Article(id=1203036775859057256, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1203036770628755576, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2023.04.0482, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1658937600000, receivedDateStr=2022-07-28, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1662566400000, acceptedDateStr=2022-09-08, onlineDate=1764755918707, onlineDateStr=2025-12-03, pubDate=1682611200000, pubDateStr=2023-04-28, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1764755918707, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-03, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1764755918707, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764755918707, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1203036770628755576, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, year='2023', volume='48', issue='4', pageStart='367', pageEnd='488', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1764755917460, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764756108290, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1203037571086508742, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1203036770628755576, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1203037571086508743, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1203036770628755576, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=482, endPage=488, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1203036776186212991, articleId=1203036775859057256, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, language=EN, title=Phenomenon and clinical principle of diagnosis and treatment of bullet vascular embolism, columnId=1190243275882729994, journalTitle=Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, columnName=Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Bullet vascular embolism is a serious complication of firearm injury, which is caused by military weapons in wartime and civil guns in peacetime. However, small caliber bullets and small mass fragments are mostly used in military weapons now, which makes it more likely that bullets/fragments will be left in the body, leading to a higher incidence of bullet vascular embolism. Therefore, the incidence of bullet vascular embolism in wartime in the future would be higher than it in the past. Bullet vascular embolism after firearm injury is more harmful to human body, and more emergency treatment is needed. This article reviews the mechanism, vulnerable vessels, embolization types, diagnostic methods and treatment points of bullet vascular embolism, so as to provide reference for clinical diagnosis and treatment of bullet vascular embolism.

, correspAuthors=Bing-Cang Li, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
E-mail:
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弹头血管栓塞是火器伤的严重并发症,战时为军用武器所致,平时见于民用枪支致伤。民用枪支和动能低的枪弹致伤后血管栓塞发生率高于军用枪支,但当前军用武器多采用小口径枪弹和小质量破片,弹头或弹片遗留体内的可能性大,导致弹头血管栓塞发生率增高,因此,未来战时弹头血管栓塞的发生率将高于以往。火器伤后弹头血管栓塞对人体危害更严重,多需要紧急救治。本文综述弹头血管栓塞的发生机制、易损血管、栓塞类型、诊断方法和治疗要点等,以期为弹头血管栓塞的临床诊治提供参考。

, correspAuthors=李兵仓, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
李兵仓,E-mail:
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李越,医学博士,主治医师,主要从事神经系统损伤与修复方面的研究

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李越,医学博士,主治医师,主要从事神经系统损伤与修复方面的研究

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李越,医学博士,主治医师,主要从事神经系统损伤与修复方面的研究

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A. 军用5.56 mm枪弹速度高,动能大,弹头常穿出体外;B. 民用BB枪弹速度低,动能小,弹头常遗留体内

, figureFileSmall=qQObO9DjYdHzNxZEHaNppA==, figureFileBig=fCgsc1FlX8M5NOPO2fZeFA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1203036779130614634, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1203036775859057256, language=EN, label=Tab. 1, caption=

List of bullet entering and embolizing human blood vessels after gunshot wounds

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解剖部位弹头进入血管弹头栓塞血管
血管名称发生率(%)血管名称发生率(%)
脑部  大脑中动脉15
 大脑后动脉2
 大脑前动脉1
 基底动脉1
 小脑动脉1
颈部颈动脉21颈动脉6~30
颈静脉7颈静脉1
胸部主动脉18主动脉5
锁骨下动脉3锁骨下动脉2~7
肺动脉3肺动脉32
肺静脉9肺静脉3
下腔静脉25下腔静脉3.2~4
上腔静脉1上腔静脉1
头臂动脉1头臂动脉1
锁骨下静脉10冠状动脉4
心脏左心室52左心房1
右心室20左心室1
右心房16右心房10
左心房9右心室35.0~54.8
腹部肝静脉2肾动脉4
盆腔静脉2肝静脉6
  肾静脉1
  腰静脉1
  门静脉1
上肢腋动脉1上肢远端动脉2
腋静脉5腋动脉4
肱动脉1肱动脉1
下肢髂动脉10股动脉17~34
髂静脉9髂动脉13
股动脉12髂静脉8
股静脉15腘动脉11~50
腘静脉1腘静脉1
  下肢远端动脉8
), ArticleFig(id=1203036779231277938, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1203036775859057256, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

枪伤后弹头进入及栓塞的人体血管一览表

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
解剖部位弹头进入血管弹头栓塞血管
血管名称发生率(%)血管名称发生率(%)
脑部  大脑中动脉15
 大脑后动脉2
 大脑前动脉1
 基底动脉1
 小脑动脉1
颈部颈动脉21颈动脉6~30
颈静脉7颈静脉1
胸部主动脉18主动脉5
锁骨下动脉3锁骨下动脉2~7
肺动脉3肺动脉32
肺静脉9肺静脉3
下腔静脉25下腔静脉3.2~4
上腔静脉1上腔静脉1
头臂动脉1头臂动脉1
锁骨下静脉10冠状动脉4
心脏左心室52左心房1
右心室20左心室1
右心房16右心房10
左心房9右心室35.0~54.8
腹部肝静脉2肾动脉4
盆腔静脉2肝静脉6
  肾静脉1
  腰静脉1
  门静脉1
上肢腋动脉1上肢远端动脉2
腋静脉5腋动脉4
肱动脉1肱动脉1
下肢髂动脉10股动脉17~34
髂静脉9髂动脉13
股动脉12髂静脉8
股静脉15腘动脉11~50
腘静脉1腘静脉1
  下肢远端动脉8
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弹头血管栓塞及其临床诊治要点
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李越 1 , 赵永博 1 , 李兵仓 2, *
解放军医学杂志 | 综述 2023,48(4): 482-488
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解放军医学杂志 | 综述 2023, 48(4): 482-488
弹头血管栓塞及其临床诊治要点
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李越1, 赵永博1, 李兵仓2, *
作者信息
  • 1空军第986医院神经外科,陕西西安 710054
  • 2陆军特色医学中心研究部,重庆 400042
  • 李越,医学博士,主治医师,主要从事神经系统损伤与修复方面的研究

通讯作者:

李兵仓,E-mail:
Phenomenon and clinical principle of diagnosis and treatment of bullet vascular embolism
Yue Li1, Yong-Bo Zhao1, Bing-Cang Li2, *
Affiliations
  • 1Department of Neurosurgery, the 986th Hospital of Air Force, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710054, China
  • 2Research Department of Army Characteristic Medical Center, Chongqing 400042, China
出版时间: 2023-04-28 doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2023.04.0482
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弹头血管栓塞是火器伤的严重并发症,战时为军用武器所致,平时见于民用枪支致伤。民用枪支和动能低的枪弹致伤后血管栓塞发生率高于军用枪支,但当前军用武器多采用小口径枪弹和小质量破片,弹头或弹片遗留体内的可能性大,导致弹头血管栓塞发生率增高,因此,未来战时弹头血管栓塞的发生率将高于以往。火器伤后弹头血管栓塞对人体危害更严重,多需要紧急救治。本文综述弹头血管栓塞的发生机制、易损血管、栓塞类型、诊断方法和治疗要点等,以期为弹头血管栓塞的临床诊治提供参考。

火器伤  /  弹头血管栓塞  /  诊断  /  治疗

Bullet vascular embolism is a serious complication of firearm injury, which is caused by military weapons in wartime and civil guns in peacetime. However, small caliber bullets and small mass fragments are mostly used in military weapons now, which makes it more likely that bullets/fragments will be left in the body, leading to a higher incidence of bullet vascular embolism. Therefore, the incidence of bullet vascular embolism in wartime in the future would be higher than it in the past. Bullet vascular embolism after firearm injury is more harmful to human body, and more emergency treatment is needed. This article reviews the mechanism, vulnerable vessels, embolization types, diagnostic methods and treatment points of bullet vascular embolism, so as to provide reference for clinical diagnosis and treatment of bullet vascular embolism.

firearm injury  /  bullet vascular embolism  /  diagnosis  /  treatment
李越, 赵永博, 李兵仓. 弹头血管栓塞及其临床诊治要点. 解放军医学杂志, 2023 , 48 (4) : 482 -488 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2023.04.0482
Yue Li, Yong-Bo Zhao, Bing-Cang Li. Phenomenon and clinical principle of diagnosis and treatment of bullet vascular embolism[J]. Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, 2023 , 48 (4) : 482 -488 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2023.04.0482
弹头血管栓塞是火器伤的严重并发症[1],早在1834年即有报道[2-5],1903年报道了第1例肺动脉弹头栓塞[6-7]。美军越战期间弹头血管栓塞发生率为0.3%(22/7500)[8-14],阿富汗和伊拉克战争期间为1.2%(4/346)[5,11,14-17]。民用枪弹血管栓塞发生率高于军用枪弹[11,14,18-20],80%平民受害者的年龄≤18岁[20]。1988-2018年共发生平民弹头血管栓塞261例[7,9,12],平均每年9例[21],其中小口径低速弹丸栓塞占比高达60%~80%[12],单处枪伤占48%;胸部中枪后弹头血管栓塞占39%,静脉弹头血管栓塞占56%(其中77%~83%发生在右心或肺动脉),动脉则占27%[21]。火器性血管栓子既可以是金属弹头,也可以是橡皮弹头,爆炸性金属破片也能栓塞血管[22]。除弹头外,针头、骨片也能造成血管栓塞[23]。血管并非弹头栓塞的唯一部位,泌尿系统、肠道、气管、椎管也可被弹头栓塞[24]。鉴于火器伤后弹头血管栓塞对人体危害更严重,多需要紧急救治[21],本文总结了其研究现状,归纳了诊治原则,以期为弹头血管栓塞的临床诊治提供参考。
军用枪支以火药为动力,所发射的子弹速度高、动能大,通常造成人体贯通伤(perforating wound)(有伤道入、出口,弹头穿过人体),发生弹头血管栓塞的可能性低;民用枪支多以压缩气体为动力,发射的弹丸速度低、动能小,多造成人体穿透伤(penetrating wound)(有伤道入口,无伤道出口,弹丸遗留体内),因而栓塞血管的概率高[3,20,25-26]。军用5.56 mm枪弹(口径5.56 mm,弹头重3.56 g,速度约950 m/s,射程450 m左右)(图1A)与民用BB枪弹(口径4.5~6.0 mm,质量0.12~0.43 g,速度82~136 m/s,射程50~150 m)(图1B)的诸元对比显示,民用弹丸的动能较小[27-28]。动能是致伤的关键物理量,其与子弹的速度的平方呈正比,因而速度对弹头动能的影响最大,子弹穿透皮肤需要的速度为60~100 m/s,而穿透骨骼最低需要100 m/s[14,20]
动能随着子弹飞行距离的增加和穿透组织时的消耗而逐渐降低,当动能不足以贯通血管双壁时容易栓塞血管[8,15,24,26,29]。除动能外,弹头直径和形状也与血管栓塞关系密切,直径较小和球形弹丸更易栓塞血管[3,8,10,26,30],0.22英寸(约5.59 mm)手枪弹头栓塞血管的可能性为55%,而7.62 mm弹头栓塞血管的可能性仅27%[3,24]。直径≤3 mm的弹头更容易栓塞头、颈部血管(伤死率25%~33%)[30]
大血管粗而长,69%的弹头血管栓塞与大血管枪伤有关[16,27,31]。弹头由胸主动脉或腹主动脉进入动脉系统的概率大于70%[14],造成下肢动脉栓塞的概率为15.5%,其中左下肢动脉(左髂总动脉与腹主动脉夹角为30°)栓塞发生率是右下肢动脉(右髂总动脉与腹主动脉夹角为45°)的2倍[3,8,12,16,32];因右侧头臂动脉较左侧颈总动脉和锁骨下动脉粗大,故右侧上肢和脑动脉更容易被栓塞[12,16];左肺动脉较右肺动脉粗大,故弹头更易进入左肺动脉[16]。动脉栓塞发生率高于静脉(74%~80% vs. 26%~20%)[2,9-10,13,25,27,31,33-37]。弹头栓塞下肢动脉后有缺血症状者占66.7%~80%,无症状者占20%[2,8,25,27,33]。由左心室始发的弹头通常栓塞大脑中动脉,其中左侧占30%,右侧占70%(右侧无名动脉最先起始于主动脉弓)[3,8]。脑血管栓塞的伤死率为25%~33%[18]。64.7%的外周静脉内弹头进入右心(66%~90%无症状[15])和肺动脉[3,29,38],66.7%的静脉弹头栓塞无症状[25,27]。弹头可在枪击时直接进入血管,也可通过血管波动和侵蚀作用而延迟进入[39],延迟时间可在伤后26 d[27]、2个月[37]、3个月[23]、10年[33],最长至伤后14年[23,35]
弹头可以栓塞体内的任何血管[15]表1,附图1)。胸部血管、腹部血管的弹头栓塞发生率分别为39%、23%[24],心脏被弹头栓塞的概率为0.3%[10,30]。若弹头直接进入心脏,患者多快速死亡,心脏枪弹伤的院前伤死率为81%[10]、84%~94%[6],院内伤死率为21%[32]、41%~50%[1,35]。经胸/腹主动脉进入循环系统的弹头占比高于70%,子弹击穿主动脉的伤死率为47%~70%[8,32]、>90%[13]。与上肢动脉相比,弹头更容易栓塞下肢动脉(8% vs. 49%~76%),主要与重力作用有关[8,12,24]
动脉栓塞弹头常起源于外周大动脉、左心室和肺静脉,静脉弹头栓子多起源于外周大静脉和腔静脉[15,33,39]。静脉系统内的弹头一般栓塞右心房、右心室或肺循环[40]。左心内弹头引起脑栓塞的概率为74%,右心内弹头为26%[14]。对261例弹头血管栓塞进行统计,从弹头进入血管系统的途径来看:弹头经心脏进入血管系统者占15%[16],经动脉进入血管系统者占27%[16],经静脉进入血管系统者占56%[24]、66%[16],进入血管系统的弹头48%~58%栓塞右心[11,29](常被三尖瓣或腱索阻挡[11,35]),32%~36%栓塞肺循环[11,29],16%栓塞周围静脉[11,17];从弹头栓塞血管的情况来看:左循环栓塞占45%[16],80%的左循环栓塞患者有跛行、外周缺血、假性动脉瘤、心律失常、脑梗死等症状[32,37],右循环栓塞占54%[11,16],其中有静脉栓塞症状的患者占10%~30%[16,32,37]
顺行栓塞即弹头沿血流方向迁移引起的血管栓塞,血流动力的推动作用是主因[3,27]。顺行栓塞占弹头血管栓塞的79%[16]
升主动脉内弹头行经锁骨下动脉,最后栓塞腋动脉[24]、肱动脉[24,35]、基底动脉[41];胸/腹主动脉内弹头栓塞股动脉[10,32]、股浅动脉[13]、髂内动脉[27]、腘动脉[8,32,42-43];左/右肺静脉内弹头经左心房或左心室栓塞肱动脉[44]、肠系膜上动脉[44]、右股动脉[12];左心室内弹头栓塞颈外动脉[30]、大脑中动脉[14,31];左心房内弹头经左心室栓塞腹主动脉[1]、右髂总动脉[5]、右腘动脉[45];股浅动脉内弹头栓塞腘动脉[17]
下腔静脉弹头栓塞右心房或左心室[37,46],或经右心房或右心室栓塞肺动脉[7,47];上腔静脉内弹头栓塞右心室[38];右心房或右心室内弹头栓塞肺动脉[4,6,19];锁骨下静脉弹头经无名静脉、上腔静脉、右心房栓塞右心室[21,48];头静脉内弹头经腋静脉/锁骨下静脉栓塞右心房[49];肝静脉内弹头经下腔静脉栓塞右心室[39,50];髂外静脉内弹丸经下腔静脉和右心栓塞肺动脉[25,45];股静脉内弹头顺行栓塞右肺动脉[17];左腋静脉内弹头栓塞右心房[51]
逆行栓塞是弹头逆血流方向迁移造成的血管栓塞,重力作用是其主因(弹头比重大于血液)[3,8,27],患者受伤时的体位和体位改变、胸压或腹压增高、呼吸变化也与弹头逆行有关[3,10,26,52]。逆行栓塞占弹头血管栓塞的8%~15%[2,13,15,36,39]
右颈内静脉弹头逆行经右心和下腔静脉,最后栓塞肝静脉[28];左大腿中枪后弹头逆行经腹腔、膈肌、胸部进入左颈内静脉,最后经右心栓塞右髂外静脉[36];右心房内弹头栓塞下腔静脉[52-53]、髂总静脉[54];右心室内弹头栓塞下腔静脉、肝静脉和髂静脉[53,55];下腔静脉内弹头栓塞肝静脉[27]、髂总静脉[29,55]、左股静脉[15]
交互栓塞是弹丸由静脉系统进入动脉系统或反之而引起的血管栓塞[6,13,24,34-35,40],枪伤造成的动静脉瘘、室间隔缺损或卵圆孔未闭是动静脉弹头互通的路径[11,25,27]。交互栓塞占弹头血管栓塞的比例为3%[16]、5%[11,17]、10%[39]
弹头通过主动脉-下腔静脉瘘进入右心室(左→右分流,死亡率30%),使静脉回流增加而造成下肢水肿、肝肿大、腹水和门静脉高压[34];右心房内弹头经房间隔缺损进入左心房,栓塞腹主动脉[56];弹头通过右肺动脉-左心房瘘进入体循环,栓塞右锁骨下动脉[57];弹头通过主动脉-腔静脉瘘栓塞右心室[2]
近距离射击时因弹头动能大常造成身体贯通伤,远距离或鸟枪、霰弹枪射击时因弹头动能小多造成穿透伤[8,24,27,28]。穿透伤或伤道入口与出口数量不一致时应高度警惕弹头血管栓塞[5,7,11,13,27-28,45],如患者有肢体或脑部缺血症状,或临床症状与枪伤部位不符时也应怀疑弹头血管栓塞[5,15,27-28,45]
弹头栓塞的症状主要取决于栓塞血管的部位和类型[5]。如上所述,弹头血管栓塞症状可在伤后立即出现,也可在伤后数日、数周、数月甚至数年出现[11,33,36]。当患者出现肢体无力、感觉异常、外周脉搏减弱/消失、缺血(发生率66.7%[8])、疼痛、跛行、坏疽等症状时,应怀疑周围动脉栓塞[3,13,36,58]。80%的动脉栓塞有上述症状[18,36],70%~88%的静脉栓塞无症状[7,17]。当患者出现偏瘫、失语等症状时,应怀疑头颈部特别是大脑中动脉栓塞[31],大脑中动脉栓塞导致永久脑缺血的概率>85%[16];当患者出现咳嗽、咯血、呼吸困难、胸痛、肺梗死等症状时应怀疑肺动脉栓塞[2,11,17,23,35,47],肺动脉栓塞的发生率<10%[16],死亡率为80%[9];心脏栓塞早期可出现心悸、心包填塞、出血、瓣膜功能不全、缺氧、心肌梗死等症状[1,29,37,55],晚期可有细菌性心内膜炎、心律失常、心包炎或心包积液、心脏神经官能症(患者疑虑心脏有弹头,然后出现疲劳、呼吸短促、心跳加快、头晕等症状[11,29])等表现[1-3,21,29],其中心脏神经官能症的发生率为13.3%[8]
弹头血管栓塞无论有无症状都应进行影像学检查[13,39]。X线检查是弹头血管栓塞的基本影像学诊断方法[54],其操作最便捷[29,33],可以快速检查体内任何部位的金属异物[7,59],也便于全身检查[12,33],但因X线片为二维图像,空间分辨率不足,难以准确定位血管内的栓塞弹头[21,23,27,54]。CT图像较X线片清晰,弹头血管内定位更准确,但弹头金属伪影对精确定位有影响[21,34,54]。CT造影(CT angiography,CTA)三维图像的弹头血管定位更准确[23,31,40],有学者认为应将CTA作为诊断弹头血管栓塞的标准[1],但仍有金属伪影的不足[40]。磁共振成像血管造影(magnetic resonance imaging,MRI)具有强磁场作用,可使金属弹头移动而扩大组织损伤,应避免使用[7,8]。数字减影血管造影(digital subtraction angiography,DSA)是一种介入诊断方法(减去骨骼和软组织影像,突出显示血管影像),能准确显示栓塞弹头及其与周围血管的关系,对确定手术治疗方案极有帮助,缺点是可能发生过敏反应[8,12,25,54]
经胸和经食管超声心动图检查对心内弹头栓塞的诊断价值最高,高回声影像是心内弹头的典型特征[11,21,23,34,38,40]。有学者建议应将这一影像学技术作为诊断心内弹头的标准方法[39,47,51],可准确判定心内弹头的位置,对诊断房/室间隔缺损、瓣膜功能、心包积液、弹头移动与否具有很高价值,对选择手术入路和心脏切开位置也具有辅助价值[1,20,21]
尽管弹头血管栓塞已有数十年的治疗史,但因病例数量和治疗经验有限,加之患者伤情、受伤部位、投射物种类、个体差异(性别、年龄、健康状况等)不同,目前仍无规范而统一的治疗方法和原则[7,18,32,34,50]。目前通行的治疗原则是根据患者伤情严重度、血流动力学状况、并发症情况等采用个性化治疗[7,26,40,44,46,51]。弹头血管栓塞的治疗必须在救命和复苏程序(气道、呼吸、循环)完成后进行[1],目前有非手术治疗、介入治疗和手术治疗三种方法[11,21],具体选择应根据治疗机构的医疗资源、医务人员的技术水平和患者的具体情况而定[1,28]
多数学者坚持无论弹头血管栓塞是否有症状都应尽早(伤后<6周)取出(取出弹头风险过大者除外)[15,29,36,55,60],因保留弹头患者的预后更差(伤死率6%,并发症发生率25%),而取出弹头后患者的伤死率可下降至1%~2%[23,37,48];所有心内或大血管根部的栓塞弹头都应取出(伤情危急者除外)[15-17,23,34];动脉栓塞和交互栓塞弹头应尽快清除(防止伤情恶化)[10,15,25,43,44];弹头直径>5 mm、不规则弹片应予取出(容易造成继发性损伤,也容易影响患者相关功能)[17,23,46];出现瓣膜功能障碍、邻近结构侵蚀、心律失常、脓肿形成和肺梗死的右心内弹头(迁移栓塞概率为24%[33])可尝试介入取出,若不成功则改用手术方法取出[39,40,51,54];左心内弹头迁移栓塞的概率高达43%,应予手术摘除[33];大血管损伤、持续出血、心脏压塞、房/室间隔缺损、卵圆孔未闭的弹头栓塞应在伤情允许时首选开放手术取出[6,11,20]
很多学者建议无症状的静脉弹头栓塞采用非手术治疗[25,28,39,47],但应严密观察,定期随访,防止发生进一步栓塞[33,39]。1966-1992年共有32例静脉弹头栓塞采用非手术治疗成功[15];1987-2010年,45例静脉弹头栓塞中,有14例(31%)非手术治疗成功[61];在30例脑血管栓塞非手术治疗病例中,26例(87%)发生神经功能缺损,11例(37%)死亡[31,41];肺动脉弹头栓塞非手术治疗成功率为44%[35];1例肝静脉弹头栓塞非手术治疗成功[28]。颈外动脉栓塞一般不造成脑损伤(颈内动脉栓塞容易造成脑损伤,必须取出栓塞弹头),故多采用非手术治疗[30];静脉弹头栓塞(1930-1987年共有102例,其中无症状者占75%[55],并发症发生率为25%[15][5,17,34,50],或弹头直径<5 mm、固定牢固(不容易迁移)、无瓣膜功能障碍、血流动力学稳定,或没有肺梗死、肺脓肿和支气管破坏的肺动脉弹头栓塞也可采用非手术治疗,但必须严密观察病情变化[2,11,29,33,38-39]
介入治疗是在影像技术的导向下,将特制导管或器械经动脉或静脉送达栓塞部位进行治疗的方法,因为这一治疗是在血管内进行的,所以又称为血管内治疗,通常用于治疗静脉弹头栓塞[15,26]。1980年首次报道采用介入方法治疗心脏弹头栓塞[11,39],近20年来随着介入技术的进步,弹头血管栓塞介入治疗成功率达到53%~63%[11,14,16,38,44],失败率为28.6%[11],介入治疗成功率与弹头栓塞位置有关[21]。介入治疗失败后71.4%的患者采用了手术治疗[11,38]。有学者认为,介入治疗是摘除血管栓塞弹头的首选方法[28,29,43],甚至可以作为“一线治疗方案”[11]或“金标准”[42]。介入治疗过程中合理应用远端闭塞球囊或栓塞保护装置有助于防止弹头栓子迁移[16,54-55,61](迁移发生率为9%[14,31]),主要注意事项是避免血管内膜损伤[13,61]。心内弹头介入治疗的并发症发生率为20%~30%[21]。近十年来介入治疗弹头血管栓塞的成功病例有右颈内静脉入路取出右心室内弹头[21],经胸主动脉取出左股浅动脉栓塞弹头[13],经颈静脉取出右心内弹头[37],经右股静脉取出右心室内弹头[48],以及介入技术取出左椎动脉内栓塞弹头[41]等。
自1917年以来,手术一直是弹头血管栓塞的最后治疗方法[11]。动脉弹头栓塞的手术治疗率为64%,静脉弹头栓塞的手术治疗率为30%[26,44]。心内取栓术的技术条件要求高(需体外循环[11]),风险大[36],但对血管内膜的损伤小[61]。心内取栓术的适应证包括弹头位于重要结构(冠状动脉/静脉或传导系统)附近,或有心内分流、心律失常、瓣膜损伤、持续出血、支气管损伤、心包填塞、大血管损伤等危及患者生命的情况[21,34,47]。手术入路和手术方式取决于弹头栓塞的位置和医师偏好[11],通常采取开胸手术,胸骨正中切开术被认为是最佳开胸暴露方式[11,20]。近十年来手术成功取出栓塞弹头的病例有血管切开取出腘动脉[32]、股动脉[32,60]栓塞弹头,心脏手术取出嵌顿在三尖瓣的弹片并成功修复三尖瓣缺损[49],腹主动脉切开取出髂总动脉栓塞弹头[61],左股静脉切开取出左髂外静脉内弹头[26],以及切开左髂静脉直接取出栓塞弹头[15]等。
弹头血管栓塞是火器伤的严重并发症,战时为军用武器所致,平时见于民用枪支致伤。因动能较大的军用武器多造成贯通伤,而动能较小的民用枪支多形成穿透伤,故民用枪支致伤后弹头常遗留体内,因而栓塞血管的可能性更高。我国实行严格控枪的制度,平时弹头血管栓塞的发生率远低于美国等自由拥枪的国家,但未来战时弹头血管栓塞的发生率未必有国度差别,因现在的军用枪支多以小口径枪弹(5.45、5.56、5.8 mm)为主,以人员为杀伤目标的手榴弹或枪榴弹常预置重量<1 g的破片,故弹头或弹片遗留体内的可能性更大,导致弹头血管栓塞的发生率更高。为将来更好地诊治平时及战时的弹头血管栓塞,临床工作者尤其是军医应该掌握弹头血管栓塞的发生机制、易损血管、栓塞类型、诊断方法和治疗要点,但遗憾的是目前的救治经验尚少,也无统一、规范的治疗原则。相信随着救治经验的不断积累,以专家共识为基础的治疗原则将会逐渐形成。随着科技进步和血管内器械的不断改进,介入治疗将会以其损伤小、并发症少的优点被更多地用于弹头血管栓塞的治疗。
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2023年第48卷第4期
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doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2023.04.0482
  • 接收时间:2022-07-28
  • 首发时间:2025-12-03
  • 出版时间:2023-04-28
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  • 收稿日期:2022-07-28
  • 录用日期:2022-09-08
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    1空军第986医院神经外科,陕西西安 710054
    2陆军特色医学中心研究部,重庆 400042

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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