Article(id=1207394343690801219, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1207394339840431074, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2022.10.1049, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1631721600000, receivedDateStr=2021-09-16, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1647360000000, acceptedDateStr=2022-03-16, onlineDate=1765794843837, onlineDateStr=2025-12-15, pubDate=1666886400000, pubDateStr=2022-10-28, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1765794843837, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-15, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1765794843837, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1765794843837, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1207394339840431074, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, year='2022', volume='47', issue='10', pageStart='957', pageEnd='1062', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1765794842920, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1765794898634, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1207394573588992611, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1207394339840431074, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1207394573588992612, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1207394339840431074, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1049, endPage=1056, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1207394344055705690, articleId=1207394343690801219, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, language=EN, title=Research progress on changes of glycocalyx in sepsis-based vascular endothelial injury and its repair strategy, columnId=1190243275882729994, journalTitle=Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, columnName=Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Sepsis and its development of multiple organ dysfunction pose a serious threat to human life and health. Sepsis is a hot issue that experts in the critical field are committed to solve. It is a heterogeneous, infection-induced systemic inflammatory response syndrome based on endothelial dysfunction, and it is still a huge burden on the global health system. As a well recognized immune cell, the endothelium is the primary site of attack by pathogens, toxins, or endogenous injury signals, which cause activation of endothelial cells and consequently damage to their function or structure. Although the latter may help to eliminate the infection and limit the dissemination of the infection to some extent, the excessive and persistent inflammatory response will also lead to a subsequent storm of cytokine and organ damage, causing irreversible damage to the organism. Glycocalyx is the first barrier on the surface of endothelial cells, it is also the first line of defence for endothelial cells under attack in sepsis, which has a great significance on endothelial function. Many studies have found that a variety of immune inflammatory responses involving the glycocalyx also play a key role in the development of sepsis. This review will give a brief overview of the factors, mechanisms and various treatments targeting glycocalyx injury in sepsis at present.

, correspAuthors=Zhen-Yu Li, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*E-mail:
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脓毒症及由其发展而致的多器官功能障碍严重威胁着人类的生命健康,是危重症领域亟待解决的热点问题。脓毒症是具有异质性的、由感染诱发的、以内皮功能障碍为病理生理基础的全身炎症反应综合征,迄今仍是全球卫生系统的巨大负担,而内皮细胞作为一种公认的免疫细胞,是外来病原体、毒素或机体内源性损伤信号首要的攻击部位。外来病原体等物质使得内皮细胞发生活化,进而对内皮细胞的功能或结构造成破坏,由此内皮细胞将从正常抗炎、抗凝血的生理状态转变为促炎、促凝血的病理状态,尽管后者在一定程度上有助于消除感染、限制病灶的播散,但过度和持续的炎症反应也将导致后续炎性因子风暴和器官损伤的发生,对机体造成不可逆的损害。糖萼是内皮细胞表面的首层屏障,也是脓毒症时内皮细胞受到攻击的第一道防线,对保护内皮功能有重要意义,由糖萼参与的多种免疫炎症反应亦在脓毒症发展过程中起关键作用。本文对脓毒症时引起糖萼损伤的因素、机制,以及以糖萼为靶点的多种治疗手段进行综述。

, correspAuthors=李真玉, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
李真玉,E-mail:
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林源希,硕士研究生,主要从事急性呼吸窘迫综合征的基础与临床研究

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林源希,硕士研究生,主要从事急性呼吸窘迫综合征的基础与临床研究

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林源希,硕士研究生,主要从事急性呼吸窘迫综合征的基础与临床研究

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糖萼在脓毒症血管内皮损伤中的变化及其修复策略研究进展
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林源希 , 李真玉 *
解放军医学杂志 | 综述 2022,47(10): 1049-1056
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解放军医学杂志 | 综述 2022, 47(10): 1049-1056
糖萼在脓毒症血管内皮损伤中的变化及其修复策略研究进展
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林源希, 李真玉*
作者信息
  • 天津医科大学第二医院重症医学科,天津 300211
  • 林源希,硕士研究生,主要从事急性呼吸窘迫综合征的基础与临床研究

通讯作者:

李真玉,E-mail:
Research progress on changes of glycocalyx in sepsis-based vascular endothelial injury and its repair strategy
Yuan-Xi Lin, Zhen-Yu Li*
Affiliations
  • Department of Critical Care Medicine, the Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300211, China
出版时间: 2022-10-28 doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2022.10.1049
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脓毒症及由其发展而致的多器官功能障碍严重威胁着人类的生命健康,是危重症领域亟待解决的热点问题。脓毒症是具有异质性的、由感染诱发的、以内皮功能障碍为病理生理基础的全身炎症反应综合征,迄今仍是全球卫生系统的巨大负担,而内皮细胞作为一种公认的免疫细胞,是外来病原体、毒素或机体内源性损伤信号首要的攻击部位。外来病原体等物质使得内皮细胞发生活化,进而对内皮细胞的功能或结构造成破坏,由此内皮细胞将从正常抗炎、抗凝血的生理状态转变为促炎、促凝血的病理状态,尽管后者在一定程度上有助于消除感染、限制病灶的播散,但过度和持续的炎症反应也将导致后续炎性因子风暴和器官损伤的发生,对机体造成不可逆的损害。糖萼是内皮细胞表面的首层屏障,也是脓毒症时内皮细胞受到攻击的第一道防线,对保护内皮功能有重要意义,由糖萼参与的多种免疫炎症反应亦在脓毒症发展过程中起关键作用。本文对脓毒症时引起糖萼损伤的因素、机制,以及以糖萼为靶点的多种治疗手段进行综述。

脓毒症  /  内皮,血管  /  糖萼

Sepsis and its development of multiple organ dysfunction pose a serious threat to human life and health. Sepsis is a hot issue that experts in the critical field are committed to solve. It is a heterogeneous, infection-induced systemic inflammatory response syndrome based on endothelial dysfunction, and it is still a huge burden on the global health system. As a well recognized immune cell, the endothelium is the primary site of attack by pathogens, toxins, or endogenous injury signals, which cause activation of endothelial cells and consequently damage to their function or structure. Although the latter may help to eliminate the infection and limit the dissemination of the infection to some extent, the excessive and persistent inflammatory response will also lead to a subsequent storm of cytokine and organ damage, causing irreversible damage to the organism. Glycocalyx is the first barrier on the surface of endothelial cells, it is also the first line of defence for endothelial cells under attack in sepsis, which has a great significance on endothelial function. Many studies have found that a variety of immune inflammatory responses involving the glycocalyx also play a key role in the development of sepsis. This review will give a brief overview of the factors, mechanisms and various treatments targeting glycocalyx injury in sepsis at present.

sepsis  /  endothelium, vascular  /  glycocalyx
林源希, 李真玉. 糖萼在脓毒症血管内皮损伤中的变化及其修复策略研究进展. 解放军医学杂志, 2022 , 47 (10) : 1049 -1056 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2022.10.1049
Yuan-Xi Lin, Zhen-Yu Li. Research progress on changes of glycocalyx in sepsis-based vascular endothelial injury and its repair strategy[J]. Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, 2022 , 47 (10) : 1049 -1056 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2022.10.1049
糖萼是存在于细胞表面的一种多糖复合物,是维持正常血管屏障功能必不可缺少的要素,多种疾病如高血压、卒中、动脉粥样硬化及癌症等的发生均与糖萼结构改变有关。脓毒症作为一种系统性的炎症反应,其发病机制与血管内皮损伤密切相关[1-2]。本文主要针对糖萼在脓毒症发生发展中的作用,以及靶向修复糖萼以治疗脓毒症的策略进行综述。
糖萼是由内皮细胞合成并衬覆于内皮腔面和相邻内皮间隙中的一层带负电荷的凝胶状多糖-蛋白复合物,是由Luft[3]于1966年在电镜下对小鼠横膈膜毛细血管进行钌红染色后观察到的。2018年Inagawa等[4]对小鼠肺组织进行硝酸镧碱性染色,在电镜下发现糖萼是完全覆盖在肺毛细血管内皮表面的青苔样物质。
蛋白聚糖(proteoglycans,PGs)是糖萼的骨架结构,由核心蛋白与糖胺聚糖侧链(glycosaminoglycan,GAGs)通过共价键结合形成,其中包含的成分有硫酸乙酰肝素(heparan sulfate,HS)(占50%~90%)、硫酸软骨素(chondroitin sulfate,CS)、硫酸角质素(keratan sulfate,KS)、硫酸皮肤素(dermatan sulfate,DS)及透明质酸(hyaluronic acid,HA)等。PGs的核心蛋白分两类:一类是跨膜多聚糖蛋白(Syndecan);另一类是与内皮细胞膜锚定的磷脂酰肌醇蛋白聚糖(Glypican)。Syndecan与GAGs相结合。HA可与细胞膜上的糖蛋白CD44直接相连。其他可溶性组分如白蛋白、超氧化物歧化酶(superoxide dismutase,SOD)、抗凝血酶及细胞黏附分子填充于由PGs组成的糖萼网状结构的筛孔中并相互作用[5]
基于超微结构研究,Curry等[6-7]于2011年提出了“双层结构”模型假说,认为糖萼分为致密的内层及稀疏多孔的外层,内层锚定于细胞骨架,并附着于PGs,是血浆大分子的选择性屏障,起分子筛作用。外层由GAGs及可溶性血浆蛋白组成,可维护红细胞在血管内正常运动及阻止炎性细胞与内皮表面接触,外层结构破坏对内层的选择性渗透功能无明显影响。
糖萼在维持血管内皮通透性、调节血管正常张力、协调白细胞对内皮的黏附、控制炎症反应及凝血平衡等方面都发挥了重要作用。
糖萼覆盖在内皮细胞胞间连接上,高度硫酸化的GAGs阻止带负电荷或分子量大于70 ku的物质进入内皮表面,限制白蛋白跨细胞流动以维持血管腔两侧胶体渗透压梯度,有利于管腔重吸收液体。因此,糖萼是决定血管内皮屏障通透性的关键因素。有研究证实,肾小球糖萼损伤与蛋白尿形成有关[8-9]。糖萼也通过阻止红细胞、血小板与内皮表面接触,从而调节凝血与炎症反应[10-11]
血液流体剪切力升高时,血管自动舒张以适应大小不同的灌注压,早在1986年Rubanyi等[12]就发现这有赖于糖萼对于血液剪切力的感知,并将信号传递至血管内皮细胞,激活胞内相关信号通路,启动一氧化氮(NO)介导的环磷酸鸟苷(cyclic guanosine monophosphate,cGMP)依赖的血管舒张运动,这可能与HS及HA有关[13-16]。2016年Dragovich等[17]进一步研究发现,外部机械力可导致Syndecan或Glypican的胞内域偏离原有垂直方向,进而激活胞内机械应力传导的信号通路,内皮细胞NO的产生可能依赖细胞内由内皮瞬时受体电位通路(transient receptor potential,TRP)介导的钙离子摄入,HS和HA的变化并不会改变NO的产生机制。
有研究表明,细胞间黏附分子-1(intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1,ICAM-1)和血管细胞黏附分子-1(vascular cell adhesion molecule-1,VCAM-1)埋藏于糖萼中,可作为白细胞或血小板表面整合素或选择素的配体,在炎症时介导炎性细胞与血管内皮的黏附、滚动及迁移[18],但在健康状况下糖萼抵抗炎性细胞黏附的具体机制目前尚不清楚。此外,抗凝血酶Ⅲ、组织因子途径抑制物(tissue factor pathway inhibitor,TFPI)及肝素辅因子Ⅱ均可通过结合HS发挥抗凝活性。因此,糖萼在内皮细胞抗凝血、抗血栓过程中起关键作用[19]。糖萼还可与SOD相结合,使血管内皮细胞免受氧化应激伤害,并使NO生物利用度下降[20]。此外,脂蛋白脂肪酶脂解低密度脂蛋白(low-density lipoprotein,LDL)也需依赖糖萼才可正常进行。
内皮细胞并非常规的免疫细胞,但在病原相关分子模式(pathogen associated molecular patterns,PAMPs)或损伤相关分子模式(damage associated molecular patterns,DAMPs)刺激引起的机体系统性炎症反应时易激活或受损。由于糖萼几乎存在于体内所有血管内皮细胞的表面,因此在细胞及胞外基质中起缓冲作用。有研究表明,脓毒症时血管内皮细胞表面糖萼发生损伤、脱落及其导致的一系列后果是脓毒症血管内皮功能障碍病理生理机制的核心[21-22]
Wiesinger等[23]运用原子力显微镜纳米压痕技术进行研究发现,相比对照组,脓毒症小鼠血管内皮糖萼厚度及硬度均显著下降,此外,采用与脓毒症相关的介质如凝血酶、脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide,LPS)、肿瘤坏死因子(tumor necrosis factor,TNF)-α等分别刺激体外培养的人肺微血管内皮细胞后均能引起糖萼厚度及硬度的快速降低。Okada等[24]采用透射和扫描电镜观察糖萼的三维超微结构发现,在小鼠腹腔注射20 mg/kg的LPS后,除血清Syndecan-1浓度增加外,在不同器官血管内皮表面均可观察到糖萼的剥脱及面积明显减少。
Majerczak等[25]研究发现,进行长时间中等强度耐力训练的健康人血流中糖萼的成分(如HS、HA或Syndecan)含量较未受训练时降低,证实其可作为评估内皮糖萼损伤的标志物。此外,Ikeda等[26]通过观察性研究发现,Syndecan-1不仅与弥散性血管内凝血(disseminated intravascular coagulation,DIC)的死亡率相关,也与脓毒症患者DIC的发展过程相关,或许可作为DIC发生发展的预测标志物。Huang等[27]进行的前瞻性研究发现,脓毒症患者血浆中Syndecan-1、HS及HA等成分的水平与联合急性生理与慢性健康评分Ⅱ(acute physiology and chronic health evaluation Ⅱ,APACHEⅡ)、序贯器官衰竭评分(sequential organ failure assessment,SOFA)及乳酸等指标评估的脓毒症严重程度呈正相关,未发生DIC与发生DIC患者的HA及Syndecan-1水平具有明显差异,且与活化部分凝血活酶时间(activated partial thromboplastin time,APTT)、凝血酶原时间(prothrombin time,PT)及血小板计数呈明显正相关。Murphy等[28]对重症监护室(ICU)内进行机械通气的脓毒症患者开展回顾性研究发现,测定脓毒症患者Syndecan-1水平有助于识别发生器官功能障碍及有高死亡风险的患者。最近的一项研究表明,Syndecan还与脓毒症患者的SOFA评分、液体复苏量及临床结局呈正相关[29]
此外,Nelson等[30]研究发现,脓毒性休克患者血浆HS及HA水平较对照组升高4倍,在90 d内死亡的患者中也检测到HS及HA水平的增高,且二者均与炎性因子白细胞介素(interleukin,IL)-6及IL-10的水平呈正相关。Schmidt等[31]前瞻性收集脓毒性休克患者入院24 h内的尿液进行质谱分析,发现脓毒症患者尿液中的HS、CS及HA均明显升高,并可作为并发急性肾损伤及预后的预测指标。以上研究表明,Syndecan-1、HS及HA的含量可作为糖萼受损的主要生物标志物。然而,Vuong等[32]研究发现,体外培养的人脐静脉内皮细胞中,Syndecan-3、Syndecan-4的表达量高于Syndecan-1、Syndecan-2,经LPS及IL-1β刺激后,内皮细胞中Syndecan-4的表达量明显增加,Syndecan-1及Syndecan-2的表达量反而下降。但一项前瞻性观察性研究发现,脓毒症患者Syndecan-4的血浆含量并无明显变化[33]
脓毒症导致血管内皮细胞表面糖萼损伤、脱落的机制主要与TNF-α、基质金属蛋白酶(matrix metalloproteinases,MMPs)、肝素酶(heparanase,HPSE)、活性氧自由基(reactive oxygen species,ROS)、容量负荷过度、血管生成素及溶酶体相关细胞器有关。
TNF-α是脓毒症发生时具有代表性的促炎因子,不仅能诱导肥大细胞分泌细胞因子、HPSE、组蛋白及其他毒性蛋白酶,还可上调乙酰肝素酶翻译后活性,促进HS降解,通过上调MMPs表达介导Syndecan-4脱落,造成糖萼损伤,导致机体清除病原体的能力出现障碍,同时也会促进血栓形成,但此过程与白细胞黏附无关[34-35]
MMPs是一类锌依赖的内肽酶,可降解胶原、弹性蛋白等细胞外基质,其活性部位的金属离子能催化蛋白水解,使膜结合蛋白胞外域脱落[36]。在炎症刺激下炎性细胞、内皮细胞及血管平滑肌细胞均能表达MMPs。MMPs可裂解糖萼的核心蛋白,引起GAGs链脱落。有研究证实,MMP-1、MMP-9对CD44均有裂解作用[37]。Yang等[38]研究发现,在盲肠结扎穿刺(CLP)诱导脓毒症的小鼠模型中,可溶性CD44水平大幅升高,且与跨内皮细胞电阻降低及胞间连接结构紊乱呈剂量依赖,敲减小鼠金属蛋白酶-15(adam-15)基因时此现象被显著抑制,过表达adam-15基因时此现象加强。在人离体肺组织中灌注LPS可上调adam-15的表达,使肺泡渗出液中CD44及白蛋白含量增加,这些证据表明adam-15能裂解CD44,破坏糖萼结构。游离CD44胞外域可介导胞间连接处血管内皮钙黏蛋白-β-连环蛋白(VE-cadherin-β-catenin)复合体磷酸化,损害内皮细胞间黏附连接的稳定性,增加血管通透性,引起组织严重水肿。此外,Ramnath等[39]研究发现,MMPs表达增加会导致肾小球内皮细胞Syndecan-4脱落,从而导致蛋白尿的发生,而运用MMPs抑制剂可显著减少该现象。
HPSE是哺乳动物中目前唯一已知可降解HS的酶[40],脓毒症时机体HPSE表达增加[41]。在炎症环境下HPSE主要由内皮或上皮细胞表达,在正常情况下,HPSE的启动子通过p53蛋白(protein 53,p53)或表观修饰受到抑制,而炎性因子或ROS均可激活HPSE的表达[42],但也有观点认为血小板是HPSE的主要来源,Eustes等[43]研究发现,脓毒症患者血小板中HPSE的表达及活性均增加。Kiyan等[44]进一步研究发现HPSE1可裂解锚定在核心蛋白上的HS糖链,被裂解的HS片段通过与Toll样受体4(Toll-like receptor,TLR4)结合激活核因子-κB(nuclear factor-κB,NF-κB)炎症通路,导致下游细胞因子TNF-α、IL-8、IL-1β大量生成,炎性因子风暴的形成将加重TLR4介导的内皮细胞对LPS刺激的炎症反应。
内皮细胞既能产生多种氧化应激产物,又是其靶细胞。正常情况下,人体中ROS的产生及内源性抗氧化剂对ROS的清除处于动态平衡,糖萼结构可以结合SOD及黄嘌呤氧化酶(xanthine oxidase,XOD)这两种主要的抗氧化酶,因而可以中和大量游离自由基,维持NO的生物利用度,PAMPs和DAMPs通过模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptor,PRR)诱导内皮细胞生成大量的ROS及活性氮(reactive nitrogen species,RNS)。除此之外,促炎物质如TNF-α、IL-1α及LPS可通过神经酰胺依赖通路或上调NADPH氧化酶表达直接诱导线粒体O2生成,同时内皮型一氧化氮合酶(endothelial nitric oxide synthase,eNOS)除了生成NO外,还生成大量O2。ROS本身不具有酶活性,但能通过高亲和力与其他物质形成牢固化合键以修饰蛋白、核酸或者脂质等结构。大量ROS不仅切割糖萼结构组分,还间接激活MMPs的活性,导致MMPs组织金属蛋白酶抑制剂(tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases,TIMPs)失活,进一步造成血管内皮细胞的损伤[45]。Jackson-Weaver等[46]的研究表明,在体外培养的人脐静脉内皮细胞中,糖萼的破坏主要由线粒体产生的ROS介导并与内质网三磷酸肌醇受体(inositol triphosphate receptor,IP3R)离子通道介导的Ca2+释放有关,而相对于单纯的缺血缺氧状态,缺血再灌注时糖萼的损伤更为严重,提示ROS不直接造成内皮损伤,Ca2+释放、ROS及MMPs激活之间的具体机制还需进一步研究。
脓毒症患者常需液体复苏以达到纠正低血压及扩容的目的,适当补液有助于改善危重患者血流动力学状态及维持心输出量,但容量负荷过度也会引起组织水肿、高血压或心力衰竭等不良反应。Hippensteel等[47]观测静脉补液后脓毒症与非脓毒症患者、死亡与非死亡患者的血浆HS浓度,并用多元线性回归模型分析静脉输液量与血浆HS水平之间的关系,证实二者具有独立相关性,提示不恰当的液体复苏策略会造成医源性内皮细胞损伤。这与高血容量牵拉心房壁导致心房钠尿肽(ANP)分泌增多,进而导致糖萼损伤有关。ANP可能通过cGMP介导的蛋白水解通路诱导糖萼的损伤,但具体机制尚未明确[48]。有研究表明,为脓毒症患者及脓毒症绵羊模型输注晶体、胶体液均会引起内皮糖萼降解,可能与以下原因有关:(1)使血管过快扩张的剪切应力使MMPs的表达上调;(2)不稳定的剪切应力诱导组织蛋白酶L的激活,可能与HS的翻译后修饰有关;(3)直接激活循环白细胞分泌弹性蛋白酶损害糖萼;(4)ANP增多导致糖萼损伤[49]。此外,脓毒症时不同类型的液体治疗可对糖萼造成不同的影响。有研究发现,相较于等渗盐水,晶体平衡液、白蛋白、新鲜冷冻血浆及合成胶体液对糖萼的损害较轻[50]。另外有动物实验表明,相较于晶体液,脓毒症时输注血浆的病死率降低,与内皮损伤及肺水肿程度减轻有关,临床研究也证实输注血浆的脓毒症患者循环Syndecan-1水平更低[51]
在炎症刺激下,内皮细胞能分泌血管生成素-2(Ang-2),Ang-2是血管内皮细胞稳定受体(Tie2)的内源性拮抗剂。Tie2是内皮相关受体酪氨酸激酶,能被血管生成素-1(Ang-1)激活,Ang-1及Tie2是增强血管屏障功能和抗炎特性的重要调控物质。Ang-2通过与Ang-1竞争性结合,抑制Ang-1-Tie2下游抗炎通路。Lukasz等[52]发现,用Ang-2对人脐静脉内皮细胞及小鼠进行处理,均可导致内皮细胞表面糖萼脱落,体外实验提示其与Ang-2诱导细胞分泌HS有关,体内试验证实外源性Ang-2可介导HS引起的内皮糖萼破坏,导致组织白细胞浸润及血管渗漏。Drost等[53]进一步研究发现,以脓毒症患者血清处理人脐静脉内皮细胞可使其糖萼脱落,而Tie-2激动剂VT及Ang-2抑制剂L1-10可抑制HS的激活,使下游叉头框蛋白O1(Forkhead box protein O1,FOXO1)入核,减轻糖萼损伤。
溶酶体及晚期内吞体、自噬小体等溶酶体相关细胞器的腔面包被有一层糖复合物,即溶酶体糖萼,其中还富含溶酶体相关膜蛋白1和2,可保护细胞膜或其他细胞器膜不被溶酶体内的水解酶分解,Zullo等[54]利用随机光学重建显微技术进行观察发现,生理情况下溶酶体在细胞中呈布朗运动,而LPS刺激内皮细胞仅数分钟后溶酶体即出现剧烈运动,Weibel-Palade小体(Weibel-Palade body,WPB)及溶酶体的胞吐作用加强、组织蛋白酶B增多均与糖萼的剥脱有关,以NG-羟基-L-精氨酸合乙酸(NG-hydroxy-l-arginine,NOHA)作为NO供体阻断这种胞吐作用可减轻糖萼的脱落,提高脓毒症小鼠的生存率。Song等[8]研究发现,生理情况下溶酶体相关细胞器亦出现少量胞吐,有利于糖萼组分的不断更新,而WPB小体及溶酶体的胞吐作用大幅增加则是内皮细胞受到内毒素、氧化应激或炎症环境攻击后极早期的反应,可能导致Syndecan及CD44脱落,造成糖萼局部剥脱,同时级联激活金属蛋白酶ADAM-17或解聚素,加重脓毒症时糖萼的损伤。
鉴于糖萼在维持血管生理功能方面的重要性,以糖萼为靶点治疗脓毒症具有广阔的前景。但至今尚无有效的药物能够直接作用于糖萼。有研究发现,尽管糖萼能在受损之后5~7 d自我修复,糖萼部分组分更新的速率较快,但恢复其结构及正常功能的速率却相对缓慢,如何缩短修复时间成为未来治疗相关疾病的潜在靶点[55]。目前针对受损糖萼的治疗策略大致分为两类:一类为防止糖萼降解,另一类为促进糖萼的修复。
对糖萼降解有对抗作用的药物主要包括抗凝血酶、组织相关再生巨噬素-1(maresin conjugates in tissue regeneration 1,MTCR-1)、肝素、舒洛地特(SDX)、黄连素(BBR)及氨甲环酸(tranexamic acid,TXA)。
抗凝血酶除了通过与HS结合发挥抗凝活性外,还有助于维持糖萼的稳定性[56]。最新研究发现,在大鼠和小鼠脓毒症模型中,重组抗凝血酶(recombinant antithrombin,rAT)可发挥对糖萼的保护作用,减少炎性因子IL-1β生成,并可降低脓毒症的病死率,同时基因微阵列分析显示,与DNA修复、端粒维持等相关的基因表达上调,表明rAT可能促进损伤细胞DNA的修复[57-58]
MTCR-1是一种巨噬细胞来源的脂质,具有促进组织再生及炎症消退的作用。Li等[59]研究发现,MCTR-1可通过ALX/SIRT1/NF-κB/HPA通路减轻LPS诱导的脓毒症小鼠肺毛细血管内皮细胞糖萼的损伤,下调HPSE的表达可显著抑制HS的降解、抑制NF-κB p65的磷酸化,从而减少炎性因子的生成,发挥对糖萼的保护作用。
LaRivière等[60]研究发现,肝素可拮抗LPS诱导的脓毒症小鼠糖萼成分HS的降解,因HPSE能增加MMPs的表达,故肝素通过抑制HPSE的活性保护糖萼免于被降解。
SDX是从猪肠黏膜中提取的HS类似物,主要成分为HS及DS,能提供糖萼成分的前体,以竞争性结合的方式减轻HPSE对糖萼HS的破坏,同时还可通过与MMPs前体分子结构中的锌结合域相互作用,抑制其构象改变并形成活性形式,从而抑制MMPs的作用。Song等[61]研究发现,在脓毒症小鼠模型中,SDX能减少HS及Syndecan-4的降解,且即使在脓毒血症发生后2 h注射SDX仍具有良好的效应。口服SDX能加速糖萼修复,提高脓毒症小鼠存活率,然而SDX对糖萼的保护作用在临床试验中并没有得到完全证实。
BBR是具有多重药理作用的中药提取物,可在急性肾损伤、糖尿病及动脉粥样硬化等疾病中发挥抗炎、抗氧化及抗凋亡等治疗作用。Huang等[62]发现,用BBR对LPS诱导的脓毒症ARDS小鼠进行预处理,可明显减少内皮糖萼Syndecan-1及HS的脱落,下调胞质磷脂酶A2的表达,减少TNF-α、IL-1β及IL-6的产生,抑制NF-κB通路激活。体外实验证实,BBR能抑制LPS刺激的人脐静脉内皮细胞中ROS的积聚,下调乙酰肝素酶和MMP-9的表达,为治疗内皮糖萼受损相关疾病提供了新思路。
TXA是丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂,Diebel等[63]研究发现,以过氧化氢(H2O2)或肾上腺素刺激人脐静脉内皮细胞,并在刺激后不同的时间点加入TXA,可观察到TXA通过抑制ADAM-17及MMPs的激活而防止糖萼降解,在施加刺激后早期使用能起到保护糖萼的作用,但在细胞受到有害刺激超过60 min后这种保护作用则不明显。
对糖萼修复有促进作用的药物主要包括磷脂鞘氨醇-1磷酸(sphingosine-1-phosphate,S1P)、成纤维细胞生长因子(fibroblast growth factor receptor,FGF)、唾液酸、七氟醚、外泌体。
有研究证实,补充输注高分子量透明质酸(HMW-HA)及DS等可加速内皮糖萼的修复过程[64]。白蛋白是S1P的主要载体之一,白蛋白的精氨酸残基与糖萼组分中带负电荷的组分存在静电相互作用,因此维持糖萼的稳定。Zeng等[65]研究发现,发挥这种稳定作用的并非白蛋白而是S1P,S1P可通过结合在内皮细胞上高表达的S1P1受体抑制MMPs的活性,从而维持血管的完整性。在人肺动脉内皮细胞中,选择性S1P1受体拮抗剂W146可使内皮表面的CS减少约86.6%。S1P可促进Sydecan-1、HS及CS等成分的合成,但其诱导糖萼修复的过程可被PI3K抑制剂LY29002阻断,表明S1P促进糖萼成分合成的过程是由PI3K/AKT通路介导的。
FGF信号通路是内皮细胞修复的重要介质。Yang等[66]运用活体显微镜观察脓毒症小鼠肺毛细血管内皮细胞糖萼的修复速度,发现在未发生脓毒症时,肺泡内皮细胞糖萼修复过程与诱导HS合成的糖基转移酶exostosin-1(EXT-1)有关,同时依赖于成纤维细胞生长因子受体(FGFR)1的表达;脓毒症时糖萼修复延迟与EXT-1表达降低有关,糖萼降解产生的HS片段能激活FGF,FGF通过与FGFR结合激活介导糖萼修复的信号通路,进而促进HS的合成,增强及激活此通路活性可能是脓毒症的潜在治疗途径。
Betteridge等[67]研究发现,唾液酸也是糖萼的成分之一,覆盖于许多糖蛋白之上,受唾液酸转移酶ST6Gal-1的催化,在白细胞及血小板的黏附、内皮细胞抗氧化活性及通透性调节等方面均至关重要。七氟醚是挥发性麻醉剂,Kazuma等[68]研究发现七氟醚可促进受H2O2刺激后大鼠主动脉内皮细胞糖萼的再生,此过程由上调的ST6Gal-1介导,具体机制尚未明确,可能涉及线粒体ATP依赖性钾通道、血管内皮细胞生长因子受体及其他相关的信号级联反应。该研究为挥发性麻醉药在脓毒症血管内皮损伤修复中的应用提供了线索。
外泌体是细胞分泌的纳米级囊泡,通过与胞膜上的信号分子直接接触参与细胞间通讯及细胞内成分的运输。外泌体包裹的分子物质可免于被体液中的酶降解,具有毒性低、无免疫原性及渗透性好等优势,这一特点使外泌体成为新型的天然药物运载系统[69]。Syndecan-1作为糖萼的主要成分在脓毒症时表达减少,Zhang等[70]从慢病毒转染的小鼠肺毛细血管内皮细胞培养基中分离外泌体,并对LPS诱导的脓毒症急性肺损伤小鼠静脉注射负载过表达Syndecan-1编码基因的外泌体,结果显示可以减少炎性因子IL-6、IL-1β及TNF-α的产生,以及内皮细胞中应力纤维的生成,有助于保持内皮糖萼完整性,减轻肺损伤,这与Syndecan-1激活局部黏着斑激酶FAK(focal adhesion kinase,FAK)及RhoGTP酶激活蛋白(RhoGTPase activating proteins,RhoGAPs)p190RhoGAP、抑制下游Ras样蛋白RhoA(Ras homolog gene family,member A,RhoA)及NF-κB的表达以修复内皮屏障功能有关,或许可以成为治疗急性肺损伤的新方案。
糖萼的完整性被破坏是脓毒症的发病机制之一,也是脓毒症血管内皮受损的早期事件。随着医学水平的提高,糖萼在血管内皮损伤中扮演的角色受到更多重视。本文对糖萼在脓毒症血管内皮损伤中所扮演的角色及相关机制,脓毒症发生时针对糖萼的保护及修复策略进行概述。糖萼降解是脓毒症病理生理机制的重要部分,如影响白细胞或血小板与内皮细胞的黏附、促进血栓形成,使内皮细胞丧失对血液剪切应力的恰当反应、干扰NO的代谢,且循环中大量糖萼组分的出现会激活模式识别受体,激活下游的炎症通路,引起炎性因子风暴等,这些事件将导致脓毒症的恶化。保护糖萼、加速受损糖萼修复可遏制脓毒症引起的机体血管渗漏、凝血紊乱及间质水肿等,有效改善患者预后,提高患者生存率,将成为今后脓毒症救治的重要策略。但关于糖萼的损伤机制及治疗靶点等诸多问题仍需进一步深入研究。
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2022年第47卷第10期
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doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2022.10.1049
  • 接收时间:2021-09-16
  • 首发时间:2025-12-15
  • 出版时间:2022-10-28
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  • 收稿日期:2021-09-16
  • 录用日期:2022-03-16
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    天津医科大学第二医院重症医学科,天津 300211

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

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total species (%)

Genus
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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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