及结构蛋白,后者包括刺突蛋白(spike,S)、包膜蛋白(envelope,E)、膜蛋白(membrane,M)及核衣壳蛋白(nucleocapsid,N)。
21世纪以来多次出现冠状病毒的人畜感染,其中一些造成了严重的传染病流行[3]。截至2021年5月1日,由SARS-CoV-2引起的新型冠状病毒肺炎(COVID-19)全球感染人数已超15 000万例,累计死亡人数超过317万[4]。2002年末,SARS-CoV在中国广东首次出现,并在国内肆虐,造成了8000余人感染,700余人死亡的严重后果[5]。2012年,MERS-CoV在沙特阿拉伯首次出现,后在中东地区流行。韩国也于2015年发生MERS-CoV暴发流行,病死率高达35.3%[6]。这三种冠状病毒同属β冠状病毒属,均易引起重症肺炎、急性呼吸窘迫综合征及多器官衰竭,严重危害人类健康、社会稳定及经济发展,是需要全球关注的公共卫生问题[7]。目前,尚无针对这三种冠状病毒感染的特效治疗药物。
疫苗接种一直是预防传染病的有效方法。对于今后可能长期与人类共存的SARS-CoV-2来说,疫苗的研发尤为重要[8]。目前已有将近200种COVID-19疫苗处于临床前研究阶段,90多种处于临床研究阶段。至少10款疫苗已获紧急批准上市用于人群接种,包括中国的3款灭活疫苗、1款腺病毒载体疫苗、1款重组蛋白疫苗,德、美、中联合研发及美国独立研制的2款mRNA疫苗,英国的1款腺病毒载体疫苗,印度的灭活疫苗以及俄罗斯的“卫星V”疫苗(腺病毒疫苗)[9]。本文将简要介绍机体对SARS-CoV-2感染诱导的免疫应答机制,冠状病毒疫苗研发的关键S蛋白的结构、功能及免疫学特性,并就目前临床在研的SARS-CoV-2疫苗的研究进展进行综述。
人感染SARS-CoV-2后会激发一系列体液与细胞免疫反应(图1[10])。既往研究发现,感染SARS-CoV或MERS-CoV后,在患者体内均能检测到中和抗体的存在。在一些患者血浆中,针对MERS-CoV的高滴度抗体甚至能维持30多个月[11]。体内有效中和抗体的产生对患者治愈至关重要。在SARS或MERS流行期间,利用恢复期患者血浆中高滴度中和抗体治疗危重患者成功的例子不在少数。目前,国内外也已在临床上开展应用康复者血浆治疗COVID-19患者的尝试,并在多例危重患者中获得了明显治疗效果[12],表明利用冠状病毒相关蛋白激发机体产生中和抗体的方法是有效且可行的,这也是开展疫苗研发的基础之一。人血管紧张素转化酶Ⅱ(ACE2)是SARS-CoV-2中S蛋白结合靶细胞的重要受体分子,SARS-CoV-2诱导的体液免疫产生的抗体主要是针对病毒表面的S蛋白及N蛋白,可以中和病毒,避免感染表达ACE2的细胞或组织,而抗体滴度水平是评价疫苗是否成功激发了可以对抗病毒感染的体液免疫的一个重要指标[10]
此外,由T细胞介导的适应性免疫的激活也是机体抵抗病毒感染至关重要的因素。研究显示,在SARS-CoV-2感染早期,CD4+及CD8+ T细胞水平均增高,且特异性的T细胞可在体外病毒抗原的刺激下产生一系列抗病毒蛋白[13]。同样,COVID-19疾病严重程度也与T细胞水平明显相关[14]。细胞免疫激活在急性期产生的主要是细胞毒性T细胞,而在恢复期则是以记忆性T细胞产生多种免疫分子如γ干扰素(IFN-γ)、白细胞介素-2(IL-2)、肿瘤坏死因子-α(TNF-α)为主[15]
理想的冠状病毒疫苗应当具有较好的安全性及免疫原性,能够同时激活体液免疫与细胞免疫反应,诱导机体产生足量的中和抗体,以对抗病毒感染。若疫苗能诱导免疫记忆,则不需多次加强就能提供长期保护。在这些因素中,中和抗体的产生至关重要。此外,通过黏膜途径免疫的疫苗不仅能激发机体产生系统性抗体反应,获得高滴度的免疫球蛋白(IgG),还能活化黏膜免疫,稳固人体对抗病毒感染的第一道防线[16-17]。疫苗若能激发细胞免疫,则能进一步增强防治病毒感染的效果[18]
冠状病毒S蛋白又称刺突蛋白,是介导病毒侵入靶细胞的关键蛋白,也是诱导抗病毒中和抗体产生的关键蛋白。S蛋白为高糖基化蛋白,以三聚体形式在病毒颗粒表面形成特殊花冠结构。该蛋白由1160~1400个氨基酸构成,包含21~35个N端糖基化位点,具有受体结合活性及膜融合活性,与病毒感染及致病密切相关,是疫苗研发过程中最重要的抗原分子[19-20]。在宿主细胞蛋白酶的作用下,S蛋白会被裂解成S1及S2两部分。S1变异性较大,在不同病毒或同一病毒不同毒株间有明显差异,是与宿主细胞结合的表面病毒受体结合区(RBD)。新冠病毒之所以能跨物种传播到人,并发生人与人之间的传播,主要原因是其具有与SARS-CoV相似的S蛋白RBD,能够完美结合ACE2。S2相对保守,主要参与病毒与细胞膜融合的过程。S1又可分为两个结构域,分别为N端结构域(S1-NTD)及C端结构域(S1-CTD)。大部分S1-NTD结合糖类受体,S1-CTD结合蛋白类受体。SARS-CoV及SARS-CoV-2的受体ACE2,以及MERS-CoV的受体DPP4均与S1-CTD结合。该结构域也是重要的中和性区域,是疫苗研发的关键靶点。
S蛋白作为冠状病毒感染宿主细胞的关键蛋白,决定着病毒感染的宿主与组织嗜性,也是冠状病毒保护性免疫的主要抗原。中和抗体或T细胞免疫反应可针对多种冠状病毒蛋白,但主要是靶向S蛋白。SARS-CoV的S蛋白免疫原性强,能诱导中和抗体的产生,在感染小鼠模型中,能有效阻止病毒在体内的复制[21]。基于MERS-CoV S蛋白RBD的疫苗在动物实验中具有较好的免疫保护作用,而进入临床试验阶段的3种MERS疫苗,其表达的病毒抗原均为S蛋白[22]。目前,紧急授权使用的及正在开发的大部分SARS-CoV-2疫苗的主要抗原也均是S蛋白,这是因为S蛋白RBD区能诱导机体产生强大的中和抗体反应[23-24]。作为高度糖基化蛋白,S蛋白的中和性抗原表位主要位于N端560个氨基酸残基上,其抗原性与蛋白构象及糖基化位点高度相关。因此,若要生产具有较好抗原性及免疫原性的S蛋白,宜选用真核表达系统。
根据WHO的统计,目前正处于研发中的SARS-CoV-2疫苗共有200余种,其中74种已进入临床试验阶段,超过20种处于临床中后期阶段(表1)。而SARS-CoV、MERS-CoV疫苗的研发则由于患病人数的锐减而停滞不前。冠状病毒疫苗尤其是COVID-19疫苗的研发几乎涵盖了已有的所有疫苗技术,根据研究平台的不同,其类型主要分为以下几种。
灭活疫苗是通过物理或化学方法使病毒失活。一般情况下,灭活疫苗能激活机体产生保护性免疫,但有研究显示,冠状病毒灭活疫苗的保护作用各不相同[31,48-49]。SARS-CoV及MERS-CoV的灭活疫苗都可在动物模型中诱导保护性免疫应答,但也都曾被报道具有引起肺部高反应性免疫病理损伤的可能[31,49]。国内针对SARS-CoV-2灭活疫苗的研究开展较早,目前处于临床研究阶段的13个灭活疫苗中有5个来自中国,包括国药中生北京新冠灭活疫苗(BBIBP-CorV)、北京科兴新冠灭活疫苗(CoronaVac)、国药中生武汉新冠灭活疫苗(Vero细胞)、中科院医学生物所新冠疫苗(Vero细胞)、北京民海生物科技公司灭活新冠疫苗(Vero细胞)。其中前3家已处于海外Ⅲ期及Ⅳ期临床试验尾声,在国内附条件上市[50]。此外,国外的灭活疫苗也有多个进入Ⅲ期临床试验,如哈萨克斯坦的QazCovidin®[29]及印度Bharat生物制药公司的BBV152[30](表1)。另有7个灭活疫苗处于临床前研究阶段。已有结果显示,SARS-CoV-2灭活疫苗安全性良好,有效性在几个已揭盲的国外Ⅲ期临床试验中也均达到了WHO相关标准要求。冠状病毒灭活疫苗的优点是能够提供几乎所有的病毒结构抗原,刺激机体产生保护性抗体,安全性也有保证。但灭活疫苗一般需多次加强免疫,且不能有效诱导黏膜T细胞反应,病毒抗原的免疫原性也可能在灭活过程中发生改变。此外,大规模量产高致病性冠状病毒灭活疫苗对生产企业的安全管理也提出了较高的要求。
减毒疫苗由活病毒构成,通过基因改造或化学处理的方式,使病毒毒力明显减弱或缺失。目前进入临床研究阶段的减毒活疫苗仅有2个,均处于Ⅰ期临床试验阶段,分别是印度血清研究所与美国生物技术公司Codagenix共同合作开发的COVI-VAC,以及美国Meissa Vaccines公司的MV-014-212[51]。COVI-VAC所用减毒株的繁殖速度仅为野生毒株的1‰,通过鼻喷剂的方式来免疫机体,目前正在伦敦进行Ⅰ期临床测试。另有2个减毒疫苗处于临床前研究阶段。减毒疫苗能诱导机体产生与自然感染相似的免疫保护作用,与灭活疫苗相比,其具有免疫原性强、作用时间持久、使用量少等优点。减毒疫苗最主要的问题是安全性,由于保留了一定毒力,病毒基因组可能通过恢复突变在体内恢复毒性,婴儿、免疫力低下者或老年人均不适合接种减毒疫苗。
亚单位疫苗由病毒中具有免疫活性的部分蛋白质构成,是目前最安全的疫苗之一。然而,由于免疫原性常较低,需与佐剂联用才能发挥较好的免疫保护作用。冠状病毒亚单位疫苗主要针对病毒的S蛋白设计研发。其中S1亚基是感染过程中主要的免疫原性抗原,因其更容易被免疫识别,且中和表位大多在其RBD上[52]。研究显示,重组SAR-CoV或MERS-CoV的S蛋白RBD与人免疫球蛋白(IgG)Fc段的连接蛋白可在免疫动物体内诱导出高效的中和抗体,保护易感动物免受病毒侵害[32,53]。目前在研的SAR-CoV-2亚单位疫苗多达90余种,其中20多种已进入临床试验阶段。诺瓦瓦克斯医药的亚单位疫苗NVX-CoV2373在动物模型中能诱导产生高水平的中和抗体,同时激活细胞免疫,具有显著的保护作用,在英国开展的Ⅲ期临床试验显示,该疫苗的有效率为89.3%;其中,对原始COVID-19毒株的保护率为95.6%,对501Y.Y1毒株的保护率为85.6%。在南非的Ⅱb期临床试验结果显示,该疫苗在人免疫缺陷病毒(HIV)人群中的保护率为60%,对其中27例的初步测序研究发现,三重突变体501Y.V2的比例高达92.6%,提示NVXCoV2373对南非变异株病毒也能发挥明显的保护作用[53-54]。安徽智飞龙科生物制药与中科院微生物所联合研制的新冠亚单位疫苗也正处于Ⅲ期临床试验阶段,并在国内获批紧急使用,在乌兹别克斯坦获批正式上市,成为国际上第一个获批临床使用的SAR-CoV-2重组亚单位疫苗[31]。中国三叶草生物制药的“S-三聚体”重组蛋白亚单位新冠疫苗在Ⅰ期临床试验中显示出良好的安全性与免疫原性[55]。该疫苗与Dynavax的CpG 1018加铝佐剂联合使用已开始在全球范围内进行Ⅱ/Ⅲ期临床试验[23](表1)。在亚单位疫苗的研发中,糖基化S蛋白的纯化及融合前构型的稳定、病毒蛋白载体的合理选择、佐剂或免疫增强剂的有效性均是需关注的重要问题。由于不涉及活病毒,该法较减毒疫苗更安全,又无需灭活疫苗的步骤,避免了改变病毒蛋白免疫原性的可能。但亚单位疫苗抗原的选择及应用的安全性仍需进一步体内外的研究与评估。
纳米颗粒疫苗利用重组的病毒蛋白自行包装成类病毒颗粒,中心不含病毒基因组,又称为病毒样颗粒(virus-like particles,VLP)疫苗。VLP能提供高密度的病毒抗原表位,有效激活免疫系统。目前已有5种VLP疫苗进入了临床试验阶段。Medicago公司早期研制过流感VLP疫苗,能激活机体产生广泛的抗体及T细胞反应,该公司基于前期技术开发的新冠VLP疫苗CoVLP已进入Ⅱ/Ⅲ期临床试验阶段[34,56](表1)。但仍有关于SARS-CoVVLP疫苗免疫后产生免疫病理反应增强的报道[57]。该类疫苗的有效性还有待进一步观察。
病毒载体疫苗是利用基因工程技术将非致病的病毒构建成为载体,然后导入需要外源表达的保护性抗原基因片段形成的活疫苗。不同于上述疫苗提供细胞外抗原,该类疫苗通过病毒载体将基因片段送入细胞内,在胞内进行抗原表达,免疫过程与自然感染方式十分接近,不仅能活化机体的体液免疫,还能激活广谱的细胞免疫及黏膜免疫,兼备了免疫原性高、作用时间久及安全性高等多个优点。由于使用的都是常规稳定的病毒载体系统,制备生产工艺较为成熟、便捷,是疫苗研发的重点方向之一。冠状病毒疫苗常用的病毒载体为腺病毒及安卡拉改良痘苗病毒(MVA),此外还包括一些复制型病毒载体,如流感病毒载体、水疱性口炎病毒(VSV)载体等。目前进入临床试验阶段的3种MERS疫苗中有2种为病毒载体疫苗[58-59]。针对当前的COVID-19疫情,国内外科研机构正全力进行病毒载体疫苗的研发。目前共有18种病毒载体新冠疫苗进入临床试验阶段,其中阿斯利康/牛津的黑猩猩腺病毒载体疫苗已公布其疫苗保护率为90%(1.5针)、62%(2针)。康希诺腺病毒5型载体疫苗克威莎正处于海外Ⅲ期临床试验阶段[60-61],目前公布的临床试验期中分析结果显示,单针接种28 d后的总体保护效力为65.28%,对重症患者的保护效力可达到90.07%,已在国内附条件上市。此外,处于Ⅲ期临床试验阶段的SAR-CoV-2载体疫苗还包括俄罗斯Gamaleya的“卫星-V”及中国西安杨森制药的Ad26.COV2.S,均使用非复制性的腺病毒载体[38-41](表1)。但人群对常规病毒感染可能存在普遍免疫,疫苗生产过程中载体病毒的滴度也较难把控,病毒载体的致病性及潜在致癌风险也不容忽视,其安全性及有效性还需进一步评估。
核酸疫苗可分为DNA疫苗与RNA疫苗,其原理是将编码病毒抗原的核酸运送到宿主细胞内,利用细胞的表达系统获得目标抗原分子,激发机体的免疫保护反应。目前核酸疫苗的设计、制备及活性检测都有相应的成熟平台支撑,能灵活快速应对不同感染性病原体的表达,生产时间及成本相对较少,具备应急疫苗开发及生产的潜力。
DNA疫苗是将病毒保护性抗原基因与表达载体构建成一个重组体,免疫机体后表达抗原蛋白,激活体内免疫保护的一类疫苗。DNA疫苗可在载体质粒上插入多个抗原基因,设计制备过程简单,并可在体内长期表达,同时诱导体液免疫与细胞免疫,且不需加强免疫,安全性较好。因疫苗生产不涉及病毒复制、蛋白表达及纯化,所以生产周期短、成本低。S基因、N基因是冠状病毒DNA疫苗的主要构成部分。将病毒抗原蛋白的优势表位区段进行重组,筛选出具有强免疫保护作用的候选疫苗,可提高DNA疫苗的免疫原性。截至目前,已有超过10种DNA新冠疫苗进入临床试验阶段,处在临床研究前列的包括美国Inovio公司的INO-4800、日本AnGes公司的AG0301-COVID19、印度Zydus Cadila制药公司的DNA疫苗,这3种疫苗都已进入Ⅱ/Ⅲ期临床试验阶段[42-44](表1)。INO-4800的Ⅰ期临床试验数据显示,该疫苗在所有受试者体内均能有效诱导体液与细胞免疫反应,且具有良好的安全性及耐受性[43,62]。然而,DNA疫苗的免疫需要使用特殊的接种工具如电穿仪或基因枪,增加了免疫接种的成本。同时,外源质粒自发整合到宿主基因组的潜在危险也不容忽视。
RNA疫苗通常指mRNA疫苗。体外转录获得的mRNA疫苗需包含类似于成熟mRNA的开放阅读框表达目标蛋白,两侧由非翻译区包裹。早期,由于mRNA的不稳定性、较高的先天免疫原性以及体内低效的递送方式,使mRNA疫苗的研发受到了一定限制。近十多年来,多项关键技术的发展解决了上述短板[63]
目前已建立了多个针对感染性疾病的mRNA疫苗多功能平台,且已有多种感染性病原体mRNA疫苗进入临床试验阶段。与传统疫苗生产平台相比,mRNA疫苗平台生产过程无需细胞培养或动物源基质,工艺简单,合成周期快,耗费成本较低,可立即针对病原体设计mRNA,迅速切换生产模式,快速应对疫情需求,抗变异能力也较强。目前针对COVID-19疫情的mRNA疫苗研发基本都采用病毒S蛋白作为抗原开展,可同时激发体内的细胞与体液免疫反应,产生良好的保护效果。WHO的统计显示,至少有8种RNA新冠疫苗进入临床研究阶段。辉瑞公司与BioNTech公司联合开发的mRNA疫苗BNT162b2,以及Moderna公司的mRNA-1273均已获得Ⅲ期临床数据,两者的保护率分别为95%及94.1%,目前已进入Ⅳ期临床阶段,并相继获紧急批准上市使用[45-46]。另一mRNA治疗巨头公司CureVac AG的候选疫苗也已进入Ⅲ期临床试验阶段[23](表1)。我国军事科学院联合云南沃森生物及苏州艾博生物科技自主研发的mRNA新冠疫苗也已进入临床试验阶段。3种人肺炎相关冠状病毒(SARS-CoV、MERS-CoV、SARS-CoV-2)在基因序列上具有一定的相似性,Moderna公司的SAR-CoV-2 mRNA疫苗正是利用之前其在MERS-CoV mRNA疫苗中的研究成果调整改造而来。
冠状病毒mRNA疫苗具有其他类型疫苗无法比拟的安全性,生产平台不涉及任何感染性病毒颗粒,也无与内源性基因整合突变的风险。此外,mRNA可通过细胞生理途径降解,在体内的半衰期也可通过基因修饰或免疫途径调控。作为最小的基因载体,mRNA的多次免疫不良反应较少。而得益于体外转录反应的高效性,大量快速低价生产mRNA疫苗成为可能。对于高致病性冠状病毒,mRNA疫苗研究的基础实验数据充分,临床活性评价全面,在冠状病毒疫苗的研发方面具有得天独厚的优势。
目前,进入临床研究阶段的SARS-CoV-2疫苗共有93种,其中灭活疫苗13种,减毒疫苗2种,亚单位疫苗29种,纳米颗粒疫苗5种,病毒载体疫苗21种,DNA疫苗10种,RNA疫苗13种。
COVID-19疫情的发生发展对全人类的健康、经济发展及社会稳定造成了严重的影响。目前,COVID-19疫情仍呈全球大流行的态势,且尚无特异性治疗药物。因此,注射安全有效的SARS-CoV-2疫苗形成群体免疫是控制该病流行最经济有效的手段。迄今为止,各种类型的SARS-CoV-2疫苗都有成熟的候选产品进入临床研究阶段,有几种在临床研究中表现优异的疫苗已获紧急批准上市,SARS-CoV-2疫苗的发展形势似乎一片大好,然而,未来疫苗的发展仍面临诸多挑战。
(1)病毒变异问题。2020年底,在英国、南非、巴西、中东等地区相继出现了变异病毒。随着病毒变异发展得越来越快,疫苗的有效性与时效性都可能受到巨大挑战。近期印度疫情的失控,也再次给全世界敲响了警钟。印度国内病例中检测出了高比例的B.1.617变异株,该毒株更易突破免疫保护屏障,传播性也更强,是否会影响现有疫苗的作用还需进一步研究。如果印度疫情持续失控,不仅会成为病毒的超级输出者,更可能导致更多的变异病毒出现。
(2)疫苗公平也是摆在国际社会面前的巨大考验。就目前情况来看,多个国家及地区的SARS-CoV-2疫苗产能难以满足需求。疫苗接种在贫富人群、不同种族人群中存在明显不公平,尤其印度疫情的暴发可能会导致全球疫苗供应紧张。这些都将加剧COVID-19疫情在一些地区的传播及变异,并可能进一步影响全球疫情的发展。抗疫是全世界共同面对的难题,因此,新冠疫苗的研发、生产与普及还需要世界各国的共同努力与协作。
(3)全球疫苗接种率仍不足。目前,全球共有超过十亿人接种了COVID-19疫苗。从疫苗接种率最高的以色列来看,疫苗接种对疫情的控制可起到决定性的作用。中国目前接种疫苗的比例还远远达不到群体免疫水平,并非是疫苗供应及接种能力不足,关键还是国人接种疫苗的意愿不高。尽管国内疫情平稳,但若不能建立免疫屏障,一旦打开国门有传染源进入,后果及代价可能都会非常沉重。
(4)如何保障新冠疫苗冷链存贮、运输管理也是需要关注的问题之一。疫苗冷链门槛较高,需要做到无缝衔接,否则会造成疫苗失效。比起需要–70 ℃储存的美国辉瑞疫苗、–20 ℃运输的美国Moderna疫苗,我国获批使用的灭活疫苗储运的便捷性更高,仅需要2~8 ℃的环境。但由于疫情在世界范围内传播,疫苗的分发将涉及不同国情及文化的差异,对全世界的冷链物流都是巨大的挑战。
  • 国家传染病重大专项课题(2017ZX10304403-003)
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2021年第46卷第7期
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doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2021.07.11
  • 接收时间:2021-01-29
  • 首发时间:2025-12-20
  • 出版时间:2021-07-28
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  • 收稿日期:2021-01-29
  • 修回日期:2021-05-03
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National Special Projects of Infectious Diseases(2017ZX10304403-003)
国家传染病重大专项课题(2017ZX10304403-003)
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    海军军医大学海军医学系生物医学防护教研室,上海 200433

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戚中田,E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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