Article(id=1203053371369419120, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1203053366290113441, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2023.03.0345, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1656950400000, receivedDateStr=2022-07-05, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1664467200000, acceptedDateStr=2022-09-30, onlineDate=1764759875383, onlineDateStr=2025-12-03, pubDate=1679932800000, pubDateStr=2023-03-28, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1764759875383, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-03, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1764759875383, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764759875383, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1203053366290113441, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, year='2023', volume='48', issue='3', pageStart='245', pageEnd='366', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1764759874174, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764810242575, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1203264626747220064, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1203053366290113441, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1203264626747220065, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1203053366290113441, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=345, endPage=354, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1203053372187308453, articleId=1203053371369419120, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, language=EN, title=Correlation between glycocalyx and diseases, and progress in its degradation mechanism, columnId=1190243275882729994, journalTitle=Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, columnName=Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

With the burgeoning development of glycobiology, a growing body of research shows a significant relationship between the development of various diseases and polysaccharides. Glycocalyx, an important component of the vascular endothelium, has a villi-like structure and plays a highly crucial role in maintaining vascular homeostasis. In-depth multidisciplinary studies have further revealed that the biological functions of glycocalyx are not only limited to vascular homeostasis, but are also closely related to various diseases in vivo. Foundations of glycocalyx composition and biological function, this paper reviews the latest research of glycocalyx biodegradation mechanism from the perspective of biological relevance of glycocalyx main components [heparan sulfate (HS), chondroitin sulfate (CS), hyaluronic acid (HA) and core protein] to cancer, corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19), trauma surgery and other diseases by visualization and molecular biology experimental methods, and intends to provide new thoughts for clinical development of novel diagnostic methods and therapeutic targets.

, correspAuthors=Shu-Chen Liu, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
* E-mail:
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随着糖生物学的快速发展,越来越多的研究表明多种疾病的发生发展与多糖关系密切。糖萼呈绒毛状结构,作为血管内皮细胞的重要成分,在维持血管稳态方面发挥着重要作用。多学科研究发现糖萼的生物学功能并非局限于血管稳态,还与体内多种疾病密切相关。本文在糖萼组成及其生物学功能研究的基础上,从糖萼主要组成成分[硫酸乙酰肝素(HS)、硫酸软骨素(CS)、透明质酸(HA)和核心蛋白]与癌症、新型冠状病毒感染(COVID-19)、创伤手术等的生物相关性角度,对糖萼降解机制的最新研究进展进行综述,以期为临床开发新型诊断方法与治疗靶点提供思路。

, correspAuthors=刘曙晨, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
刘曙晨,E-mail:
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董佳慧,硕士研究生,主要从事糖生物学与疾病的关系研究

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IL. 白细胞介素;TLR4. Toll样受体4;TNF-α. 肿瘤坏死因子-α;MMPs. 基质金属蛋白酶

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糖萼与疾病的相关性及其降解机制研究进展
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董佳慧 1 , 李慧敏 1 , 李南熹 1 , 彭冠群 2 , 孙云波 1 , 窦桂芳 1 , 刘曙晨 1, *
解放军医学杂志 | 综述 2023,48(3): 345-354
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解放军医学杂志 | 综述 2023, 48(3): 345-354
糖萼与疾病的相关性及其降解机制研究进展
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董佳慧1, 李慧敏1, 李南熹1, 彭冠群2, 孙云波1, 窦桂芳1, 刘曙晨1, *
作者信息
  • 1军事科学院军事医学研究院辐射医学研究所,北京 100850
  • 2河北大学生命科学学院,河北保定 071002
  • 董佳慧,硕士研究生,主要从事糖生物学与疾病的关系研究

通讯作者:

刘曙晨,E-mail:
Correlation between glycocalyx and diseases, and progress in its degradation mechanism
Jia-Hui Dong1, Hui-Min Li1, Nan-Xi Li1, Guan-Qun Peng2, Yun-Bo Sun1, Gui-Fang Dou1, Shu-Chen Liu1, *
Affiliations
  • 1Institute of Radiation Medicine, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Military Acadamy of Sciences, Beijing 100850, China
  • 2Life Science College of Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei 071002, China
出版时间: 2023-03-28 doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2023.03.0345
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随着糖生物学的快速发展,越来越多的研究表明多种疾病的发生发展与多糖关系密切。糖萼呈绒毛状结构,作为血管内皮细胞的重要成分,在维持血管稳态方面发挥着重要作用。多学科研究发现糖萼的生物学功能并非局限于血管稳态,还与体内多种疾病密切相关。本文在糖萼组成及其生物学功能研究的基础上,从糖萼主要组成成分[硫酸乙酰肝素(HS)、硫酸软骨素(CS)、透明质酸(HA)和核心蛋白]与癌症、新型冠状病毒感染(COVID-19)、创伤手术等的生物相关性角度,对糖萼降解机制的最新研究进展进行综述,以期为临床开发新型诊断方法与治疗靶点提供思路。

糖萼  /  生物学特性  /  可视化  /  疾病  /  机制

With the burgeoning development of glycobiology, a growing body of research shows a significant relationship between the development of various diseases and polysaccharides. Glycocalyx, an important component of the vascular endothelium, has a villi-like structure and plays a highly crucial role in maintaining vascular homeostasis. In-depth multidisciplinary studies have further revealed that the biological functions of glycocalyx are not only limited to vascular homeostasis, but are also closely related to various diseases in vivo. Foundations of glycocalyx composition and biological function, this paper reviews the latest research of glycocalyx biodegradation mechanism from the perspective of biological relevance of glycocalyx main components [heparan sulfate (HS), chondroitin sulfate (CS), hyaluronic acid (HA) and core protein] to cancer, corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19), trauma surgery and other diseases by visualization and molecular biology experimental methods, and intends to provide new thoughts for clinical development of novel diagnostic methods and therapeutic targets.

glycocalyx  /  biological characteristics  /  visualization  /  diseases  /  mechanism
董佳慧, 李慧敏, 李南熹, 彭冠群, 孙云波, 窦桂芳, 刘曙晨. 糖萼与疾病的相关性及其降解机制研究进展. 解放军医学杂志, 2023 , 48 (3) : 345 -354 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2023.03.0345
Jia-Hui Dong, Hui-Min Li, Nan-Xi Li, Guan-Qun Peng, Yun-Bo Sun, Gui-Fang Dou, Shu-Chen Liu. Correlation between glycocalyx and diseases, and progress in its degradation mechanism[J]. Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, 2023 , 48 (3) : 345 -354 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2023.03.0345
糖萼(glycocalyx)是覆盖在血管内皮腔表面的重要多糖蛋白结构。1940年英国生物学家Danielli[1]首次发现血管内皮表层附着一层薄薄的结构,并指出该结构为非细胞层的血浆蛋白,这为糖萼的发现提供了间接证据。16年后,Springer[2]发现血管内皮非细胞表层结构主要包含多糖而非血浆蛋白,奠定了糖萼富含多糖的理论基础。随后,在墨西哥解剖学会上,Bennett[3]将血管表皮富含多糖的细胞外衣统称为“糖萼”。1966年,Luft[4]利用钌红染色后镜检的方法直接表征了糖萼的生物结构,为糖萼的结构特点提出了直接证据。但由于多糖分支结构检测难度大、构效关系复杂,糖萼相关研究进展缓慢;直至20世纪90年代,大量新兴检测、分析技术的出现加快了糖萼的研究步伐[5]。在前期糖萼结构研究的基础上,越来越多的学者对血管内皮表面糖萼的功能进行探讨,发现了糖萼重要的生物学功能,以及与心血管疾病、肿瘤迁移、脓毒症、新型冠状病毒感染(corona virus disease 2019,COVID-19)、眼表感染、糖尿病、缺血再灌注损伤、疟疾、白血病、系统性红斑狼疮(systemic lupus erythematosus,SLE)、创伤、炎症等发生发展的生物相关性及降解机制[6-9]。本文基于国内外的研究成果,主要从糖萼的结构、功能、可视化方法、与不同疾病的生物相关性及其降解机制等方面进行综述,以期为新型诊断方法与潜在治疗靶点的研究提供理论依据。
糖萼是一种由细胞结合蛋白聚糖(proteoglycans,PGs)、糖胺聚糖(glycosaminoglycans,GAGs)侧链、糖脂和唾液蛋白等组成的复杂的动态生化结构[6],该结构为一层带负电荷的抗粘连和抗凝的凝胶状层,包裹在血管内皮表面,厚度为0.2 nm~3 μm(图1[10]。GAGs和PGs是其重要的组成成分[11]
GAGs是由不同硫酸化位点的二糖单元通过α、β糖苷键连接而成的带负电荷、无支链的酸性多糖,是糖萼的主要组成成分[12-15]。GAGs普遍存在于动物组织细胞表面和细胞外基质中,是各种生理事件发挥作用的重要成分,其主要功能为影响胚胎发生、细胞信号转导,促进轴突生长、血管生成、癌细胞转移与迁移,抗炎,抗凝,影响微生物发病机制,以及调节角质形成细胞的增殖与分化等[8,16-20]。糖萼中的GAGs主要分为五类:肝素/硫酸乙酰肝素(heparin/heparan sulfate,HP/HS)、透明质酸(hyaluronic acid,HA)、硫酸角质素(keratan sulfate,KS)、硫酸软骨素(chondroitin sulfate,CS)、硫酸皮肤素(dermatan sulfate,DS)[21]
PGs是由一种或多种GAGs与一个核心蛋白连接组成的特殊糖蛋白,可通过核心蛋白Syndecan、Glypican等上的特殊基团与细胞膜相结合,构成糖萼结构重要的“骨架”分子[22-24]。由于PGs组成成分包含GAGs,因此与GAGs有部分功能重合,其主要功能还包括调节神经细胞的极化、维持血脑屏障的完整性、调节细胞的迁移及黏附、抵御有害物质的侵袭、延缓纤维化进程、保护肾脏和减少蛋白尿的产生等[25-30]。根据核心蛋白种类及其分子、数目、链长、硫酸化位点和数量的不同,PGs可分为三类:大分子聚集型胞外基质PGs、富含亮氨酸的小分子胞外基质PGs、跨膜胞内PGs[31]
糖萼位于血管内皮表面,与血液中大量降解GAGs和PGs的酶直接接触,这为糖萼的易损性提供了条件基础。Puchwein等[32]和Kundra等[33]指出,糖萼结构高度脆弱易损,且在正常生理环境中也会发生代谢脱落,但在6~8 h内迅速更新再生。2021年Hahn等[34]发现,在外界刺激下,糖萼会在几小时甚至几分钟内发生损伤脱落,由于损伤程度与面积不同,其修复需要一至数周不等。目前已有大量研究报道了引起糖萼损伤脱落的病理环境,主要包括高血糖、高血压、高血容量、缺血再灌注损伤、心房利钠肽释放、自由基、异常血液剪切应力、细胞因子风暴、细胞内毒素暴露、炎症等[35-39]。2020年Lipphardt等[40]发现,去乙酰化酶1(Sirtuin1)基因缺陷模型小鼠体内FoxO1、p65蛋白被过度乙酰化,诱导超氧化物和凋亡相关细胞因子等含量增多,最终导致糖萼直接发生氧化损伤及脱落。2021年Kolarova等[41]指出,带有正电荷的髓过氧化物酶可与血管内皮表面带有大量负电荷的糖萼相互作用,导致糖萼损伤,最终造成机体清道夫对损伤糖萼进行清除。以上研究结果表明,糖萼易损性不仅由病理环境造成,机体各种酶的缺失或过表达也会导致其发生。
近年来,随着人们对于糖萼结构研究兴趣的增加,越来越多的糖萼功能被揭示。Kang等[42]利用大鼠腹主动脉离体灌注模型,研究透壁水通量和低密度脂蛋白的转运作用,发现糖萼具有运输屏障的功能。Jiang等[43]通过分子动力学模拟实验发现糖萼具有调节离子转运及血流速度变化的作用。Butler等[44]在酶解所致糖萼损伤模型中发现,糖萼损伤后进入血管内皮的白蛋白增多,提示糖萼可作为蛋白质的渗透屏障,维持正常的血管渗透压。Jin等[23]指出,糖萼是一种带有大量负电荷的酸性物质,具有促使血管内皮获得电荷屏障的作用。Lyu等[45]发现,糖萼可直接调节血管内皮与血液中血小板、白细胞、红细胞及血浆等生物大分子的黏附作用,从而预防血栓形成及血管内膜增生。Griffin等[46]发现,糖萼可通过其表面主要组成成分HS与血管生成素(angiopoietin,Ang)/内皮细胞TEK酪氨酸激酶(Tie)受体相互作用,发挥增强细胞间信号转导、延长细胞存活时间的功能。Hu等[47]将人脐静脉血管内皮细胞(human umbilical vein endothelial cells,HUVECs)暴露于肝素酶中,发现缺失HS的HUVECs可增加剪切力诱导的细胞迁移速度,表明糖萼可发挥剪切应力传感器的功能。Cosgun等[48]基于糖萼在纳米力学中的结构与功能特性,对糖萼展开深入研究,发现糖萼具有抗炎与调节组织水肿的生物学功能。
总之,近年来随着糖生物学研究的不断深入,糖萼的结构与功能被不断更新阐述。目前已证实糖萼具有电荷屏障、运输屏障、剪切应力传感器及调节离子转运及血流速度变化、维持正常的血管渗透压、调节生物大分子黏附、预防血栓形成与血管内膜增生、增强细胞间信号转导、延长细胞存活时间、抗炎与调节组织水肿等多种功能,且相关研究仍在不断增多。
糖萼最初在生物实验中被发现,由于生物样本易获得,常采用细菌、细胞、动物原位可视化方法检测糖萼的结构。Zou等[49]指出,早在1966年糖萼的结构已通过钌红染色及透射电子显微镜检测成像技术呈现出来。Logsdon等[50]对糖萼组成成分GAGs采用阳离子染料(主要包括钌红、阿尔新蓝、番红O、镧离子染料等[51])染色后镜检,对血脑屏障中的糖萼进行了可视化探究。2012年Bai等[52]利用FITC偶联的麦胚凝集素(fluorescein isothiocyanate conjugated wheat germ agglutinin,WGA-FITC)与糖萼组成成分N-乙酰-D-氨基葡萄糖和唾液酸特异性结合的特性,对HUVECs表面的糖萼进行了免疫细胞化学与免疫荧光成像的可视化研究。最近,Pollmann等[53]研究法布里病时,利用凝集素细胞化学方法对缺乏AGAL基因的人血管内皮细胞EA.hy926表面的糖萼结构进行荧光染色,并采用流式细胞术对糖萼进行可视化检测;此外,他们对细胞表面糖萼蛋白进行免疫荧光标记,利用荧光显微镜进行了可视化观察。Brandt等[54]利用荧光和金纳米粒子标记人永生化肺泡上皮细胞表面糖萼中带负电荷的氨基糖,并利用电子显微镜对肺泡上皮细胞表面的糖萼进行了可视化观察。近期,Walter等[55]利用生物物理技术微流控芯片测量脑内皮细胞表面电荷,可视化检测了糖萼结构的完整性。Wijesekara等[56]开发了一种新方法,即利用DNA折纸术对仓鼠卵巢细胞及人腺癌肺泡基底上皮细胞(A549)表面糖萼结构完整性进行可视化表征。随着质谱技术的普及,越来越多的领域应用质谱技术对物质组分与含量进行测定。2019年Li等[57]阐述可利用以基质辅助激光解吸附(matrix-assistedlaserdesorption/ionization,MALDI)、傅立叶变换离子回旋共振(fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance,FTICR)、飞行时间(time of flight,TOF)等为质量分析器的液质联用(liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry,LC-MS/MS)仪器对体外培养细胞膜表面的糖萼进行间接可视化探究。随着细胞水平糖萼可视化方法的发展,活体水平糖萼可视化研究也逐渐发展起来,Sun等[58]利用冷冻蚀刻电子断层扫描及活体显微镜技术对小鼠肠上皮糖萼进行可视化探究,直接在动物组织原位对糖萼进行了可视化观察。
综上,目前糖萼的可视化方法主要包括钌红、阿尔新蓝、番红O、镧等阳离子染料染色,凝集素、免疫荧光、金纳米粒子等荧光标记法,以及微流控芯片技术,DNA折纸术,LC-MS/MS技术,冷冻蚀刻电子断层扫描,活体显微镜技术等。
由于糖萼的重要生物学功能,目前临床上开发了多种糖萼无创可视化方法。早在1999年,Groner等[59]利用正交偏振光谱(orthogonal polarization spectral,OPS)成像技术对人体微循环进行成像,对糖萼进行无创可视化。2006年Nieuwdorp等[60]同时利用不可/可透过糖萼的示踪剂分别获得男性志愿者体内循环血容量与血管内壁总体积,进一步对糖萼进行了可视化研究。虽然体内注射示踪剂对机体无直接伤害,但该示踪剂是否存在代谢及后遗症等问题有待进一步探究,故临床更倾向于无辅助药剂的无创诊断方法。2020年Astapenko等[61]利用两种无创手段对糖萼厚度与损伤程度进行了可视化研究,主要包括:(1)基于OPS成像技术的侧流暗场(sidestream dark-field,SDF)成像技术检测志愿者舌下微脉管系统,获得红细胞灌注边界区域参数以评价糖萼厚度的变化;(2)利用酶联免疫吸附法(enzyme linked immunosorbent assay,ELISA)对志愿者血清中的糖萼损伤脱落物进行定量分析。随后,Puchwein-Schwepcke等[62]和Potje等[63]分别利用SDF与GlycoCheck软件分析相结合的技术、ELISA技术检测新生儿耳内三角窝中皮肤微循环以及COVID-19患者血浆糖萼主要组成成分,间接对糖萼完整性进行了可视化探究。除利用ELISA技术对血浆中糖萼损伤脱落物含量进行测定外,Dellavalle等[64]利用Western blotting与ImageJ分析软件相结合的方法,对缺血性卒中患者血浆中糖萼主要组成成分进行定量分析,为可视化分析糖萼的损伤程度提供了数据支持。2015年,Oberleithner[65]提出了一种全新的采用红细胞钠敏感实验预测糖萼的方法,该方法由于只针对血浆红细胞,避免了多组分血浆样本对实验结果的干扰。最近,Matyjaszczyk-Gwarda等[66]利用丁酸衍生化LC-MS/MS技术对血浆及尿液中糖萼主要组成成分GAGs进行定量分析以评价糖萼的完整性;质谱技术由于具有高通量与高灵敏度的特性,已被应用于临床糖萼完整性与损伤程度的无创诊断。
目前,国内外学者已基于前期糖萼实验可视化技术,开发了临床无创可视化方法,包括OPS成像技术、SDF成像技术、ELISA技术、示踪剂辅助检测技术、Western blotting、红细胞钠敏感实验、丁酸衍生化LC-MS/MS技术等。
在糖萼可视化及其重要生物学功能研究的基础上,越来越多的学者将糖萼结构完整性与多种疾病相关联。除血管疾病外,糖萼增厚还与肿瘤生长及转移、COVID-19、急性冠脉综合征、创伤手术、脓毒症、糖尿病、肾脏疾病、高血压、肺水肿、病毒感染等密切相关。
癌症发生机制复杂且病死率高,受到国内外学者的广泛关注。目前全球癌症患者逐年递增,攻克癌症已成为世纪难题。近年来有学者将糖萼与癌症相关联,从糖生物学角度探究癌症的发生机制。
近期,Valla等[67]探究了糖萼损伤脱落物GAGs、PGs对三阴性乳腺癌细胞凋亡的作用,发现体外细胞培养上清中糖萼损伤脱落物Syndecan-1、HA含量上升,可显著抑制乳腺癌细胞凋亡,加速乳腺癌细胞增殖。因此,靶向修饰肿瘤细胞中糖萼基因的表达,可能成为临床肿瘤治疗的潜在靶点。Moran等[68]基于糖萼中HS、HA表达量降低可抑制肾癌细胞在重度联合免疫缺陷(server combined immune-deficiency,SCID)小鼠体内转移的前期研究结果,进一步将抗肾癌转移的治疗推向透明质酸合酶基因靶点修饰分子水平。Horrevorts等[69]以黑色素瘤转移、恶化与糖萼密切相关为基础,研发了一种特异性修饰肿瘤细胞糖萼中GAGs结构的疫苗,以促使肿瘤特异性CD8+ T细胞免疫的启动,这为以糖萼为靶点治疗黑色素瘤提供了一种新型免疫疗法。最近,Tondepu等[70]基于肿瘤糖萼和富含GAGs的细胞外基质是胶质母细胞瘤微环境的重要组成成分,且GAGs可介导肿瘤生长、转移、抗癌药物耐药性及免疫抑制的理论基础,设计了一种3D糖质,该3D糖质可准确预测胶质母细胞瘤的病情与治疗效果,为靶向治疗胶质母细胞瘤提供了新型工具。2021年Oliveira等[71]对B细胞前体急性淋巴细胞白血病(B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukaemia,BCP-ALL)模型进行多组学探究,并利用LC-MS/MS技术检测GAGs的含量,结果显示,GAGs具有全局重组性,且与MLL-r细胞成熟的特定阶段具有内在相关性,糖萼结构改变与血液系统恶性肿瘤的发生具有潜在生物相关性。
癌细胞表面糖萼普遍增厚及其损伤脱落物是促使癌细胞生长、转移以及加剧癌症恶化的潜在因素。随着糖萼与癌症相关性的深入探索,越来越多的学者将实体瘤与非实体瘤细胞表面糖萼作为临床潜在治疗靶点。
近期,有学者对烧烫伤、外科手术等创伤性损伤与糖萼的相关性进行了深入探究。2018年Halbgebauer等[72]发现,多发性创伤可导致糖萼破坏及其功能紊乱,而在多发性创伤联合出血性休克后,糖萼损伤及其紧密连接功能障碍显著加剧。随后,Qi等[73]探讨了多发性创伤与糖萼降解的相关性,通过检测多发性创伤患者血清样本中糖萼损伤脱落物的含量,评估糖萼损伤程度与多发性创伤及脏器损伤的相关性。在烧伤类创伤方面,Welling等[74]发现烧伤患者体内糖萼损伤脱落物含量增加,证实烧伤类创伤可导致糖萼损伤。外科手术与糖萼损伤关系密切。Yanase等[75]评价了腹部手术患者体内糖萼的损伤情况,发现外科手术可使患者血清中糖萼损伤脱落物含量显著增加。因此,有学者将糖萼损伤脱落物作为评价疾病严重程度的生物标志物。Suzuki等[76]探究了肝脏和胰腺手术患者体内糖萼的降解情况,发现腹部大手术后,糖萼会发生损伤脱落,而白蛋白干预可降低术后糖萼降解水平。近期,Passov等[77]分析接受主动脉瓣置换术并发生再灌注损伤的30例患者的糖萼损伤程度,发现心脏手术中糖萼会发生降解。除外科手术外,器官移植手术与糖萼的完整性也存在密切关系。Schiefer等[78]在肺移植和肾移植患者体内观察到糖萼主要组成成分Syndecan-1含量显著增加,表明器官移植手术可导致糖萼损伤脱落。
随着国内外学者对创伤、手术(外科治疗手术、器官移植)等开放性损伤的深入研究,糖萼与该类损伤的相关性逐渐被揭示,其损伤脱落物含量已被用于评估开放性损伤程度,且糖萼损伤程度有望成为该类疾病的临床诊断工具。
COVID-19是一种由SARS-CoV-2引起的肺炎[79]。SARS-CoV-2主要以鸟类及哺乳类动物为宿主,感染后可引起全身多脏器应激反应,其中反应最为激烈的是呼吸系统[80]
在COVID-19席卷全球的背景下,许多学者对其展开了全面研究。2021年Lambadiari等[81]的前瞻性病例对照研究发现,SARS-CoV-2感染可能导致内皮糖萼损伤与功能障碍。随后,Potje等[63]利用COVID-19患者血浆干预HUVECs,并采用ELISA对糖萼损伤脱落物进行定量分析,发现COVID-19可诱导HUVECs表面糖萼发生损伤脱落,同时破坏细胞内的氧化还原平衡。Queisser等[82]发现,血管内皮糖萼损伤后,具有病理活性的糖萼损伤脱落物片段释放到血液循环中,可进一步加重COVID-19病情。最近,Preez等[83]探讨了糖萼硫酸化程度、位点与COVID-19的生物相关性,发现当糖萼结构完整时,其表面所带电荷可与SARS-CoV-2表面电荷产生静电斥力,抑制SARS-CoV-2进入体内。
近几年COVID-19与糖萼的生物相关性已从科学假设推动到细胞水平、临床水平及分子水平研究,证实了糖萼微观结构硫酸化位点和数量与COVID-19病情严重程度存在密切关系,有望将糖萼作为COVID-19临床治疗的潜在靶点。
除与各类癌症、COVID-19、创伤、手术损伤、心脑血管疾病等密切相关外,糖萼损伤还与糖尿病及其并发症(如视网膜病变、感染性疾病、免疫性疾病、内脏损伤等)相关。
关于糖萼与内脏疾病的相关性,2019年Inkinen等[84]发现,糖萼损伤产生的脱落物可加剧急性肾损伤的恶化。同年,Zhang等[85]发现,抑制糖萼的降解可显著缓解急性肺损伤模型小鼠肺部炎症、水肿等症状,提示维持糖萼完整性对急性肺损伤具有治疗作用。除研究实质性器官损伤与糖萼完整性的关系外,有学者对体内内分泌代谢紊乱及感染性疾病与糖萼损伤的关系进行了探索。如Kaur等[86]基于糖尿病引起视网膜表面糖萼显著被破坏的前期发现,进一步对糖萼主要组成成分的表达量、损伤脱落物含量与糖尿病引起视网膜病变的生物相关性展开研究,结果表明,抑制糖萼损伤可对糖尿病视网膜病变产生治疗作用。随后,Lam等[87]与Delaveris等[88]研究发现,当机体感染登革热和甲型流感病毒后,糖萼损伤脱落物在血浆中蓄积并诱发血管外渗漏,进一步加重感染;糖萼的密度,糖基化数量、位点及长度在宿主细胞易感性中发挥重要作用。除病毒类感染性疾病外,脓毒症作为全身感染性疾病,近期也被发现与糖萼的微观结构相关。Belousoviene等[89]基于脓毒症患者血管密度显著降低的前期发现,分析糖萼损伤程度与脓毒症微循环的相关性,发现糖萼损伤可直接影响脓毒症的微循环功能,故体内糖萼损伤会加重脓毒症病情。除内脏损伤、内分泌代谢紊乱、感染性疾病外,有学者对更难治愈的免疫类疾病与糖萼完整性的关系展开了深入探索。如Clarke[90]研究发现,糖萼损伤与SLE密切相关,故有望将糖萼作为该类疾病的潜在治疗靶点。随后,Spillings等[91]分析了获得性免疫缺陷综合征(acquired immunodeficiency syndrome,AIDS)与糖萼的相关性,发现糖萼结构聚糖可与艾滋病病毒(human immunodeficiency virus,HIV)膜聚糖相结合,促进HIV进入体内,加速感染。
总之,糖萼损伤与多种疾病的发生、发展密切相关,因此,抑制或避免糖萼损伤及促进其损伤修复有望成为临床治疗疾病的新途径。
基于糖萼易损伤脱落的特性,通过减少或避免糖萼降解来延缓疾病进展有望成为临床治疗疾病的新途径。因此,进一步探究糖萼在疾病中的降解机制(图2),可为临床靶向减少或避免糖萼降解提供理论依据。
氧化应激常发生于各类疾病,有学者对其导致糖萼损伤的分子机制进行了系列探究。例如,Kazuma等[92]发现,机体缺血再灌注损伤诱发的氧化应激可降解糖萼中的唾液酸并激活唾液酸转移酶的活性,从而导致糖萼不可逆损伤。同年,Ikonomidis等[93]对未知来源栓塞卒中患者体内糖萼损伤的可能机制进行初步探究,发现机体发生氧化应激后,丙二醛(malonic dialdehyde,MDA)及蛋白质羰基(protein carbonyl,PC)等氧化应激标志物含量明显增高,导致糖萼损伤脱落,进一步加快了疾病进展。Kazuma等[92]与Ikonomidis等[93]对氧化应激导致糖萼损伤的机制进行了初步探索,但未能揭示氧化应激及其标志物诱导糖萼损伤的具体分子生物学机制。近期,Wu等[94]发现,机体氧化应激过程中产生的活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)、活性氮(reactive nitrogen species,RNS)等自由基可从各自的蛋白-金属结合位点上获得具有催化活性的过渡金属,而这些自由过渡金属阳离子通过静电相互作用与带有大量负电荷的糖萼相结合,产生高活性的羟基自由基(·OH),在·OH作用下激活巨噬细胞,加速损伤糖萼的清除,自由过渡金属阳离子进一步与未损伤糖萼结合,加速糖萼损伤脱落。
机体处于疾病状态时,病灶部位发生不同程度的损伤且伴有各种炎症反应。目前炎症反应的机制研究已较为完善,糖萼在炎症作用下的损伤机制也逐渐明确。
Pesonen等[95]探讨了心肺旁路手术患者体内糖萼完整性与手术所致炎症的生物相关性,发现手术引起的炎症可进一步诱导糖萼损伤。Margraf等[96]探究了术后炎症所致糖萼损伤的机制,发现体内促炎细胞因子持续分泌可诱导内皮糖萼损伤及其功能障碍。随后,Yamaoka-Tojo[97]发现SARS-CoV-2诱导全身内皮微血管炎症的靶点是糖萼,炎症反应过程中分泌的炎性因子可降解糖萼。2021年Sampei等[98]在糖尿病小鼠模型中的研究发现,持续性炎症可促进促炎因子白细胞介素-1β(interleukin-1β,IL-1β)的释放,诱导糖萼损伤。最近,Masola等[99]和Song等[100]研究疾病中炎症与糖萼降解的关系,发现在炎症作用下,巨噬细胞表面Toll样受体(Toll-like receptors,TLRs)被激活后,可激活NF-κB通路,促使肿瘤坏死因子-α(tumor necrosis factor-α,TNF-α)、IL-6、IL-8等促炎因子释放;其中TNF-α可活化肥大细胞,促使肥大细胞脱颗粒,进一步释放细胞因子、组胺、蛋白酶、硫酸乙酰肝素酶等降解糖萼组分,导致糖萼降解。
人体各种反应被一个极为复杂的酶催化系统所调控,该系统非常敏感,当机体内环境发生改变后,会诱导各种酶原转变成有生理活性的酶,最终引发体内生理功能紊乱。因此,可从酶活性改变的角度研究糖萼损伤的机制。
Masola等[29,99]发现,肝素酶、基质金属蛋白酶(matrix metalloproteinases,MMPs)、透明质酸酶过表达可诱导糖萼降解。肝素酶是一种内切β-D-葡萄糖醛酸酶,其过表达时,糖萼组成成分HS链被降解,进一步加速了糖萼的崩解,同时其还可活化ERK通路并调控Syndecan-1的表达,进一步调控糖萼损伤脱落过程。MMPs是一类锌依赖性内肽酶,具有多种亚型,其主要生物学活性为降解细胞外基质中胶原蛋白、弹性蛋白以及糖萼中Syndecans等成分。2021年Deyab等[101]分析类风湿关节炎患者体内基质金属蛋白酶-9(MMP-9)的表达变化,发现MMP-9表达上调可加速Syndecan-1、CS的降解,使其从糖萼上脱落,最终导致糖萼损伤。最近,Wu等[102]探究了息肉脉络膜血管病变(polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy,PCV)内皮糖萼损伤的机制,利用血液外生内皮细胞建立PCV模型进行单细胞转录组学分析,结果显示,PCV模型中透明质酸酶表达上调,致使HA降解加速,进而加剧糖萼损伤脱落。
总之,多种疾病可激活肝素酶、MMPs和透明质酸酶等,调控糖萼组成成分GAGs的合成与降解,进一步导致糖萼降解。
糖萼主要组成成分GAGs、PGs结构改变可激活巨噬细胞的活性,清除受损糖萼,加速糖萼降解。除氧化应激损伤、炎症、各种催化酶的生物效应外,体内化学基团修饰对于诱导糖萼主要组成成分的合成与结构改变也起着极为重要的作用。
2020年Suzuki等[103]发现,重组血栓调节蛋白可抑制糖萼降解而预防脂多糖诱导的急性呼吸综合征,且糖萼降解是由于机体糖萼合成途径受到抑制,导致其脱落速度大于合成补充速度,最终导致糖萼损伤。Masola等[99]与Broekhuizen等[104]对糖萼结构改变过程进行了深入研究,发现糖萼主要成分HS合成过程中出现6-O硫酸化和N-脱乙酰化化学编辑,导致HS结构域改变,该结构域促使趋化因子及凝集素与糖萼表面结合,进一步加速机体应激后PGs结构的改变,最终导致糖萼结构崩解。2021年Zou等[49]发现,创伤性脑损伤(traumatic brain injury,TBI)诱发糖萼损伤的机制可能为:TBI导致糖萼组分GAGs、PGs被不同的化学基团修饰后,其表面所带电荷数量及构象发生系列变化,从而激活糖萼降解通路,使糖萼降解,加剧疾病恶化,而疾病恶化又进一步加速糖萼降解,形成恶性循环。最近,Veraldi等[105]探究了SARS-CoV-2引起的儿童多系统炎性综合征严重程度与糖萼中HS脱落相关的机制,发现糖萼降解是因体内硫酸化化学修饰改变了糖萼中HS原有的构象,激活体内清道夫巨噬细胞等对异构糖萼组分的清除作用,最终导致糖萼降解。
综上,糖萼在体内经化学修饰后发生降解的机制主要是因机体在疾病状态下激活硫酸化、脱乙酰化等化学修饰,改变糖萼主要组成成分GAGs和PGs的合成途径及分子构象,诱导体内清道夫巨噬细胞活化,加速糖萼异构组分的清除,最终引发糖萼降解。
糖萼作为糖生物学及血管内皮中一种极为重要的结构物质,其组成特点、可视化方法、与疾病的相关性及降解机制研究正在开展。目前研究证实,糖萼损伤脱落物如GAGs、PGs的含量变化与COVID-19、黏多糖贮积症、尿毒症、脓毒症、血管疾病等严重程度相关,且不同疾病患者体内糖萼降解水平不同,糖萼损伤脱落物含量可作为脓毒症、动脉粥样硬化等疾病严重程度的评价指标[93-94,106-107]。近期,美国Hamed等[108]发现,鞘氨醇1-磷酸、肝素、成纤维细胞生长因子等可作为糖萼的保护剂,而维持糖萼完整性可缓解脓毒症,因此,将糖萼作为脓毒症的治疗靶点具有可行性。分析肿瘤与糖萼的相关性发现,癌细胞表面糖萼增厚,糖萼增厚可进一步促进癌细胞的生长、侵袭及转移[71,88]。基于癌细胞与糖萼的生物相关性,Kang等[109]总结了临床上抑制糖萼组成成分HS、HA、Syndecan-1、Syndecan-3合成的癌症靶向治疗药物,提示从糖萼角度靶向治疗癌症具有可行性;因此,靶向调控糖萼以及从转录翻译水平靶向调控糖萼的生物合成,可为临床疾病治疗与新药研发提供新思路。
随着糖生物学的快速发展,糖萼在各类疾病中的生物活性及潜在靶标作用不断被揭示。因此,研究糖萼具有重要的生物学意义,本综述总结了细胞内皮糖萼的生物学特性及在各疾病中的研究现状,为科研工作者开展相关研究提供了理论依据。
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2023年第48卷第3期
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doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2023.03.0345
  • 接收时间:2022-07-05
  • 首发时间:2025-12-03
  • 出版时间:2023-03-28
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  • 收稿日期:2022-07-05
  • 录用日期:2022-09-30
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    1军事科学院军事医学研究院辐射医学研究所,北京 100850
    2河北大学生命科学学院,河北保定 071002

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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