Article(id=1199703040757433159, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1199703037368430831, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.1015.2023.0920, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1690905600000, receivedDateStr=2023-08-02, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1692806400000, acceptedDateStr=2023-08-24, onlineDate=1763961094320, onlineDateStr=2025-11-24, pubDate=1701100800000, pubDateStr=2023-11-28, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763961094320, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-24, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763961094320, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763961094320, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1199703037368430831, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, year='2023', volume='48', issue='11', pageStart='1237', pageEnd='1358', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1763961093513, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763961140964, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1199703236451070744, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1199703037368430831, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1199703236451070745, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1199703037368430831, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1237, endPage=1247, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1199703042036695895, articleId=1199703040757433159, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, language=EN, title=Expert consensus on the diagnosis and treatment of heatstroke-induced coagulopathy in China, columnId=1190310109461971339, journalTitle=Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, columnName=Guideline and Consensus, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Heatstroke is a fatal disease caused by heat injury. With global warming, the incidence of heatstroke has been increasing year by year. Combined coagulation dysfunction is an important factor in the mortality of heatstroke. So far, there is no standard for the diagnosis and treatment of heatstroke-induced coagulopathy at home and abroad. Therefore, Expert Group of Heatstroke Prevention and Treatment of Chinese People's Liberation Army; People's Liberation Army Professional Committee of Critical Care Medicine; Chinese Society of Thrombosis, Hemostasis and Critical Care, Chinese Medicine Education Association; Chinese Society of Thrombosis and Hemostasis, Chinese Research Hospital Association jointly organized experts to develop a expert consensus on the diagnosis and treatment of heatstroke-induced coagulopathy in China. This consensus includes five parts: the definition, pathogenesis, diagnosis and evaluation, treatment and control of complications of heatstroke-induced coagulopathy, with a total of 15 recommended opinions to guide clinical work.

, correspAuthors=Jing-Chun Song, Qing Song, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
Song Jing-Chun, E-mail:
Song Qing, E-mail:
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热射病是热损伤导致的致死性疾病。随着全球气候变暖,热射病的发生率逐年上升。合并凝血功能障碍是热射病致死的重要因素,迄今国内外尚无关于热射病性凝血病的诊疗规范。因此,全军热射病防治专家组、全军重症医学专业委员会、中国医药教育协会血栓与止血危重病专业委员会及中国研究型医院学会血栓与止血专业委员会组织专家共同制定此《热射病性凝血病诊疗中国专家共识》。本共识包括热射病性凝血病的定义、发病机制、诊断与评估、治疗及控制并发症等5部分,共15条推荐意见,以便指导临床工作。

, correspAuthors=宋景春, 宋青, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
宋景春,E-mail:
宋青,E-mail:
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TF. 组织因子;Ⅶa. 活化的凝血因子七;TNF-α. 肿瘤坏死因子-α;IL-1β. 白细胞介素-1β;IL-6. 白细胞介素-6;PAI-1. 纤溶酶原激活物抑制剂-1;vWF. 血管性血友病因子

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HS. 热射病;DIC. 弥散性血管内凝血;HIC. 热射病性凝血病

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Recommended clinical classification

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推荐强度 等级释义及临床建议
A 强。循证证据肯定或良好(Ⅰ-Ⅱ级);循证证据一般(Ⅲ-Ⅳ级),但在国内外指南中明确推荐,能够改善健康结局,利大于弊
B 中等。循证证据一般(Ⅲ-Ⅳ级),可以改善健康结局
C 弱。循证证据不足或矛盾,无法明确利弊,但可能改善健康结局
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临床推荐强度分级

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推荐强度 等级释义及临床建议
A 强。循证证据肯定或良好(Ⅰ-Ⅱ级);循证证据一般(Ⅲ-Ⅳ级),但在国内外指南中明确推荐,能够改善健康结局,利大于弊
B 中等。循证证据一般(Ⅲ-Ⅳ级),可以改善健康结局
C 弱。循证证据不足或矛盾,无法明确利弊,但可能改善健康结局
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Evidence-based level

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证据等级 分级释义
基于多个随机对照试验的荟萃分析或系统评价;大样本随机对照试验
基于至少一个质量较高的随机对照试验;设计规范、结果明确的观察性研究或横断面研究;前瞻性队列研究
基于设计良好的非随机性病例对照研究;观察性研究;非前瞻性队列研究
基于非随机性回顾性研究;病例报告;专家共识
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循证证据等级

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证据等级 分级释义
基于多个随机对照试验的荟萃分析或系统评价;大样本随机对照试验
基于至少一个质量较高的随机对照试验;设计规范、结果明确的观察性研究或横断面研究;前瞻性队列研究
基于设计良好的非随机性病例对照研究;观察性研究;非前瞻性队列研究
基于非随机性回顾性研究;病例报告;专家共识
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Diagnostic criteria for HIC

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指标 0分 1分 2分
最高核心体温(℃) <40 40~<42 ≥42
D-二聚体(μg/ml) <1 1~<2.5 ≥2.5
PT延长值(s) <2 2~<4 ≥4
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热射病性凝血病诊断标准

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指标 0分 1分 2分
最高核心体温(℃) <40 40~<42 ≥42
D-二聚体(μg/ml) <1 1~<2.5 ≥2.5
PT延长值(s) <2 2~<4 ≥4
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Diagnostic criteria for DIC from ISTH

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指标 0分 1分 2分 3分
血小板计数(×109/L) ≥100 50~<100 <50 -
PT延长值(s) <3 3~<6 ≥ 6 -
纤维蛋白原(g/L) ≥1.0 <1.0 - -
D-二聚体(μg/ml) <2.5 - 2.5~<5 ≥5
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ISTH-DIC诊断标准

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指标 0分 1分 2分 3分
血小板计数(×109/L) ≥100 50~<100 <50 -
PT延长值(s) <3 3~<6 ≥ 6 -
纤维蛋白原(g/L) ≥1.0 <1.0 - -
D-二聚体(μg/ml) <2.5 - 2.5~<5 ≥5
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热射病性凝血病诊疗中国专家共识
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宋景春 1, * , 宋青 2, * , 张伟 3 , 刘树元 4 , 李维勤 5 , 周洲 6 , 全军热射病防治专家组 , 全军重症医学专业委员会 , 中国医药教育协会血栓与止血危重病专业委员会 , 中国研究型医院学会血栓与止血专业委员会
解放军医学杂志 | 指南与共识 2023,48(11): 1237-1247
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解放军医学杂志 | 指南与共识 2023, 48(11): 1237-1247
热射病性凝血病诊疗中国专家共识
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宋景春1, * , 宋青2, * , 张伟3, 刘树元4, 李维勤5, 周洲6, 全军热射病防治专家组, 全军重症医学专业委员会, 中国医药教育协会血栓与止血危重病专业委员会, 中国研究型医院学会血栓与止血专业委员会
作者信息
  • 1解放军联勤保障部队第908医院重症医学科,江西南昌 330002
  • 2解放军总医院海南医院重症医学科,海南三亚 572013
  • 3解放军联勤保障部队第900医院急诊科,福建福州 350000
  • 4解放军总医院第六医学中心急诊医学科,北京 100037
  • 5解放军东部战区总医院重症医学科,江苏南京 210002
  • 6中国医学科学院阜外医院检验科,北京 100037

通讯作者:

宋景春,E-mail:
宋青,E-mail:
Expert consensus on the diagnosis and treatment of heatstroke-induced coagulopathy in China
Jing-Chun Song1, * , Qing Song2, * , Wei Zhang3, Shu-Yuan Liu4, Wei-Qin Li5, Zhou Zhou6, Expert Group of Heatstroke Prevention and Treatment of Chinese People's Liberation Army, People's Liberation Army Professional Committee of Critical Care Medicine, Chinese Society of Thrombosis, Hemostasis and Critical
Affiliations
  • 1Department of Critical Care Medicine, the 908th Hospital of Joint Logistics Support Force of Chinese PLA, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330002, China
  • 2Department of Critical Care Medicine, Hainan Hospital of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Sanya, Hainan 572013, China
  • 3Department of Emergency, the 900th Hospital of Joint Logistics Support Force of Chinese PLA, Fuzhou, Fujian 350000, China
  • 4Department of Emergency Medicine, the Sixth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100037, China
  • 5Department of Critical Care Medicine, General Hospital of Eastern Theater Command of PLA, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210002, China
  • 6Department of Clinical Laboratory, Fuwai Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100037, China
出版时间: 2023-11-28 doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.1015.2023.0920
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热射病是热损伤导致的致死性疾病。随着全球气候变暖,热射病的发生率逐年上升。合并凝血功能障碍是热射病致死的重要因素,迄今国内外尚无关于热射病性凝血病的诊疗规范。因此,全军热射病防治专家组、全军重症医学专业委员会、中国医药教育协会血栓与止血危重病专业委员会及中国研究型医院学会血栓与止血专业委员会组织专家共同制定此《热射病性凝血病诊疗中国专家共识》。本共识包括热射病性凝血病的定义、发病机制、诊断与评估、治疗及控制并发症等5部分,共15条推荐意见,以便指导临床工作。

热射病  /  凝血病  /  诊断标准  /  抗凝  /  替代

Heatstroke is a fatal disease caused by heat injury. With global warming, the incidence of heatstroke has been increasing year by year. Combined coagulation dysfunction is an important factor in the mortality of heatstroke. So far, there is no standard for the diagnosis and treatment of heatstroke-induced coagulopathy at home and abroad. Therefore, Expert Group of Heatstroke Prevention and Treatment of Chinese People's Liberation Army; People's Liberation Army Professional Committee of Critical Care Medicine; Chinese Society of Thrombosis, Hemostasis and Critical Care, Chinese Medicine Education Association; Chinese Society of Thrombosis and Hemostasis, Chinese Research Hospital Association jointly organized experts to develop a expert consensus on the diagnosis and treatment of heatstroke-induced coagulopathy in China. This consensus includes five parts: the definition, pathogenesis, diagnosis and evaluation, treatment and control of complications of heatstroke-induced coagulopathy, with a total of 15 recommended opinions to guide clinical work.

heatstroke  /  coagulopathy  /  diagnostic criteria  /  anticoagulation  /  replacement
宋景春, 宋青, 张伟, 刘树元, 李维勤, 周洲, 全军热射病防治专家组, 全军重症医学专业委员会, 中国医药教育协会血栓与止血危重病专业委员会, 中国研究型医院学会血栓与止血专业委员会. 热射病性凝血病诊疗中国专家共识. 解放军医学杂志, 2023 , 48 (11) : 1237 -1247 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.1015.2023.0920
Jing-Chun Song, Qing Song, Wei Zhang, Shu-Yuan Liu, Wei-Qin Li, Zhou Zhou, Expert Group of Heatstroke Prevention and Treatment of Chinese People's Liberation Army, People's Liberation Army Professional Committee of Critical Care Medicine, Chinese Society of Thrombosis, Hemostasis and Critical. Expert consensus on the diagnosis and treatment of heatstroke-induced coagulopathy in China[J]. Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, 2023 , 48 (11) : 1237 -1247 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.1015.2023.0920
热射病是热损伤因素导致的以核心温度升高及中枢神经系统功能障碍为主要特征的致死性疾病[1]。近年来,随着全球气候逐渐变暖,全球的热射病发病率及病死率均明显增高[2-4]。热射病导致的凝血功能障碍称为热射病性凝血病(heatstroke-induced coagulopathy,HIC)[5]。1838年,Andnal首次发现热射病死亡患者可出现广泛瘀斑[6]。1946年,Wright等[6]报道12例重症热射病患者均出现凝血酶原时间(prothrombin time,PT)明显延长及血小板计数减少。据统计,约60%的热射病患者会出现PT延长,约71%的热射病患者会出现血小板减少[7],11%~48%的热射病患者可发生弥散性血管内凝血(disseminated intravascular coagulation,DIC)[8]。但是,HIC的诊治在国内外尚缺乏相关规范。因此,全军热射病防治专家组、全军重症医学专业委员会、中国医药教育协会血栓与止血危重病专业委员会、中国研究型医院学会血栓与止血专业委员会共同编写本共识,制定了包括HIC定义、发病机制、诊断与评估、治疗与控制并发症等5个部分共15条推荐意见,临床推荐强度及循证证据等级见表12,以供临床医护人员参考。
当热应激超过人体热耐受极限时,会造成热损伤。人体因致热因素导致产热散热功能障碍而发生的疾病,称为中暑[9-10]。根据是否出现中枢神经系统功能障碍为分类标准,中暑可分为热衰竭及热射病[11]。热衰竭可出现低血压及除中枢神经系统损伤以外的器官功能损害。热射病以出现中枢神经系统功能障碍为主要特征,并根据在高温高湿环境下是否进行强体力活动分为经典型热射病及劳力型热射病[12]。两种类型的热射病均可发生HIC,但在劳力型热射病中更常见[13]
在热应激或热射病早期,机体因交感神经兴奋、核心体温升高及血液浓缩可导致高凝状态,实验室表现为凝血酶活化及血小板计数增高[14-15]。此类患者可发生血栓事件,多见于患有基础病的老年经典型热射病患者。2016年,Abhilash等[16]对72例热射病患者研究发现,初入急诊时,2.7%的患者呈现血小板增多,5%的患者出现急性脑梗死。随着热应激反应的持续,机体因凝血酶广泛活化导致消耗性凝血病,凝血系统整体呈现低凝状态,实验室表现为血小板减少、凝血时间延长及纤维蛋白原水平下降,患者可发生皮肤瘀点、瘀斑及穿刺点出血、结膜出血、黑便、血便、咯血、血尿、颅内出血,甚至失血性休克[17-18]。1946年,Malamud等[19]对125例热射病死亡患者进行尸检发现,122例存在中枢神经系统、心脏、肺、肝脏及肾脏的多发性出血。
炎症反应失调及凝血功能紊乱是导致HIC乃至多器官功能障碍的主要机制[20](图1)。热损伤可通过损伤相关分子模式(damage-associated molecular molecules,DAMPs)刺激单核巨噬细胞通过炎性小体形式释放大量细胞因子,如肿瘤坏死因子(tumor necrosis factor,TNF)-α、白细胞介素(interleukin,IL)-1β及IL-6等[21]。同时,活化的单核巨噬细胞表达组织因子(tissue factor,TF)并大量释放可激活凝血因子的微粒[22]。炎性细胞因子可激活中性粒细胞并诱导多种类型的细胞死亡,例如细胞凋亡、坏死及焦亡[23]。中性粒细胞胞外诱捕网(neutrophil extracellular traps,NETs)可损伤内皮细胞,激活内外源性凝血途径,并通过凝血酶活化形成凝血级联反应导致免疫血栓的大量生成[24],进而形成消耗性凝血病,甚至发展成为DIC[25]
血管内皮损伤、凝血酶过度活化、抗凝物质下调、血小板及纤溶功能异常都是HIC的特征。已有研究发现,热射病患者的血管内皮损伤标志物黏结蛋白聚糖1(syndecan-1)、血管性血友病因子、血栓调节蛋白(thrombomodulin,TM)及组织纤溶酶原激活物-纤溶酶原激活物抑制剂-1复合物(tissue plasminogen activator-plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 complex,t-PAIC)均明显升高[26-27],抗凝血酶活性及蛋白C水平明显下降[28],反映凝血酶活性的凝血酶-抗凝血酶复合物(thrombin-antithrombin complex,TAT)及反映纤溶酶活性的纤溶酶-α2纤溶酶抑制剂复合物(plasmin-α2 anti-plasmin inhibitor complex,PIC)水平均明显升高[27]。此外,热应激时肠黏膜屏障受损可造成内毒素血症,引起脓毒症性凝血功能障碍[29]
血小板功能变化则明显受到核心温度的影响。在核心温度上升时,胶原、二磷酸腺苷(adenosine diphosphate,ADP)、瑞斯托霉素作为诱聚剂诱导的血小板聚集功能可明显增强。在核心温度继续上升并超过42 ℃时,血小板聚集及黏附功能均会受到抑制。如采用降温手段降低核心温度至正常范围后,血小板聚集及黏附功能可恢复正常[30]
HIC患者的纤溶状态由组织型纤溶酶原激活物(tissue-type plasminogen activator,t-PA)及纤溶酶原激活物抑制剂-1(plasminogen activator inhibitor-1,PAI-1)水平决定。在热射病早期,血管内皮损伤可导致t-PA大量释放,患者整体呈现纤溶亢进型,临床可表现为纤维蛋白原水平下降甚至出血[31-32];随着PAI-1水平逐渐升高,整体纤溶水平可能转化为纤溶抑制型,临床表现为血栓形成[33]
热射病发病时,患者的核心体温升高幅度越大,热射病性凝血功能障碍就越严重,这对劳力性热射病患者尤为明显。然而,临床能观察到的凝血改变受实验室检测方法灵敏度的限制。有研究对完成15 km跑步且核心体温在39 ℃以下的人员进行凝血酶生成试验,结果显示达峰时间及延迟时间均明显缩短,提示凝血酶活化。15%的非专业人员进行15 km跑步后会发生运动性高热,即核心体温超过40 ℃[34]。有研究显示,当核心温度超过39 ℃时,可出现PT延长及D-二聚体水平升高;当核心温度超过40 ℃时,可出现血小板计数相对减少(即低于基线水平的30%以上);当核心温度超过41 ℃时,活化部分凝血活酶时间(activated partial thromboplastin time,APTT)可明显延长,血小板计数可出现绝对减少[35]。热射病患者的凝血功能障碍越严重,其预后不良的可能性越大[36-37]
目前通用的热射病诊断标准有中国诊断标准[1]、Bouchama标准[38]及日本急诊学会(Japanese Association for Acute Medicine, JAAM)标准[39]。中国诊断标准为病史信息(暴露于高温、高湿环境,高强度运动)中的任意一条加上临床表现(中枢神经系统功能障碍表现;核心体温>40 ℃;2个及以上器官功能有损伤表现;严重凝血功能障碍或DIC)。Bouchama标准为满足以下三条中的任意两条:(1)核心体温>40 ℃;(2)在开始降温前出现中枢神经系统功能障碍如癫痫、抽搐或昏迷等;(3)暴露于高温环境或有剧烈运动史。JAAM标准为暴露于高温环境并出现热代谢障碍情况下,满足以下三条中的任意一条:(1)格拉斯哥昏迷评分(GCS)≤14分;(2)肌酐≥106 μmol/L或总胆红素水平≥21 μmol/L;(3)JAAM-DIC评分≥4分。
本共识推荐应用全军热射病防治专家组制定的HIC诊断评分系统诊断HIC[40](表3)。HIC诊断评分系统包括热射病发病后的最高核心体温、PT及D-二聚体共3个变量,积分≥3分即可诊断HIC。因为核心体温会受到降温措施的影响,且热射病时凝血功能障碍进展快,因此在热射病患者初入急诊时就应对HIC进行诊断。HIC诊断成立时,即可考虑开始抗凝治疗。在热射病发病急性期,因为血液浓缩的影响,热射病患者早期的血小板计数往往处于相对减少状态,故早期用于诊断HIC的灵敏度不高。DIC是热射病导致的严重的凝血功能障碍,本共识推荐应用国际血栓与止血学会(International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis, ISTH)的DIC诊断标准诊断热射病性DIC[41](表4)。已有研究报道,131例热射病患者中HIC的发生率约为27.5%,热射病性DIC的发生率为11.2%[40]
黏弹力凝血试验主要包括血栓弹力图(thrombo-elastograph,TEG)及凝血与血小板功能分析仪。黏弹力凝血试验以全血为检测标本,能够更准确地反映凝血功能障碍患者的凝血状态。已有研究证明黏弹力凝血试验能够准确判断热射病的凝血功能状态及预后[42-43]
TEG检测可分为普通试验、肝素酶对比试验、功能性纤维蛋白原(functional fibrinogen,FF)测试、快速检测、血小板图检测等共5种类型[44]。(1)TEG普通试验:可用于判断热射病患者凝血功能状态的全貌。其主要指标为R时间(代表凝血因子活性)、α角及k时间(主要代表纤维蛋白原功能)、最大振幅(maximum amplitude,MA,主要代表血小板功能)、30 min时溶解度(LY30%,代表纤溶功能)等。(2)TEG肝素酶对比试验:可用于判断热射病患者是否受到内源性肝素化或外源性肝素的影响。该试验需同时进行TEG普通检测及肝素酶检测,从两个试验结果的R时间对比确认肝素是否存在及作用强度,并根据结果决定肝素使用剂量或是否使用鱼精蛋白中和。(3)TEG功能性纤维蛋白原测试试验:可用于判断热射病患者的纤维蛋白原功能。该试验需加入血小板GPb/a受体抑制剂以去除血小板的作用。该试验的主要指标有功能性纤维蛋白原试验的R时间(RFF)、功能性纤维蛋白原试验的最大振幅(FFMA)及功能性纤维蛋白原水平(functional fibrinogen level,FLEV)。RFF时间反映外源性凝血通路的凝血因子的活性,正常值为1.3~2.5 min。FFMA直接反映纤维蛋白网的交联强度,正常值为10.1~25.3 mm。FLEV反映纤维蛋白原活性,正常值为18.43~46.17 mg/L。(4)TEG快速检测试验:可用于判断热射病患者的外源性凝血途径因子的活性。该试验应用组织因子作为激活剂,在参数上由活化凝血时间(activated clotting time,ACT)代替R时间,正常值为86~118 s。(5)TEG血小板图检测试验:可用于判断热射病患者的血小板功能。该试验可通过花生四烯酸(AA)及ADP受体两个途径评估血小板的抑制率。有研究发现,与未发生DIC的热射病患者相比,热射病性DIC患者的TEG-R时间及k时间明显延长,α角明显变小,MA明显降低,且热射病患者的TEG-MA<45.4 mm是发展成为DIC的独立危险因素[45]
凝血与血小板功能分析仪目前在国内有两种检测方法[46]。(1)高岭土法:采用高岭土作为激活剂,使用抗凝全血标本可快速得到ACT(正常值范围为90~145 s)及凝血速率(clotting rate,CR,正常值范围为13~65)。
(2)玻璃珠法:采用玻璃珠作为激活剂,使用抗凝全血标本可得到ACT(正常值范围为100~240 s)、CR(正常值范围为10~36)及血小板功能(platelet function,PF,正常值范围为>1)。有研究对106例热射病患者进行凝血与血小板功能分析试验,结果显示入院时有32.1%的热射病患者处于高凝状态(ACT≤119 s且CR>23),41.5%的热射病患者处于低凝状态(ACT≥195 s且CR<7),处于低凝状态的热射病患者病死率(18.1%)更高,ACT值对预后更有价值[47]
目前能够应用于临床评估的血管内皮分子标志物有TM及t-PAIC。TM是血管内皮细胞表面的凝血酶受体,可抑制凝血酶的活性,同时促进蛋白C活化,抑制凝血因子、凝血因子及PAI-1活性。血管内皮损害时,TM释放入血,导致血浆TM水平明显升高,是血管内皮损伤的敏感指标。需要注意的是,肾功能损害患者TM水平明显升高[48]。t-PAIC是血管内皮细胞损伤时释放t-PA及PAI-1共同入血形成的复合物,是血管内皮功能严重损伤的标志物,往往提示休克相关性内皮病的发生[49-51]。已有研究显示,热射病患者的TM[17.1(9.2,24.7) TU/ml]及t-PAIC[17.0(8.3,44.1) ng/ml]水平较热衰竭患者的TM[7.3(5.4,9.3) TU/ml]及t-PAIC[3.8(2.1,7.0) ng/ml]均明显升高。TM>8.2 TU/ml联合t-PAIC>8.7 ng/ml诊断热射病的曲线下面积为0.916(P<0.001),其敏感度为95.5%,特异度为69.6%[27]
HIC的治疗主要依据“五早一控”原则,即早降温、早抗凝、早补凝、早抗炎、早血液净化及控制并发症。
快速有效地持续降温是预防或减轻HIC发生发展的首要措施。现场降温目标应达到核心体温在30 min内迅速降至39.0 ℃以下,2 h内降至38.5 ℃以下[52]。需要注意的是,快速准确地测量核心体温是实现有效降温治疗的前提。直肠温度能够准确反映核心体温,通常使用可弯曲式直肠温度计测量,且插入深度至少为15 cm[53]。如无法测量直肠温度,也可测量耳鼓膜温度作为参考。核心体温监测至少每10 min测量一次。
抗凝治疗的意义在于通过抗凝减少凝血物质的过度消耗,进而阻止HIC向DIC发展。1969年,Weber等[54]在《柳叶刀》杂志上报道用肝素抗凝成功救治热射病引起的消耗性凝血病。但是,目前关于热射病的抗凝治疗仍缺乏循证医学依据,特别是抗凝治疗的启动时机尚无统一标准[55]。既往研究建议,在排除出血的前提下,TAT、D-二聚体、纤维蛋白降解产物(fibrinogen degradation product,FDP)及PIC等指标明显升高,可作为启动抗凝治疗的指征[1]。本共识推荐,在排除活动性出血的前提下,当热射病患者发病时,一旦符合推荐意见4提出的HIC诊断标准(HIC积分≥3分),即可启动抗凝治疗措施(图2)。如HIC患者全血功能监测结果显示明显低凝且存在明显出血风险,抗凝治疗应联合替代治疗同时进行。抗凝过程中需动态监测凝血功能,评估抗凝效果及出血风险。如有活动性出血(如颅内出血、消化道大出血等),应在出血基本控制后再评估抗凝治疗的时机[56]
对HIC患者进行抗凝治疗时,抗凝药物推荐普通肝素或低分子肝素[57-58]。普通肝素具有半衰期短、监测方便及可用鱼精蛋白中和等优点,建议首选普通肝素进行抗凝治疗。普通肝素通常静脉给药,因为肝素抗凝作用强,为避免引起出血,故需严格管理药物剂量。重度凝血功能障碍者可从小剂量[1 U/(kg∙h)]开始,根据实验室指标进行滴定式治疗。APTT是常用于监测普通肝素抗凝效果的实验室指标,通常以APTT延长至基线值的1.5倍为宜。但因为HIC患者本身存在APTT延长的情况,再用APTT指导普通肝素抗凝可能增加出血风险,故本共识推荐使用TEG肝素酶对比试验指导普通肝素抗凝[59]。TEG肝素酶对比试验需要同时进行TEG普通检测及肝素酶检测。普通检测代表患者本身凝血障碍及肝素共同作用的凝血状态;肝素酶检测破坏了血液中的肝素,仅体现患者本身的凝血功能障碍形成的凝血状态。通过两个试验的R时间对比可以准确评估患者的自身凝血状态,并调整肝素抗凝剂量。常规使用普通肝素剂量以R普通检测/R肝素酶检测的比值在1.5~2.0为宜。
低分子肝素因为半衰期长,剂量不易调整,故建议在轻、中度凝血功能障碍时使用。因为产品规格不同,起始剂量一般建议1 mg/kg,每12 h给药1次,方式为静脉注射或皮下注射,并应用抗Xa活性监测剂量,控制目标范围为0.6~1.0 U/ml。因为低分子肝素经肾脏代谢,肾功能不全者尤需监测。应用肝素类药物应尽量维持抗凝血酶活性>80%,否则可能影响抗凝效果。如果抗凝血酶活性明显降低,可通过补充新鲜冷冻血浆提高抗凝血酶活性。当凝血功能障碍基本纠正,具体表现为血小板计数可自行维持在正常水平,TAT、D-二聚体、FDP、PIC等凝血指标及黏弹力试验结果基本正常,即可停用抗凝药物。
HIC乃至发展成DIC的患者,因血管内皮损伤及凝血底物过度消耗面临高出血风险。甲磺酸萘莫司他可抑制活化的凝血因子a、a、a及组织因子TF-复合物,同时还具有抗血小板聚集、抑制纤溶酶、抗炎及保护血管内皮的作用[60]。在血液中羧酸酯酶能迅速降解甲磺酸萘莫司他,半衰期仅8 min,在体内会迅速失活,出血风险低,被用于体外循环及DIC的抗凝治疗[61-64]。通常应用体内APTT调整甲磺酸萘莫司他的抗凝剂量,对严重凝血障碍的患者也可根据TEG-R时间调整甲磺酸萘莫司他的剂量[65-67]。2020年日本学者开展的一项针对脓毒症患者进行血液净化的回顾性研究结果显示,萘莫司他可降低接受血液净化脓毒症患者的病死率[68]
对HIC患者应实施目标导向的替代治疗,即以常规凝血监测指标或TEG、凝血及血小板功能分析仪等全血监测设备指标为目标指导替代治疗[69-70]。凝血功能的替代治疗主要包括凝血因子、纤维蛋白原及血小板等。
PT或APTT延长>1.5倍时,或TEG-R时间>9 min,或凝血及血小板功能分析仪检测ACT>240 s(抗凝全血),应尽早静脉输注新鲜冷冻血浆15~30 ml/kg。输注后可动态监测凝血指标确定追加输注剂量。如患者液体负荷过多,可以使用凝血酶原复合物补充凝血因子[69]。纤维蛋白原<1.5 g/L或TEG功能纤维蛋白原指标FFMA<9 mm或凝血及血小板功能分析仪检测CR<10,可给予冷沉淀(10 ml/kg)或人纤维蛋白原(30~50 mg/kg)输注。输注后可动态监测凝血指标,确定追加输注剂量,血浆纤维蛋白原至少应维持在1.5 g/L[71-74]
血小板<50×109/L或TEG-MA<43 mm且FFMA>10 mm或凝血及血小板功能分析仪检测PF<1,即可输注1个治疗量的机采血小板[75]。一般一次输注1个单采剂量或相当剂量浓缩血小板,威胁生命的严重出血可输注≥2个单采剂量。输注后根据效果评估并及时调整,以达到预期效果的最低剂量输注及维持为原则。输注一个单位血小板,理论上成人(70 kg)可升高(4~8)×109/L血小板[76]
如经积极替代治疗仍然无法有效止血,且经传统凝血试验或血栓弹力图、凝血与血小板功能分析仪等全血监测设备监测仍提示低凝状态,可以使用重组凝血因子(r)。为了更好地止血,使用r时需满足以下条件:(1)酸中毒、低体温及低钙血症已经纠正;(2)血细胞比容>24%,血小板计数>50×109/L,纤维蛋白原>1.5 g/L。r使用初始剂量为100 μg/kg,根据出血情况可以间隔2 h继续追加r 50 μg/kg。根据出血情况及凝血检测结果酌情停药[77]
血液净化是治疗热射病的重要手段[78]。其治疗价值主要体现在:(1)快速降温可保护凝血因子及血小板功能。血液净化可将血液引出体外,并通过低温的透析/置换液使血液快速降温。血液流速越快,置换液量越大,降温越迅速。(2)清除炎症介质可降低凝血因子及血小板活化。已有研究证实,连续肾脏替代治疗能够清除患者的血浆IL-1β、IL-1α、IL-2、IL-4、IL-6、IL-8、IL-10、γ干扰素(interferon-γ,IFN-γ)及TNF等细胞因子水平,具体清除效率受到使用滤器种类、血液净化模式及治疗处方剂量的影响[79-81]。(3)稳定内环境改善凝血因子活性。血液净化能够纠正电解质紊乱及酸中毒,维持内环境稳定。(4)精确容量管理避免稀释性凝血病。
热射病患者出现以下任意一条可考虑行血液净化,如有以下两条或以上者应立即行血液净化[1]:(1)一般物理降温方法无效且体温持续2 h以上高于40 ℃;(2)血钾>6.5 mmol/L;(3)肌酸激酶>5000 U/L,或上升速度超过1倍/12 h;(4)少尿、无尿,或难以控制的容量超负荷;(5)血肌酐每日递增>44.2 μmol/L;(6)难以纠正的电解质及酸碱平衡紊乱。常用的血液净化模式包括连续性静脉-静脉血液滤过(continuous veno-venous hemofiltration,CVVH)、连续性静脉-静脉血液透析(continuous veno-venous hemodialysis,CVVHD)或连续性静脉-静脉血液滤过透析(continuous veno-venous hemodiafiltration,CVVHDF)。已有研究报道,CVVH模式容易引起血小板过度消耗,因此血小板明显减少的HIC患者慎用CVVH模式[82]。停用血液净化指征推荐如下:(1)生命体征及病情稳定;(2)肌酸激酶<1000 U/L;(3)水、电解质及酸碱平衡紊乱得以纠正;(4)尿量>1500 ml/d或肾功能恢复正常。
HIC患者合并急性肝衰竭时,凝血功能障碍表现更加严重,遗憾的是迄今尚无专用的诊断标准。目前急性肝衰竭诊断主要依据专科标准:(1)极度乏力,且有明显厌食、腹胀、恶心、呕吐等消化道症状;(2)短期内黄疸进行性加深,血清总胆红素大于正常值上限的10倍或每天上升17 μmol/L以上;(3)凝血酶原活动度≤40%或国际标准化比值(international normalized ratio,INR)≥1.5,且排除其他原因;(4)肝脏进行性缩小[83]。肝衰竭时的凝血功能评估及抗凝治疗监测同样推荐黏弹力检测设备[84]
HIC患者合并肝衰竭时,推荐进行人工肝支持系统(artificial liver support system,ALSS)治疗。ALSS的治疗模式较多,比较适合HIC合并肝衰竭的有血浆置换及血浆透析滤过(plasma diafiltration,PDF)[85]。血浆置换是ALSS技术中开展广泛且疗效确切的治疗方式,其是指将患者血液引至体外,经离心法或膜分离法分离血浆及细胞成分,弃去血浆,而把细胞成分及所需补充的白蛋白、血浆及平衡液等回输体内,以清除体内致病物质[86]。对于有高炎症反应的HIC患者,血浆置换既能清除大量炎性介质,又能祛除患者血浆中的胆红素等毒性物质,同时补充凝血因子以改善危重患者的凝血状态,是HIC患者的有效辅助治疗手段[87-88]。但血浆置换对血浆需要量大,开展往往受条件限制。PDF是选择性血浆滤过与透析一体化的治疗方式,利用血液透析的原理,使用蛋白筛选系数介于血浆分离器与血液滤过器之间的血浆成分分离器,同时完成血浆滤过及透析治疗。临床上可根据不同需求选用具有不同蛋白筛选系数的血浆成分分离器,其膜孔径可允许水溶性的中小分子溶质、部分蛋白结合毒素通过,而分子量更大的球蛋白、纤维蛋白原及绝大部分凝血因子无法通过。该模式治疗时可丢弃部分含蛋白结合毒素的血浆,再通过弥散、对流不同程度地清除水溶性毒素,同时将置换液(新鲜冷冻血浆)补充入体内[89]。已有研究报道,应用PDF治疗劳力性热射病既可以支持肝功能,又能清除炎性细胞因子,可用于治疗热射病引起的多器官功能障碍[90]
若HIC患者因纤溶亢进引起出血,可使用氨甲环酸进行抗纤溶治疗。氨甲环酸是人工合成的赖氨酸衍生物,可竞争性结合纤溶酶原及纤溶酶的赖氨酸结合位点,从而抑制纤维蛋白的降解,发挥止血作用[91]。既往针对创伤出血性疾病的回顾性研究显示,接受氨甲环酸治疗的293例患者与未接受氨甲环酸者比较,尽管全因死亡率明显降低(17.4% vs. 23.9%),但静脉血栓栓塞症(venous thromboembolism,VTE)的发生率也升高了约10倍[92]。HIC患者的纤溶亢进与纤溶抑制可发生快速转化[93]。因此,对HIC患者使用抗纤溶药物时,需注意在出血后及时停用抗纤溶药物,以免增加血栓形成的风险。
对HIC患者治疗时常需置入深静脉导管,如血流动力学不稳定时需要进行有创动脉血压监测。为了保持动静脉管路通畅,现有操作常规推荐定时用肝素封管液冲洗,对动脉导管冲洗更加频繁,这会导致额外的肝素进入患者体内[94]。有研究证实,经常用肝素封管液冲管可能造成抗凝过度甚至发生出血[95],也会影响针对肝素抗凝强度的监测。为此,本共识建议尽量避免使用肝素封管液冲洗深静脉导管。
尽管近来HIC的基础及临床研究都有长足的进展,但仍有很多未明之处,也是未来研究的重要方向。具体表现在3个方面:(1)发病机制,热射病发病的易感基因、凝血与免疫相互作用的调控机制、血小板的功能调控、纤溶亢进与抑制之间的转换机制等方面还不清楚;(2)诊断标准,本共识提出了HIC的诊断标准,为HIC的抗凝时机提供了依据,但尚需开展循证医学研究进行验证;(3)治疗策略,本共识虽然提出了“五早一控”治疗原则,但是在抗凝及补凝方面尚缺乏高级别的循证医学证据,特别是在有效抗炎药物及血管内皮保护治疗方面未能给出明确推荐。
编委会成员(按姓氏拼音排序):边革元(解放军联勤保障部队第920医院);陈淼(海南医学院第一附属医院急诊科);陈要朋(解放军联勤保障部队第923医院输血科);程鹏(广西医科大学第一附属医院血液科);崔岩(解放军北部战区总医院重症医学科);崔云亮(解放军联勤保障部队第960医院重症医学科);戴菁(上海交通大学附属瑞金医院检验科);丁仁彧(中国医科大学第一附属医院重症医学科);杜玉明(郑州大学第一附属医院重症医学科);房云海(山东省血液中心);高燕(解放军北部战区总医院急诊科);桂培根(湖南师范大学附属长沙医院急重症医学部);贾宝辉(郑州大学附属郑州市中心医院);柯路(解放军东部战区总医院重症医学科);李传保(北京医院检验科);李福祥(解放军西部战区总医院重症医学科);李海玲(海军971医院重症医学科);李庆华(解放军联勤保障部队第990医院重症医学科);李维勤(解放军东部战区总医院重症医学科);李奕鑫(解放军联勤保障部队第910医院急诊科);林洪远(解放军总医院第四医学中心重症医学科);刘树元(解放军总医院第六医学中心急诊科);马林浩(海军军医大学附属长征医院急救科);梅恒(华中科技大学医学院附属协和医院血液科);赖冬(厦门市第二医院输血科);宁波(空军特色医学中心重症医学科);潘爱军(中国科学技术大学附属第一医院重症医学科);施贤清(贵州省人民医院重症医学科);寿松涛(天津医科大学附属天津总医院急诊科);宋景春(解放军联勤保障部队第908医院重症医学科);宋青(解放军总医院海南医院重症医学科);宋振举(复旦大学附属中山医院急诊科);唐宁(华中科技大学医学院附属同济医院检验科);唐忠志(中部战区总医院急诊科);王岗(西安交通大学第二附属医院重症医学科);王秋实(中国医科大学附属盛京医院输血科);吴俊(北京积水潭医院检验科);杨军(武汉亚洲心脏病医院检验科);尹海燕(暨南大学附属第一医院重症医学科);张根生(浙江大学医学院第二附属医院重症医学科);张进华(福建省妇幼保健院药学科);张磊(西安交通大学第二附属医院检验科);张美齐(浙江中医药大学附属杭州市中医院);张伟(解放军联勤保障部队第900医院急诊科);张洋(中国医学科学院阜外医院检验科);周静(四川大学华西医院检验科);周新(陆军乌鲁木齐总医院重症医学科);周洲(中国医学科学院阜外医院检验科);朱峰(海军军医大学第一附属医院烧伤科);朱宏泉(赣南医科大学第一附属医院重症医学科)。
秘书林青伟(解放军联勤保障部队第908医院重症医学科)钟林翠(解放军联勤保障部队第908医院重症医学科)
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2023年第48卷第11期
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doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.1015.2023.0920
  • 接收时间:2023-08-02
  • 首发时间:2025-11-24
  • 出版时间:2023-11-28
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  • 收稿日期:2023-08-02
  • 录用日期:2023-08-24
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    1解放军联勤保障部队第908医院重症医学科,江西南昌 330002
    2解放军总医院海南医院重症医学科,海南三亚 572013
    3解放军联勤保障部队第900医院急诊科,福建福州 350000
    4解放军总医院第六医学中心急诊医学科,北京 100037
    5解放军东部战区总医院重症医学科,江苏南京 210002
    6中国医学科学院阜外医院检验科,北京 100037

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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