Article(id=1203002058069729339, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1203002056400396334, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2023.06.0676, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1646150400000, receivedDateStr=2022-03-02, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1648828800000, acceptedDateStr=2022-04-02, onlineDate=1764747641340, onlineDateStr=2025-12-03, pubDate=1687881600000, pubDateStr=2023-06-28, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1764747641340, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-03, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1764747641340, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764747641340, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1203002056400396334, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, year='2023', volume='48', issue='6', pageStart='627', pageEnd='748', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1764747640943, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764747714497, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1203002364979540735, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1203002056400396334, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1203002364979540736, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1203002056400396334, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=676, endPage=685, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1203002058367524934, articleId=1203002058069729339, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, language=EN, title=Induction effect of dihydroartemisinin on prostate cancer PC-3 cells and its mechanism, columnId=1190310110212751762, journalTitle=Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, columnName=Basic Research, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Objective To investigate the autophagy inducing effect of dihydroartemisinin (DHA) on prostate cancer PC-3 cells and its possible mechanism. Methods PC-3 cells were treated with 0, 12.5, 25, 50, 100 μmol/L of DHA. Cell viability was detected by CCK-8 method, and cell proliferation rate was detected by cell clone formation assay. Set control group, DHA group (50 μmol/L DHA for 48 h), 3-MA group (5 mmol/L 3-MA for 48 h) and DHA+3-MA group (50 μmol/L DHA+5 mmol/L 3-MA for 48 h), expressions of autophagy-related protein [microtubule associated protein light chain 3B (LC3B), yeast Atg6 homologue (Beclin-1)] were detected by Western blotting and RT-qPCR, the cell viability was detected by CCK-8 method, and the apoptosis rate was detected by flow cytometry, the formation of autophagosomes was observed by transmission electron microscope. PC-3 cells were transfected with the autophagy double labeled lentivirus mCherry-GFP-LC3B to detect the changes of autophagy flow. Set control group, DHA group (50 μmol/L DHA for 48 h), NAC group (5 mmol/L NAC for 48 h) and DHA+NAC group (50 μmol/L DHA+5 mmol/L NAC for 48 h), expressions of ROS/AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway related proteins were detected by Western blotting. After treated with 50 μmol/L DHA for 48 h, the total protein was extracted and divided into Input group (whole protein lysate), IP group (added with Beclin-1 antibody), and IgG group (added with the same mass of IgG), interaction between Beclin-1, Vps34, Bcl-2 and HMGB1 in PC-3 cells was detected by the Co-IP. Results CCK-8 assay showed that the survival rate of PC-3 cells was decreased with the increase of the concentration of DHA in a dose- and time-dependent manner (P<0.05). The half inhibitory concentration (IC50) of DHA for 24 h, 48 h and 72 h were 97.12, 57.10 and 29.35 μmol/L, select 50 μmol/L DHA for 48 h for follow-up experiments. Cell clone formation assay showed that the colony formation rate of PC-3 cells decreased significantly with the increase of DHA concentration (P<0.01). Western blotting and RT-qPCR results showed that, compared with control group, the mRNA and protein expression levels of Beclin-1, LC3B increased in PC-3 cells of DHA group (P<0.01); Compared with DHA group, the mRNA and protein expression levels of Beclin-1 and LC3B significantly decreased in PC-3 cells of DHA+3-MA group (P<0.01). Transmission electron microscopy showed that there were obvious autophagosomes in PC-3 cells of DHA group, and the number of autophagosomes was significantly increased compared with control group (P<0.05). The results of mCherry-GFP-LC3B lentivirus transfection showed that the ratio of red and yellow spots per cell in DHA group was higher (P<0.01) and that in DHA+3-mA group was lower (P<0.01). Compared with DHA group, the survival rate of DHA+3-mA group decreased (P<0.05) and the apoptosis rate increased (P<0.01). Compared with DHA group, the expression levels of p-mTOR decreased in PC-3 cells of DHA group (P<0.05), the expression levels of p-AMPK increased (P<0.01); Compared with DHA group, the expression levels of p-mTOR increased in PC-3 cells of DHA+NAC group (P<0.05), the expression levels of p-AMPK decreased (P<0.01). The results of Co-IP experiments showed that the effect of Beclin-1 on Bcl-2 was weakened and the binding with Vps34 and HMGB1 was enhanced after DHA treatment. Conclusions DHA can induce autophagy in prostate cancer PC-3 cells. The mechanism may be related to the regulation of the autophagy-related genes Beclin-1, LC3 and ROS/AMPK/mTOR signaling pathways.

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* E-mail:
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目的 探讨双氢青蒿素(DHA)对前列腺癌PC-3细胞的自噬诱导作用及其机制。方法 用0、12.5、25、50、100 μmol/L DHA处理PC-3细胞,采用CCK-8法检测细胞活力,克隆形成实验检测细胞增殖能力。取PC-3细胞,设置对照组(不做处理)、DHA组(50 μmol/L DHA处理48 h)、自噬抑制剂3-MA组(5 mmol/L 3-MA处理48 h)、DHA+3-MA组(50 μmol/L DHA+5 mmol/L 3-MA处理48 h),采用Western blotting和RT-qPCR检测自噬相关蛋白[微管相关蛋白轻链3B(LC3B)、酵母Atg6同源物(Beclin-1)]的表达情况,透射电镜观察自噬小体形成情况,使用自噬双标慢病毒mCherry-GFP-LC3B转染PC-3细胞检测自噬流变化,CCK-8法检测细胞活力,流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡率。设置对照组(不做处理)、DHA组(50 μmol/L DHA处理48 h)、ROS抑制剂NAC组(5 mmol/L NAC处理48 h)、DHA+NAC组(50 μmol/L DHA+5 mmol/L NAC处理48 h),采用Western blotting检测ROS/AMPK/mTOR信号通路相关蛋白的表达。用50 μmol/L DHA处理PC-3细胞48 h后提取总蛋白,分成Input组(全蛋白裂解液)、IP组(加入Beclin-1抗体)、IgG组(加入同等质量的IgG),采用免疫共沉淀(Co-IP)实验检测Beclin-1与Vps34、Bcl-2及HMGB1蛋白的相互作用。结果 CCK-8法检测结果显示,PC-3细胞存活率随着DHA浓度的升高而降低,且呈剂量和时间依赖性(P<0.05);DHA作用24、48、72 h的半数抑制浓度(IC50)分别为97.12、57.10、29.35 μmol/L,据此选择50 μmol/L DHA作用48 h进行后续实验。克隆形成实验结果显示,PC-3细胞克隆形成率随着DHA浓度的升高而明显降低(P<0.01)。Western blotting和RT-qPCR检测结果显示,与对照组比较,DHA组PC-3细胞中Beclin-1LC3B mRNA和蛋白表达水平明显升高(P<0.01);与DHA组比较,DHA+3-MA组PC-3细胞中Beclin-1LC3B mRNA和蛋白表达水平明显降低(P<0.01)。透射电镜观察可见DHA组PC-3细胞中出现明显的自噬小体,且自噬小体数较对照组明显增多(P<0.05)。mCherry-GFP-LC3B慢病毒转染实验结果显示,与对照组比较,DHA组每细胞红黄斑点比增高(P<0.01),DHA+3-MA组每细胞红黄斑点比降低(P<0.01)。与DHA组比较,DHA+3-MA组细胞存活率降低,凋亡率增高(P<0.01)。与对照组比较,DHA组PC-3细胞中p-mTOR蛋白相对表达水平降低(P<0.05),p-AMPK蛋白相对表达水平升高(P<0.01);与DHA组比较,DHA+NAC组p-mTOR蛋白相对表达水平升高(P<0.01),p-AMPK蛋白相对表达水平降低(P<0.01)。Co-IP实验结果显示,DHA处理后Beclin-1与Bcl-2的作用减弱,与Vps34、HMGB1的结合增强。结论 DHA可诱导前列腺癌PC-3细胞发生自噬,其机制可能与调控自噬相关基因Beclin-1LC3及ROS/AMPK/mTOR信号通路有关。

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杨嘉昕,硕士研究生,主要从事双氢青蒿素抗前列腺癌的机制研究

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杨嘉昕,硕士研究生,主要从事双氢青蒿素抗前列腺癌的机制研究

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DHA. 双氢青蒿素;A. CCK-8法检测不同浓度DHA与不同时间梯度下的细胞存活率;B. 克隆形成实验检测细胞增殖能力;与0 μmol/L DHA比较,(1)P<0.01;与12.5 μmol/L DHA比较,(2)P<0.01;与25 μmol/L DHA比较,(3)P<0.01;与50 μmol/L DHA比较,(4)P<0.01

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DHA. 双氢青蒿素;3-MA. 3-甲基腺嘌呤;A. DHA(50 μmol/L)、3-MA(5 mmol/L)以及联合作用48 h后PC-3细胞中自噬相关蛋白表达变化;B. DHA(50 μmol/L)、3-MA(5 mmol/L)以及联合作用48 h后PC-3细胞中自噬相关基因mRNA表达变化;与对照组比较,(1)P<0.01;与DHA组比较,(2)P<0.01;与3-MA组比较,(3)P<0.01

, figureFileSmall=mPzRjXoVGxnad59r1WfvzA==, figureFileBig=5Micpn5IRdPN77TGKtkpyA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1203008549145240383, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1203002058069729339, language=EN, label=Fig.3, caption=Formation of autophagosomes and changes of autophagic flux in PC-3 cells after DHA treatment, figureFileSmall=siiQx49VKWvenEwDDbZ20Q==, figureFileBig=BW3sqf/3rvhUdDY+t23gSQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1203008549237515077, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1203002058069729339, language=CN, label=图3, caption=DHA作用后PC-3细胞内自噬小体形成及自噬流变化情况

DHA. 双氢青蒿素;GFP. 绿色荧光蛋白;mCherry. 红色荧光蛋白;A. 电镜观察50 μmol/L DHA作用48 h后自噬小体形成情况;B. 激光共聚焦显微镜观察自噬流变化情况;与对照组比较,(1)P<0.05,(2)P<0.01;与DHA组比较,(3)P<0.05,(4)P<0.01

, figureFileSmall=siiQx49VKWvenEwDDbZ20Q==, figureFileBig=BW3sqf/3rvhUdDY+t23gSQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1203008549350761290, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1203002058069729339, language=EN, label=Fig.4, caption=Effect of autophagy inhibitor on DHA-induced cell death, figureFileSmall=h67Xa+vn6yH4+HKilVC2rA==, figureFileBig=YdUWcyLtrslwz15a8VDFGw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1203008549505950546, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1203002058069729339, language=CN, label=图4, caption=自噬抑制剂对DHA诱导的细胞死亡的影响

A. 流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡率;B. CCK-8法检测DHA联用自噬抑制剂3-MA对PC-3细胞活性的影响;与对照组比较,(1)P<0.01;与DHA组比较,(2)P<0.05,(3)P<0.01;与3-MA组比较,(4)P<0.01

, figureFileSmall=h67Xa+vn6yH4+HKilVC2rA==, figureFileBig=YdUWcyLtrslwz15a8VDFGw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1203008549610808152, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1203002058069729339, language=EN, label=Fig.5, caption=Effects of DHA on the expressions of ROS/AMPK/mTOR related proteins in PC-3 cells, figureFileSmall=OfP7mix+zLepgADG89ZNtw==, figureFileBig=bNOBMd9BjM2Fiz2e9Ljkgg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1203008549707277146, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1203002058069729339, language=CN, label=图5, caption=DHA对PC-3细胞中ROS/AMPK/mTOR信号通路相关蛋白表达的影响

DHA. 双氢青蒿素;NAC. 乙酰半胱氨酸;与对照组比较,(1)P<0.05,(2)P<0.01;与DHA组比较,(3)P<0.01;与NAC组比较,(4)P<0.01

, figureFileSmall=OfP7mix+zLepgADG89ZNtw==, figureFileBig=bNOBMd9BjM2Fiz2e9Ljkgg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1203008549833106271, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1203002058069729339, language=EN, label=Fig.6, caption=

Interaction between Beclin-1,Vps34,Bcl-2 and HMGB1 in PC-3 cells detected by Co-IP

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双氢青蒿素对前列腺癌PC-3细胞自噬的诱导作用及其机制
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杨嘉昕 , 夏僮 , 周驷杰 , 罗子国 *
解放军医学杂志 | 基础研究 2023,48(6): 676-685
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解放军医学杂志 | 基础研究 2023, 48(6): 676-685
双氢青蒿素对前列腺癌PC-3细胞自噬的诱导作用及其机制
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杨嘉昕, 夏僮, 周驷杰, 罗子国*
作者信息
  • 重庆医科大学生命科学研究院,重庆 400016
  • 杨嘉昕,硕士研究生,主要从事双氢青蒿素抗前列腺癌的机制研究

通讯作者:

罗子国,E-mail:
Induction effect of dihydroartemisinin on prostate cancer PC-3 cells and its mechanism
Jia-Xin Yang, Tong Xia, Si-Jie Zhou, Zi-Guo Luo*
Affiliations
  • Institute of Life Sciences, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, China
出版时间: 2023-06-28 doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2023.06.0676
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目的 探讨双氢青蒿素(DHA)对前列腺癌PC-3细胞的自噬诱导作用及其机制。方法 用0、12.5、25、50、100 μmol/L DHA处理PC-3细胞,采用CCK-8法检测细胞活力,克隆形成实验检测细胞增殖能力。取PC-3细胞,设置对照组(不做处理)、DHA组(50 μmol/L DHA处理48 h)、自噬抑制剂3-MA组(5 mmol/L 3-MA处理48 h)、DHA+3-MA组(50 μmol/L DHA+5 mmol/L 3-MA处理48 h),采用Western blotting和RT-qPCR检测自噬相关蛋白[微管相关蛋白轻链3B(LC3B)、酵母Atg6同源物(Beclin-1)]的表达情况,透射电镜观察自噬小体形成情况,使用自噬双标慢病毒mCherry-GFP-LC3B转染PC-3细胞检测自噬流变化,CCK-8法检测细胞活力,流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡率。设置对照组(不做处理)、DHA组(50 μmol/L DHA处理48 h)、ROS抑制剂NAC组(5 mmol/L NAC处理48 h)、DHA+NAC组(50 μmol/L DHA+5 mmol/L NAC处理48 h),采用Western blotting检测ROS/AMPK/mTOR信号通路相关蛋白的表达。用50 μmol/L DHA处理PC-3细胞48 h后提取总蛋白,分成Input组(全蛋白裂解液)、IP组(加入Beclin-1抗体)、IgG组(加入同等质量的IgG),采用免疫共沉淀(Co-IP)实验检测Beclin-1与Vps34、Bcl-2及HMGB1蛋白的相互作用。结果 CCK-8法检测结果显示,PC-3细胞存活率随着DHA浓度的升高而降低,且呈剂量和时间依赖性(P<0.05);DHA作用24、48、72 h的半数抑制浓度(IC50)分别为97.12、57.10、29.35 μmol/L,据此选择50 μmol/L DHA作用48 h进行后续实验。克隆形成实验结果显示,PC-3细胞克隆形成率随着DHA浓度的升高而明显降低(P<0.01)。Western blotting和RT-qPCR检测结果显示,与对照组比较,DHA组PC-3细胞中Beclin-1LC3B mRNA和蛋白表达水平明显升高(P<0.01);与DHA组比较,DHA+3-MA组PC-3细胞中Beclin-1LC3B mRNA和蛋白表达水平明显降低(P<0.01)。透射电镜观察可见DHA组PC-3细胞中出现明显的自噬小体,且自噬小体数较对照组明显增多(P<0.05)。mCherry-GFP-LC3B慢病毒转染实验结果显示,与对照组比较,DHA组每细胞红黄斑点比增高(P<0.01),DHA+3-MA组每细胞红黄斑点比降低(P<0.01)。与DHA组比较,DHA+3-MA组细胞存活率降低,凋亡率增高(P<0.01)。与对照组比较,DHA组PC-3细胞中p-mTOR蛋白相对表达水平降低(P<0.05),p-AMPK蛋白相对表达水平升高(P<0.01);与DHA组比较,DHA+NAC组p-mTOR蛋白相对表达水平升高(P<0.01),p-AMPK蛋白相对表达水平降低(P<0.01)。Co-IP实验结果显示,DHA处理后Beclin-1与Bcl-2的作用减弱,与Vps34、HMGB1的结合增强。结论 DHA可诱导前列腺癌PC-3细胞发生自噬,其机制可能与调控自噬相关基因Beclin-1LC3及ROS/AMPK/mTOR信号通路有关。

双氢青蒿素  /  前列腺癌  /  PC-3细胞  /  自噬

Objective To investigate the autophagy inducing effect of dihydroartemisinin (DHA) on prostate cancer PC-3 cells and its possible mechanism. Methods PC-3 cells were treated with 0, 12.5, 25, 50, 100 μmol/L of DHA. Cell viability was detected by CCK-8 method, and cell proliferation rate was detected by cell clone formation assay. Set control group, DHA group (50 μmol/L DHA for 48 h), 3-MA group (5 mmol/L 3-MA for 48 h) and DHA+3-MA group (50 μmol/L DHA+5 mmol/L 3-MA for 48 h), expressions of autophagy-related protein [microtubule associated protein light chain 3B (LC3B), yeast Atg6 homologue (Beclin-1)] were detected by Western blotting and RT-qPCR, the cell viability was detected by CCK-8 method, and the apoptosis rate was detected by flow cytometry, the formation of autophagosomes was observed by transmission electron microscope. PC-3 cells were transfected with the autophagy double labeled lentivirus mCherry-GFP-LC3B to detect the changes of autophagy flow. Set control group, DHA group (50 μmol/L DHA for 48 h), NAC group (5 mmol/L NAC for 48 h) and DHA+NAC group (50 μmol/L DHA+5 mmol/L NAC for 48 h), expressions of ROS/AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway related proteins were detected by Western blotting. After treated with 50 μmol/L DHA for 48 h, the total protein was extracted and divided into Input group (whole protein lysate), IP group (added with Beclin-1 antibody), and IgG group (added with the same mass of IgG), interaction between Beclin-1, Vps34, Bcl-2 and HMGB1 in PC-3 cells was detected by the Co-IP. Results CCK-8 assay showed that the survival rate of PC-3 cells was decreased with the increase of the concentration of DHA in a dose- and time-dependent manner (P<0.05). The half inhibitory concentration (IC50) of DHA for 24 h, 48 h and 72 h were 97.12, 57.10 and 29.35 μmol/L, select 50 μmol/L DHA for 48 h for follow-up experiments. Cell clone formation assay showed that the colony formation rate of PC-3 cells decreased significantly with the increase of DHA concentration (P<0.01). Western blotting and RT-qPCR results showed that, compared with control group, the mRNA and protein expression levels of Beclin-1, LC3B increased in PC-3 cells of DHA group (P<0.01); Compared with DHA group, the mRNA and protein expression levels of Beclin-1 and LC3B significantly decreased in PC-3 cells of DHA+3-MA group (P<0.01). Transmission electron microscopy showed that there were obvious autophagosomes in PC-3 cells of DHA group, and the number of autophagosomes was significantly increased compared with control group (P<0.05). The results of mCherry-GFP-LC3B lentivirus transfection showed that the ratio of red and yellow spots per cell in DHA group was higher (P<0.01) and that in DHA+3-mA group was lower (P<0.01). Compared with DHA group, the survival rate of DHA+3-mA group decreased (P<0.05) and the apoptosis rate increased (P<0.01). Compared with DHA group, the expression levels of p-mTOR decreased in PC-3 cells of DHA group (P<0.05), the expression levels of p-AMPK increased (P<0.01); Compared with DHA group, the expression levels of p-mTOR increased in PC-3 cells of DHA+NAC group (P<0.05), the expression levels of p-AMPK decreased (P<0.01). The results of Co-IP experiments showed that the effect of Beclin-1 on Bcl-2 was weakened and the binding with Vps34 and HMGB1 was enhanced after DHA treatment. Conclusions DHA can induce autophagy in prostate cancer PC-3 cells. The mechanism may be related to the regulation of the autophagy-related genes Beclin-1, LC3 and ROS/AMPK/mTOR signaling pathways.

dihydroartemisinin  /  prostate cancer  /  PC-3 cells  /  autophagy
杨嘉昕, 夏僮, 周驷杰, 罗子国. 双氢青蒿素对前列腺癌PC-3细胞自噬的诱导作用及其机制. 解放军医学杂志, 2023 , 48 (6) : 676 -685 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2023.06.0676
Jia-Xin Yang, Tong Xia, Si-Jie Zhou, Zi-Guo Luo. Induction effect of dihydroartemisinin on prostate cancer PC-3 cells and its mechanism[J]. Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, 2023 , 48 (6) : 676 -685 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2023.06.0676
前列腺癌是全球男性第二大常见癌症,也是男性癌症死亡的第六大原因。近年来,亚洲男性前列腺癌的发病率和病死率均呈上升趋势[1-2]。雄激素剥夺疗法(androgen deprivation therapy,ADT)是复发性前列腺癌的主要治疗手段[3-4],但一旦患者进展为高度侵袭性的去势抵抗性前列腺癌(castrate-resistant prostate cancer,CRPC),则化疗、靶向药物、免疫治疗等作用有限,病死率明显增高[5-6]。因此,寻找新的前列腺癌治疗药物及方法至关重要。双氢青蒿素(dihydroartemisinin,DHA)是一线抗疟药青蒿素的活性衍生物,可在多种癌症(包括前列腺癌)的治疗中发挥抗肿瘤活性,且毒性低、不良反应少[7-8]。近年来研究发现,DHA对人前列腺癌细胞具有抗增殖、促凋亡、阻滞细胞周期、抑制细胞侵袭和迁移等作用[9-10],但其确切机制仍需进一步探讨。自噬又名Ⅱ型细胞程序性死亡,是一种保守的细胞内降解通路[11],可通过形成自噬小体并与溶酶体融合而降解细胞内的大分子及细胞器[12]。细胞自噬功能紊乱与肿瘤发生发展密切相关[13],调控自噬可作为癌症预防和治疗的有效策略[14]。有研究发现,DHA可在宫颈癌、非小细胞肺癌、喉癌等癌细胞中诱导自噬,从而促进或抑制肿瘤发展[15-17]。目前DHA诱导前列腺癌细胞自噬的相关研究较少,具体作用机制尚不明确。本研究探讨了DHA对前列腺癌细胞的自噬诱导作用及其可能机制,以期为前列腺癌的治疗提供新的靶点。
DHA(美国Sigma公司);3-甲基腺嘌呤(3-MA,美国MCE公司);ROS抑制剂乙酰半胱氨酸(NAC,美国TargetMol公司);胎牛血清(美国BI公司);DMEM/F12培养基、GlutaMAX(美国Gibco公司);微管相关蛋白1A/1B轻链3B(microtubule-associated proteins 1A/1B light chain 3B,LC3B)、自噬效应蛋白Beclin-1、哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mammalian target of rapamycin,mTOR)、磷酸化哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(phosphorated mammalian target of rapamycin,p-mTOR)、AMP活化蛋白激酶(AMP-activated protein kinase,AMPK)、磷酸化AMP活化蛋白激酶(phosphorated AMP-activated protein kinase,p-AMPK)、高迁移率族蛋白B1(high mobility group box 1 protein,HMGB1)兔抗人单克隆抗体(美国CST公司);B淋巴细胞瘤-2基因(B-cell lymphoma-2,Bcl-2)兔抗人单克隆抗体(美国Bimake公司);PIK3C3/Vps34兔抗人单克隆抗体(美国ABclonal公司);甘油醛-3-磷酸脱氢酶(glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase,GAPDH)兔抗人多克隆抗体、CCK-8试剂(北京博奥森生物技术有限公司);辣根过氧化物酶标记山羊抗兔二抗(北京中杉金桥生物技术有限公司);Simply P细胞RNA提取试剂盒(美国BioFlux公司);RT-qPCR试剂盒(日本TaKaRa公司);GFP-mCherry-LC3B慢病毒(山东维真生物科技有限公司);Protein A/G免疫沉淀磁珠(美国Bimake公司);Annexin V-PE凋亡试剂盒、BCA蛋白浓度测定试剂盒(上海碧云天生物技术有限公司);超敏ECL化学发光试剂(苏州新赛美生物科技有限公司)。流式细胞仪FACSVantage(美国BD公司);透射电子显微镜(日本JEOL JEM-1400PLUS公司)。
前列腺癌细胞株PC-3由中国科学院上海细胞库提供,于含10%胎牛血清、500 μl GlutaMAX、100 μg/ml链霉素和100 U/ml青霉素的DMEM/F12培养基中培养;培养条件为37 ℃、湿度95%、CO2浓度5%;换液传代,取对数生长期细胞用于后续实验。DHA母液用DMSO溶剂配制为0.1 mol/L的溶液,于4 ℃避光保存备用。
取对数生长期PC-3细胞接种于96孔板中(5×103个/孔),用不同浓度(0、12.5、25、50、100 μmol/L)的DHA处理24、48、72 h,设置5个复孔;弃去培养液,每孔加入90 μl培养基和10 μl CCK-8,37 ℃继续孵育1~4 h,测定450 nm处的吸光度值(A),计算细胞存活率。细胞存活率(%)=(A实验孔A空白孔)/(A对照孔A空白孔)×100%。使用GraphPad Prism 9软件计算药物半数抑制浓度(IC50)。
取对数生长期PC-3细胞接种于96孔板中,设置对照组、DHA组、3-MA组、DHA+3-MA组。对照组不做处理,DHA组、3-MA组、DHA+3-MA组分别用50 μmol/L DHA、5 mmol/L特异性自噬抑制剂3-MA、50 μmol/L DHA+5 mmol/L 3-MA处理48 h,测定450 nm处的吸光度值(A),计算细胞存活率。
梯度稀释细胞悬液,接种至6孔板(500个/孔),置于培养箱中培养2~3周。待细胞贴壁后,用不同浓度(0、12.5、25、50、100 μmol/L)的DHA处理48 h;换液,当孔板中出现克隆时,终止培养;弃上清,加入4%多聚甲醛固定15 min;去除固定液,加入结晶紫染色液染10~30 min,PBS清洗后将6孔板置于网格纸上计数细胞克隆数。
离心(800 r/min,5 min)收集细胞并接种于6孔板中,设置:(1)对照组、DHA组、3-MA组、DHA+3-MA组(各组药物处理同1.2.2);(2)对照组、DHA组(50 μmol/L DHA处理48 h)、NAC组(5 mmol/L NAC处理48 h)、DHA+NAC组(50 μmol/L DHA+5 mmol/L NAC处理48 h)。按照RIPA:PMSF为100:1的比例加入裂解液提取蛋白,使用BCA试剂盒测定蛋白浓度;上样行SDS-PAGE电泳,并转至PDVF膜上;加入5%脱脂奶粉室温摇床封闭2 h,加入兔抗人LC3B、Beclin-1、AMPK、p-AMPK、mTOR、p-mTOR单克隆一抗(1:1000)和兔抗人GAPDH多克隆一抗(1:1000),4 ℃摇床孵育过夜;TBST洗膜10 min×3次,加入1×TBST稀释的HRP山羊抗兔IgG(H+L)二抗(1:20 000),室温摇床孵育1 h,TBST洗膜10 min×3次;加入ECL发光液,采用凝胶成像系统显影并采集图像,用ImageJ软件进行分析。
离心(800 r/min,5 min)收集细胞并接种于6孔板中,设置对照组、DHA组、3-MA组、DHA+3-MA组,各组药物处理同1.2.2。提取总RNA,用Nano Drop 2000超微量分光光度计测定RNA浓度(ng/μl);使用反转录试剂盒将RNA反转录成cDNA(反转录条件:20 μl体系,37 ℃ 15 min,85 ℃ 5 s,4 ℃维持),行实时荧光定量PCR。PCR反应体系为10 μl,其中cDNA 1 μl,混合物9 μl(DEPC水3.4 μl、SYBER GREEN染料5 μl、上下游引物各0.3 μl);反应条件:95 ℃ 30 s;95 ℃ 5 s,56.5 ℃ 30 s,39个循环,建立熔解曲线(65 ℃ 30 s,95 ℃ 5 s)。采用2–ΔΔCt法计算目的基因的表达水平。引物序列如下。Beclin-1:正义5'-CCATGCAGGTGAGCTTCG-3',反义5'-GAATCTGCGAGAGACACCATC-3';LC3B:正义5'-GCGTCTCCACACCAATCTCA-3',反义5'-ACAATTTCATCCCGAACGTCT-3';β-actin:正义5'-CGGCACCACCATGTACCCT-3',反义5'-ACACGGAGTACTTGCGCTCAG-3'。
取对数生长期PC-3细胞接种于T25培养瓶中,设置对照组、DHA组、3-MA组、DHA+3-MA组,各组药物处理同1.2.2。收集细胞,于15 ml离心管中离心(800 r/min,5 min),吸净上清液,加入1 ml PBS重悬至1.5 ml EP管中离心(1200 r/min,10 min)。吸净上清液,沿管壁加入2.5%戊二醛固定2 h;加入1%四氧化锇后固定2 h,乙醇和丙酮逐级脱水,环氧树脂812浸透,包埋、聚合、切片,经醋酸双氧铀、枸橼酸铅双重染色后,于JEOL JEM-1400 PLUS透射电镜下观察。
取对数生长期PC-3细胞接种于6孔板中,待细胞贴壁密度为40%~50%时,加入含10%胎牛血清的DMEM/F12培养液,滴加用培养液稀释的自噬双标慢病毒mCherry-GFP-LC3B(MOI=40)。取转染后的细胞接种于共聚焦皿中(1.5×105个/皿),设置对照组、DHA组、3-MA组、DHA+3-MA组,各组药物处理同1.2.2。收集细胞,用4%多聚甲醛溶液固定15 min,PBS洗涤1次。DAPI染核10 min,PBS洗涤2~3次,3~5 min/次。采用Andor2000高速转盘共聚焦显微镜观察细胞内自噬流变化。
取对数生长期PC-3细胞接种于6孔板中,待细胞贴壁密度为80%时,设置对照组、DHA组、3-MA组、DHA+3-MA组,各组药物处理同1.2.2。离心(800 r/min,5 min)收集细胞,将1×106个细胞重悬于500 μl PBS中。加入Annexin V/FITC和PI,室温避光反应30 min,采用流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡率。
取对数生长期PC-3细胞接种于T75培养瓶中,加入50 μmol/L DHA处理48 h,使用IP裂解液与蛋白酶抑制剂提取总蛋白。取100 μl上清,加入25 μl 5×SDS上样缓冲液,100 ℃煮10 min为Input组(全蛋白裂解液)。IP组(目的蛋白组)加入Beclin-1(抗兔)抗体,IgG组加入同等质量的IgG(抗兔),置于翻转仪上4 ℃过夜。次日预处理Protein A/G磁珠后加入经4 ℃过夜的蛋白-抗体复合物,置于翻转仪上(4 ℃2 h),将磁珠用预冷的Wash Buffer洗5次后去上清。加入3×上样缓冲液,100 ℃煮10 min,采用Western blotting检测相关蛋白的表达。兔抗人Beclin-1、HMGB1、Bcl-2、PIK3C3/Vps34单克隆一抗及兔抗人GAPDH多克隆一抗稀释倍数均为1:1000。
采用GraphPad Prism 9软件进行统计分析。符合正态分布的计量资料以$\bar{x}±s$表示,方差齐时多组间比较采用单因素方差分析,进一步两两比较采用LSD-t检验;不符合正态分布的计量资料以MQ1Q3)表示,多组间比较采用Kruskal Wallis检验,进一步两两比较采用Mann-Whitney U检验。P<0.05为差异有统计学意义。实验独立重复3次。
CCK-8法检测结果显示,12.5、25、50、100 μmol/L DHA作用24、48、72 h后,PC-3细胞存活率均下降,且呈剂量和时间依赖性(P<0.05);其中24 h、48 h和72 h对应的不同浓度DHA作用的细胞存活率差异均有统计学意义(P<0.01,图1A)。24、48、72 h的IC50依次为97.12(95%CI 64.01~261.4)μmol/L、57.10(95%CI 46.68~73.71)μmol/L、29.35(95%CI 19.32~41.10)μmol/L。据此选择50 μmol/L DHA作用48 h进行后续实验。
克隆形成实验结果显示,与0 μmol/L DHA比较,12.5、25、50、100 μmol/L DHA作用48 h后PC-3细胞克隆形成率明显降低(9.07%±1.41%、5.47%±0.31%、4.00±0.53%、0.27%±0.11% vs.14.73%±0.70%,P<0.01,图1B)。
Western blotting和RT-qPCR检测结果显示,与对照组比较,DHA组PC-3细胞中Beclin-1LC3B mRNA和蛋白表达水平明显升高(P<0.01),DHA+3-MA组PC-3细胞中LC3B mRNA和蛋白表达水平明显升高(P<0.01);与DHA组比较,3-MA组和DHA+3-MA组PC-3细胞中Beclin-1LC3B mRNA和蛋白表达水平明显降低(P<0.01);与3-MA组比较,DHA+3-MA组PC-3细胞中LC3B mRNA和蛋白表达水平明显升高(1.66±0.12 vs. 1.04±0.06,P<0.01)(图2)。
透射电镜观察显示,DHA组PC-3细胞中出现明显的自噬小体,而对照组和3-MA组PC-3细胞膜、细胞器等结构正常,未发现明显的自噬小体;与对照组比较,DHA组自噬小体数明显增多[38.59(21.68,51.79)vs.0(0,0.41),P<0.05];与DHA组比较,3-MA组、DHA+3-MA组自噬小体数明显减少[0(0,0.76)、2.42(1.63,3.63)vs. 38.59(21.68,51.79),P<0.05,图3A]。
GFP-mCherry-LC3B慢病毒转染结果显示,与对照组比较,DHA组每细胞红黄斑点比明显增高[7.00(3.82,7.25)vs. 1.15(1.00,1.89),P<0.01],3-MA组、DHA+3-MA组每细胞红黄斑点比明显降低[0.30(0.25,0.39)、0.20(0.11,0.37)vs. 1.15(1.00,1.89),P<0.01];与DHA组比较,3-MA组、DHA+3-MA组每细胞红黄斑点比明显降低(P<0.01,图3B)。
CCK-8法检测结果显示,与对照组比较,3-MA组、DHA组和DHA+3-MA组细胞存活率明显降低(P<0.01);与DHA组比较,3-MA组细胞存活率升高(P<0.01),DHA+3-MA组细胞存活率降低(P<0.05);与3-MA组比较,DHA+3-MA组细胞存活率明显降低(P<0.01,图4)。
流式细胞术检测结果显示,与对照组比较,DHA组、DHA+3-MA组细胞凋亡率明显增高(P<0.01);与DHA组比较,3-MA组细胞凋亡率明显降低(P<0.01),DHA+3-MA组细胞凋亡率明显增高(P<0.01);与3-MA组比较,DHA+3-MA组细胞凋亡率明显增高(P<0.01,图4)。
Western blotting检测结果显示,与对照组比较,DHA组PC-3细胞中p-mTOR蛋白相对表达水平降低(P<0.01),p-AMPK、LC3-Ⅱ蛋白相对表达水平升高(P<0.01);与DHA组比较,NAC组、DHA+NAC组PC-3细胞中p-mTOR蛋白相对表达水平升高(P<0.01),p-AMPK、LC3-Ⅱ蛋白相对表达水平降低(P<0.01);与NAC组比较,DHA+NAC组LC3-Ⅱ蛋白相对表达水平升高(P<0.01,图5)。
Western blotting检测结果显示,Beclin-1可与细胞内的Vps34、Bcl-2及HMGB1蛋白发生相互作用,且DHA处理后Beclin-1与Bcl-2的作用减弱,而与Vps34、HMGB1的结合增强(图6)。
近年来关于DHA对肿瘤细胞杀伤效应的研究表明,DHA很可能成为低毒、高效、低成本的抗癌药物,但目前其抗前列腺癌的研究主要集中在诱导细胞凋亡以及抑制细胞存活、增殖和转移等方面,少有涉及细胞自噬方面的报道。Zhu等[18]研究发现,DHA可通过抑制细胞内PI3K/Akt和低氧诱导因子-1(hypoxia inducible factor-1,HIF-1)的活性来抑制前列腺癌LNCaP细胞增殖并诱导其凋亡。Kong等[19]发现,DHA可抑制热休克蛋白70(HSP70)的表达并诱导前列腺癌PC-3细胞凋亡。本课题组前期研究证实,DHA可下调PC-3细胞中泛素样含PHD和环指域蛋白1(ubiquitin-like with PHD and ring finger domains 1,UHRF1)及DNA甲基化转移酶1(DNA methyltransferase 1,DNMT1)的表达,恢复p16ink4a的表达,从而诱导PC-3细胞凋亡;电镜观察显示,DHA作用后PC-3细胞内有自噬小体形成[20-21]。因此,本研究探讨新型抗肿瘤药物DHA对前列腺癌细胞自噬的诱导作用及可能机制。
自噬过程涉及多种自噬相关蛋白,其中微管相关蛋白1A/1B轻链3(microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B light chain 3,LC3)是一种广泛分布于哺乳动物组织和培养细胞中的可溶性蛋白。在自噬过程中,细胞溶质形式的LC3-Ⅰ与磷脂酰乙醇胺结合形成LC3-Ⅱ,从而被募集到自噬体膜。因此,自噬体标志物LC3的更新反映了自噬活性,通过Western blotting或免疫荧光检测LC3是监测自噬和自噬相关过程的可靠方法[22]。Beclin-1是酵母Atg6/Vps30的同源物,也是自噬体形成所必需的关键因子之一。本研究采用Western blotting和RT-qPCR检测DHA作用后PC-3细胞中LC3Beclin-1蛋白和mRNA表达的变化,结果显示,DHA作用后LC3、Beclin-1的表达均呈上调趋势,而DHA联用自噬抑制剂3-MA后,LC3、Beclin-1的表达均有所降低,提示DHA与前列腺癌PC-3细胞自噬的形成有关。自噬流是自噬在细胞内连续出现的动态过程,也是评价细胞自噬是否行使正常功能的重要途径[23],本研究采用自噬双标慢病毒mCherry-GFP-LC3B转染PC-3细胞,通过观察荧光强度的变化来准确判断细胞的自噬活性,进一步验证了DHA可诱导PC-3细胞发生自噬。
自噬在肿瘤发生发展中的作用机制十分复杂[24]:一方面,自噬可支持癌细胞的代谢与存活来促进肿瘤的生长;另一方面,由于胞质蛋白和细胞器的消耗,过度自噬也会引发癌细胞死亡[25]。本研究中CCK-8法与流式细胞术检测结果显示,DHA联用自噬抑制剂3-MA后可进一步增强DHA对肿瘤细胞的杀伤作用,与Tang等[26]在子宫内膜腺癌中验证的结果一致,表明使用DHA治疗前列腺癌的同时靶向抑制自噬进程有望进一步提升DHA的疗效。
DHA已被证实含有内过氧化物桥,并能在包括前列腺癌细胞在内的多种肿瘤细胞中诱导并增高活性氧(ROS)的水平[27]。雷帕霉素的靶点mTOR在自噬调节中起着关键作用,可通过调节自噬相关蛋白和溶酶体的生物合成,在自噬过程中发挥负性作用。mTOR是AMPK下游的重要靶点,AMPK可通过抑制mTOR的作用来促进自噬[28]。本研究发现,加入DHA后AMPK磷酸化水平上调且mTOR磷酸化水平降低,提示DHA调控AMPK/mTOR信号通路是其诱导PC-3细胞自噬的潜在作用机制。在加入ROS抑制剂NAC后,逆转了二者的磷酸化水平,且降低了自噬相关蛋白LC3-Ⅱ的表达,进一步提示DHA诱导的自噬启动依赖于ROS/AMPK/mTOR信号通路,但具体机制仍需进一步探讨。
此外研究发现,Beclin-1可通过BH3结构域与Bcl-2结合,从而抑制自噬,而DHA可通过干预Beclin-1与Bcl-2的结合诱导自噬激活[29]。酵母Vps34的同源蛋白是Ⅲ类PI3K复合体PI3KC3,可与Beclin-1形成复合物,参与自噬小体的形成[30]。Bcl-2可阻断Beclin-1与Vps34的相互作用,降低PI3KC3活性,从而负向调控自噬[31]。本课题组前期使用iTRAQ技术进行蛋白质组学分析,发现了80多种差异表达的蛋白质与DHA在PC-3细胞中的细胞毒性有关,其中包括HMGB1[32]。HMGB1是一种DNA结合核蛋白,胞质中的HMGB1可通过其分子内的二硫键(C23/45)直接结合Beclin-1,破坏Beclin-1与Bcl-2之间的相互作用,从而诱导自噬[33]。为了探讨DHA对PC-3细胞自噬的调控是否通过上述方式,本研究进一步采用免疫共沉淀(Co-IP)技术,利用Beclin-1抗体沉淀细胞内的Vps34、Bcl-2及HMGB1蛋白,以与Beclin-1抗体同源的IgG作为阴性对照,Input组为定量对照。结果显示,DHA作用下的PC-3细胞中,Beclin-1与Vps34及HMGB1的结合增强,与Bcl-2的结合减弱,提示DHA可通过影响Beclin-1与Bcl-2的结合程度促进自噬。
综上所述,DHA能有效抑制PC-3细胞的增殖,并能诱导PC-3细胞发生自噬;DHA作用后PC-3细胞中LC3、Beclin-1表达均明显上调,同时伴有自噬小体的形成与自噬流的变化,其机制可能与ROS/AMPK/mTOR信号通路有关;DHA联用自噬抑制剂3-MA或可增强DHA抑制肿瘤细胞活性的效力。此外,DHA还可通过增强Beclin-1与Vps34、HMGB1的结合,减弱Bcl-2对Beclin-1的抑制作用,促进自噬的发生。该结果为治疗前列腺癌提供了新的方法与靶点,但本研究仅在体外进行实验,研究结果仍需开展动物实验加以验证,且仅在雄激素非依赖性的前列腺癌细胞株中进行了验证,DHA是否影响雄激素依赖性的前列腺癌细胞发生自噬仍需进一步探索。
  • 重庆市科学技术研究项目(41021300060448)
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doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.2023.06.0676
  • 接收时间:2022-03-02
  • 首发时间:2025-12-03
  • 出版时间:2023-06-28
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  • 收稿日期:2022-03-02
  • 录用日期:2022-04-02
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Science and Technology Research Project of Chongqing(41021300060448)
重庆市科学技术研究项目(41021300060448)
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    重庆医科大学生命科学研究院,重庆 400016

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