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Endoplasmic reticulum is an important organelle in eukaryotic cells, which is responsible for the folding, processing and transportation of secretory proteins. A variety of stimuli inside and outside cells can lead to the accumulation of misfolded or unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum, resulting in abnormal structure and function of the endoplasmic reticulum, which is called endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS). Endoplasmic reticulum autophagy is an important endogenous mechanism to alleviate ERS. It is often considered as a cell protective procedure, which participates in many important physiological processes, such as metabolism, immune response, inflammatory response and cell proliferation. Endoplasmic reticulum autophagy is an important endogenous protective mechanism to alleviate endoplasmic reticulum stress and restore the endoplasmic reticulum homeostasis, through eliminating redundant and disabled endoplasmic reticulum membrane and macromolecular protein complexes, which is critical to cell function and fate. This paper reviews the types of endoplasmic reticulum autophagy, related specific receptors, main regulatory mechanisms, and its role and significance in the related diseases.

, correspAuthors=Yong-Ming Yao, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
E-mail:
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内质网是真核细胞中分泌性蛋白折叠加工和运输过程中的重要细胞器。来自细胞内外的多种因素可引起错误折叠或未折叠的蛋白质在内质网中积累,导致内质网结构和功能异常,称之为内质网应激(ERS)。内质网自噬是缓解ERS的重要内生机制,常被认为是一种细胞保护性程序,参与代谢、免疫应答、炎症反应及细胞增殖等多种重要的生理过程。内质网自噬可通过清除冗余、失能的内质网以及大体积的蛋白复合体来恢复内质网稳态,对细胞的命运至关重要。本文就内质网自噬类型、受体、调节机制及其在相关疾病中的作用和意义进行综述。

, correspAuthors=姚咏明, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
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童森,博士研究生,主要从事烧伤脓毒症与多器官衰竭免疫障碍机制及其调控途径研究

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童森,博士研究生,主要从事烧伤脓毒症与多器官衰竭免疫障碍机制及其调控途径研究

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FAM134B. 序列相似家族134成员B;RTN3L. 长型网状内皮素3;CCPG1. 细胞周期进展基因1;TEX264. 睾丸表达蛋白264

, figureFileSmall=Eq/wAIrR9vWYohE1jbUevw==, figureFileBig=moIjzTEYf0kwEFXoAOi/AA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198574747505230569, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1198558107807871296, language=EN, label=Tab.1, caption=

Types of endoplasmic reticulum autophagy receptors and triggering signals

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
受体类型诱导信号参考文献
FAM134B内质网膜受体营养限制;药物干扰内质网储存及合成代谢[37]
SEC62内质网膜受体营养限制;内质网冗余[22,39-40]
RTN3L内质网膜受体营养限制[41]
CCPG1内质网膜受体营养限制;药物干扰内质网储存及合成代谢[37,41,45-48]
ATL3内质网膜受体营养限制[49-50]
TEX264内质网膜受体营养限制;药物干扰内质网储存及合成代谢[23,47]
TRIM13内质网膜受体(需与p62合作)药物干扰内质网储存及合成代谢[58-59]
STING内质网膜受体(推测)细菌感染[62-63]
p62可溶性受体药物干扰内质网储存及合成代谢[65]
CALCOCO1可溶性受体营养限制[17]
NBR1可溶性受体ERS[66]
OPTN可溶性受体ERS[66]
), ArticleFig(id=1198574747572339437, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1198558107807871296, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

内质网自噬受体类型及其诱导信号

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
受体类型诱导信号参考文献
FAM134B内质网膜受体营养限制;药物干扰内质网储存及合成代谢[37]
SEC62内质网膜受体营养限制;内质网冗余[22,39-40]
RTN3L内质网膜受体营养限制[41]
CCPG1内质网膜受体营养限制;药物干扰内质网储存及合成代谢[37,41,45-48]
ATL3内质网膜受体营养限制[49-50]
TEX264内质网膜受体营养限制;药物干扰内质网储存及合成代谢[23,47]
TRIM13内质网膜受体(需与p62合作)药物干扰内质网储存及合成代谢[58-59]
STING内质网膜受体(推测)细菌感染[62-63]
p62可溶性受体药物干扰内质网储存及合成代谢[65]
CALCOCO1可溶性受体营养限制[17]
NBR1可溶性受体ERS[66]
OPTN可溶性受体ERS[66]
), ArticleFig(id=1198574747668808431, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1198558107807871296, language=EN, label=Tab.2, caption=

Role of endoplasmic reticulum autophagy receptors in diseases

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
疾病受体作用机制参考文献
阿尔茨海默病RTN3负向调控β-淀粉样转化酶[67-70]
遗传性感觉和自主神经病ⅡB亚型FAM134BFAM134B缺失突变可引起顺式高尔基体结构改变,导致背根神经节细胞凋亡[71-73]
遗传性感觉和自主神经病ATL3ATL3错义突变与此疾病相关[47,74-75]
结直肠癌等FAM134BFAM134B促进EB1表达,下调肿瘤抑制因子介导WNT/β-catenin信号通路活化[76-83]
前列腺癌、宫颈癌等SEC62SEC62高表达使肿瘤具有更高的转移和侵袭潜能[39,84]
黄病毒科病毒感染FAM134B诱导内质网自噬清除病毒[35,88]
埃博拉病毒感染FAM134B诱导内质网自噬清除病毒[19]
过敏性鼻炎FAM134BFam134b基因表达上调可促进CD39变异,影响调节性T细胞水解胞外ATP的能力[89]
婴儿期发病STING相关血管病变STINGSTING突变造成STING的自发二聚化和激活[91-92]
), ArticleFig(id=1198574747761083121, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1198558107807871296, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

内质网自噬受体在疾病中的作用

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
疾病受体作用机制参考文献
阿尔茨海默病RTN3负向调控β-淀粉样转化酶[67-70]
遗传性感觉和自主神经病ⅡB亚型FAM134BFAM134B缺失突变可引起顺式高尔基体结构改变,导致背根神经节细胞凋亡[71-73]
遗传性感觉和自主神经病ATL3ATL3错义突变与此疾病相关[47,74-75]
结直肠癌等FAM134BFAM134B促进EB1表达,下调肿瘤抑制因子介导WNT/β-catenin信号通路活化[76-83]
前列腺癌、宫颈癌等SEC62SEC62高表达使肿瘤具有更高的转移和侵袭潜能[39,84]
黄病毒科病毒感染FAM134B诱导内质网自噬清除病毒[35,88]
埃博拉病毒感染FAM134B诱导内质网自噬清除病毒[19]
过敏性鼻炎FAM134BFam134b基因表达上调可促进CD39变异,影响调节性T细胞水解胞外ATP的能力[89]
婴儿期发病STING相关血管病变STINGSTING突变造成STING的自发二聚化和激活[91-92]
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内质网自噬及其相关疾病研究进展
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童森 , 董宁 , 祝筱梅 , 姚咏明 *
解放军医学杂志 | 综述 2024,49(9): 1062-1072
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解放军医学杂志 | 综述 2024, 49(9): 1062-1072
内质网自噬及其相关疾病研究进展
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童森, 董宁, 祝筱梅, 姚咏明*
作者信息
  • 解放军总医院医学创新研究部/第四医学中心,北京 100048
  • 童森,博士研究生,主要从事烧伤脓毒症与多器官衰竭免疫障碍机制及其调控途径研究

通讯作者:

姚咏明,E-mail:
Research advances in endoplasmic reticulum autophagy and its roles in associated diseases
Sen Tong, Ning Dong, Xiao-Mei Zhu, Yong-Ming Yao*
Affiliations
  • Medical Innovation and Research Division/the Fourth Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100048, China
出版时间: 2024-09-28 doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0217.2023.0719
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内质网是真核细胞中分泌性蛋白折叠加工和运输过程中的重要细胞器。来自细胞内外的多种因素可引起错误折叠或未折叠的蛋白质在内质网中积累,导致内质网结构和功能异常,称之为内质网应激(ERS)。内质网自噬是缓解ERS的重要内生机制,常被认为是一种细胞保护性程序,参与代谢、免疫应答、炎症反应及细胞增殖等多种重要的生理过程。内质网自噬可通过清除冗余、失能的内质网以及大体积的蛋白复合体来恢复内质网稳态,对细胞的命运至关重要。本文就内质网自噬类型、受体、调节机制及其在相关疾病中的作用和意义进行综述。

内质网应激  /  自噬  /  研究进展

Endoplasmic reticulum is an important organelle in eukaryotic cells, which is responsible for the folding, processing and transportation of secretory proteins. A variety of stimuli inside and outside cells can lead to the accumulation of misfolded or unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum, resulting in abnormal structure and function of the endoplasmic reticulum, which is called endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS). Endoplasmic reticulum autophagy is an important endogenous mechanism to alleviate ERS. It is often considered as a cell protective procedure, which participates in many important physiological processes, such as metabolism, immune response, inflammatory response and cell proliferation. Endoplasmic reticulum autophagy is an important endogenous protective mechanism to alleviate endoplasmic reticulum stress and restore the endoplasmic reticulum homeostasis, through eliminating redundant and disabled endoplasmic reticulum membrane and macromolecular protein complexes, which is critical to cell function and fate. This paper reviews the types of endoplasmic reticulum autophagy, related specific receptors, main regulatory mechanisms, and its role and significance in the related diseases.

endoplasmic reticulum stress  /  autophagy  /  reasearch progress
童森, 董宁, 祝筱梅, 姚咏明. 内质网自噬及其相关疾病研究进展. 解放军医学杂志, 2024 , 49 (9) : 1062 -1072 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0217.2023.0719
Sen Tong, Ning Dong, Xiao-Mei Zhu, Yong-Ming Yao. Research advances in endoplasmic reticulum autophagy and its roles in associated diseases[J]. Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, 2024 , 49 (9) : 1062 -1072 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0217.2023.0719
细胞自噬是真核生物对自身细胞内冗余、受损或缺陷的成分以及入侵的微生物等,通过溶酶体机制进行降解、再循环的过程;有助于维持细胞内环境稳态、增强细胞的适应性,常被认为是一种细胞保护性程序,参与代谢、免疫应答、炎症反应及细胞增殖等多种重要的生理过程[1-2]。早期经典理论认为,自噬是对细胞内各组分进行较大范围、非选择性降解的过程。近年来,随着研究的深入和检测技术的进步,特别是对自噬受体的鉴定,发现细胞内多种细胞器的亚结构域和(或)胞质特定成分都能被自噬体特异性地识别、分隔包围或被囊泡运输至内溶酶体(endolysosome)/溶酶体而降解。由此细分并确立了许多自噬类型,包括内质网自噬(endoplasmic reticulum autophagy,ER-phagy/reticulophagy)、线粒体自噬(mitophy)、溶酶体自噬(lysophagy)、核自噬(nucleophy)及核糖体自噬(ribophagy)等细胞器选择性自噬,以及异自噬(xenophagy)、脂自噬(lipophagy)、铁自噬(ferritinophagy)等以胞内大分子蛋白复合体为底物的选择性自噬[3-7]。其中内质网自噬是研究较为深入且可明显影响细胞稳态和功能的一种自噬类型,与多种疾病的发生发展密切相关[8-9]
内质网是细胞内体积最大的细胞器,除了成熟红细胞外在所有真核细胞中均有分布,其紧贴细胞核被膜并向外周延展构成复杂的膜性系统[10]。在该复杂系统中,大量管状、片状和囊性膜结构经过反复和连续的包绕,可构成相对封闭的内腔,向内与细胞核相连,向外与高尔基体、溶酶体、内体、质膜、细胞膜等相连,将细胞中不同结构有机地连结成一个整体[11-12]。内质网腔内含有大量的伴侣分子、糖基化酶及氧化还原酶等,是蛋白质、脂类等生物大分子合成加工的重要场所,对细胞的正常生理功能及存活均至关重要。内质网对感染、毒素、缺血缺氧等刺激非常敏感,细胞内、外环境的任何剧烈变化均会引起内质网功能失调,即内质网应激(endoplasmic reticulum stress,ERS)[13]。内质网质量控制系统致力于维持内质网的稳态,核心机制包括内质网相关降解作用(endoplasmic reticulum assoeiated degradation,ERAD)降解非正确折叠的中间产物,以及大量未折叠或错误折叠的蛋白累积激发未折叠蛋白反应(unfolded protein response,UPR)而抑制蛋白合成、促进多肽折叠加工、加速蛋白降解等,进而减轻内质网负荷[14-15];此外,内质网选择性自噬(ER-phagy)通过降解受损的内质网亚结构片段以及异常积累的内质网管腔蛋白聚集体,平衡内质网在UPR期间的扩张,重塑内质网形状和大小,促进内质网稳态的恢复。ERS过度则诱导凋亡信号的激活,导致细胞损伤和功能障碍,甚至死亡[16]
不同于非选择性自噬,内质网自噬对底物具有高度特异性。通过对内质网特定亚结构域的高度选择性清除,可精准控制ERS时内质网的大小和活性,同时降解过度合成的未折叠蛋白,减轻内质网的压力,发挥对内质网质量、大小、形态和功能的控制等重要作用[17-18]。有研究发现,分离并降解具有潜在威胁的细胞毒性物质以及激活病原体入侵后的抗病毒反应,凸显了内质网自噬在提高细胞适应性核心机制中的中心地位[19]。生理条件下细胞中内质网自噬通常维持在较低水平,ERS时则被强烈激活[20-24]。新近研究表明,UPR可直接诱导内质网自噬受体分子的活化,以协助降解内质网片段及附属蛋白聚集体,促进内质网稳态的恢复[18]。药物诱导ERS后可见内质网自噬被同时激活,以清除冗余的内质网亚结构,协助内质网进行结构重塑。ERS的诱发因素较多,不同背景下的ERS可能特异性地激活某些内质网自噬受体。例如,在细菌侵入引起的细胞ERS反应中,潜在内质网自噬受体干扰素基因刺激因子(stimulator of interferon genes,STING)参与内质网自噬减轻ERS反应的压力,减少ERS导致的细胞死亡[3]。内质网自噬是多种诱因激发细胞内ERS反应后的重要效应机制,对维持内质网稳态发挥着关键的调控作用[17]。一般认为,内质网自噬途径包括内质网巨自噬(macro ER-phagy)、内质网微自噬(micro ER-phagy)、囊泡转运内质网自噬(vesicular transport ER-phagy)等[18]
自噬体分隔并包围被受体标记的特定内质网网膜片段、网腔内容物和部分细胞质成分后,与内溶酶体/溶酶体融合并进行降解,该过程称为内质网巨自噬。2007年Bernales等[24]发现酵母在ERS诱导下,肿胀的内质网周围出现双层膜结构的自噬泡,限制并包围特定内质网区域,该过程类似普通巨自噬,但具有高度选择性,后被证实为内质网巨自噬。根据受体类型的不同,内质网巨自噬可通过两种不同机制启动:(1)底物被泛素化后与带有泛素结合域(ubiquitin-associated,UBA)的可溶性自噬受体结合,受体上微管相关蛋白1轻链3(microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3,LC3)相互作用结构域[LC3(GABARAP)-interacting region,LIR(GIR)]负责招募自噬上游启动元件ATG17/FIP200和自噬体膜成分蛋白LC3/GABARAP;(2)刺激信号激活内质网膜蛋白自噬受体,受体的LIR(GIR)结构域直接招募LC3/GABARAP蛋白和ATG17/FIP200。两条途径的下游过程基本一致,均可触发ATG1/ULK激酶复合物的募集和活化,完成自噬体启动元件的组合并促进自噬体双层膜的合成、延伸直至分隔包围降解底物[25-27]
通过激活底物上的内质网自噬受体,诱导其被内体/溶酶体系统直接识别、吞噬后降解的过程称为内质网微自噬,也称为非自噬体参与的内质网自噬。
选择性微自噬现象同样是在酵母中首先观察到的,经过营养限制或雷帕霉素等药物刺激后,酵母细胞核与囊泡的连接增加,并通过内体/溶酶体吞噬代谢细胞核中一些非必需蛋白[28]。其中的关键步骤需要ATG基因的表达,类似普通微自噬[29-30]。其后,也有学者观察到内质网相关微自噬现象[3]。形态上,酵母溶酶体在吞噬前,内质网会变形成为一种堆叠的多层结构,称之为内质网涡旋。整个过程不需要关键内质网巨自噬相关基因及内质网巨自噬受体,提示内质网巨自噬和内质网微自噬可能是平行关系。但需要Nem1-Spo7磷酸复合体以及运输所需的内体分类复合体(endosomal sorting complexes required for transport,ESCRT)来切断溶酶体膜,完成吞噬过程[31-32]
在哺乳动物细胞中,使用Ca2+-ATP酶抑制剂诱发ERS,随后在内质网恢复过程中观察到内质网微自噬现象,即包含内质网成分的囊泡直接被内溶酶体吞噬[22]。内质网微自噬需要SEC62和LC3,但不需要其他自噬启动相关因子(如ULK1、ULK2、ATG13和ATG14)等。有研究发现,溶酶体膜离断时需要ESCRT-Ⅲ[20]。目前内质网微自噬机制研究仍存在很多疑惑,如普通巨自噬起始、膜形成以及成熟过程中的关键分子似乎未参与内质网微自噬,虽然有研究发现了LC3参与微自噬的证据,但具体作用尚不明确。
囊泡转运内质网自噬是通过激活内质网自噬受体,形成携带底物的囊泡,并与内体/溶酶体系统融合降解的过程。
囊泡转运是新近提出的内质网降解方式[33],该途径在其他细胞器的选择性自噬过程中已有发现。在内质网中,囊泡转运主要是由积累的错误折叠蛋白所诱导。内质网合成的分泌性蛋白一般情况下可通过ERAD途径降解;然而,某些错误折叠蛋白因自身功能形态等多种原因不能进入ERAD途径。例如,蛋白聚合体体积过大且无法分离,致使其转运困难,更不能被多聚泛素化;蛋白与内质网腔中分子伴侣连结过于紧密;缺乏转运分子伴侣,无法将蛋白传递到内质网膜上的转位点。因此,若要继续清除这些大量错误折叠的蛋白分子,细胞可能将内质网亚结构域连同其包含的错误折叠蛋白从内质网主体分离,通过内质网-溶酶体相关降解(ER-to-lysosome-associated degradation,ERLAD)方式来降解清除[23]。该过程需要伴侣分子calnexin(CNX)、内质网自噬受体和LC3的参与。因此,有学者将该途径称为LC3依赖囊泡转运内质网自噬。
同样,在酵母实验中亦有类似报道:使用外源性药物产生的缺陷蛋白以及内源性过表达的人工设计蛋白,均在囊泡转运的内质网亚结构域中发现,表明酵母可通过囊泡转运自噬途径清除内质网相关大分子蛋白底物[33]
溶酶体/囊泡降解内质网片段的水平与内质网自噬受体的表达和活性呈高度正相关关系,同时,内质网自噬的启动也高度依赖受体的激活。因此,对相关受体的鉴定及其功能和机制的探索是研究内质网自噬的重要方向。此外,内质网自噬现象在哺乳动物、酵母和植物细胞中广泛存在,其受体种类繁多,各有异同,且不断更新,下文重点介绍哺乳动物相关受体的研究进展。
哺乳动物内质网自噬相关研究发现了多种内质网自噬受体,其中序列相似家族134成员B[family with sequence similarity 134 member B,FAM134B;又称为内质网自噬调节因子1(reticulophagy regulator 1,RETREG1)]、SEC62、长型网状内皮素3(reticulon 3 L,RTN3L)、细胞周期进展基因1(cell cycle progression gene 1,CCPG1)、atlastin3(ATL3)和睾丸表达蛋白264(testis expressed protein 264,TEX264)等了解较为深入(图1)。以上受体均为内质网膜蛋白,其蛋白结构中含有至少一个LIR/GIR结构域,使得受体可与哺乳动物自噬体的LC3/GABARAP家族蛋白结合,诱导LC3在片段化的内质网周围聚集,并形成自噬小体包围内质网片段及部分网腔蛋白。此外,内质网膜蛋白自噬受体与上游自噬启动复合物(ULK1、ULK2、ATG13、ATG101、FIP200等分子)亦可相互作用。
FAM134B属于序列相似性家族134成员。不同家族成员的分布不尽相同,FAM134B富集于片状内质网,是最早被确认、研究最为透彻的内质网自噬受体。FAM134B早期被认为是一种肿瘤抑制因子(称为JK-1),研究发现其低表达与肠道及其他肿瘤的生长和迁移相关[34];同时其在感觉神经元功能障碍和埃博拉及寨卡病毒感染中可能扮演着重要角色[19,35-36]。作为内质网自噬受体,FAM134B胞质部分近C端具有一个LIR结构域,可招募LC3/GABARAP形成吞噬泡双层膜并逐渐分割包围吞噬底物。FAM134B定位于片状内质网膜的外围弯曲部,此处是片状内质网膜曲率最大的区域,FAM134B中内质网蛋白同源结构域(reticulon-homology domain,RHD)能诱导内质网膜弯曲形变,结合其定位,多重因素均利于局部内质网膜断裂并聚集成小囊泡。相反,敲低FAM134B基因的细胞内质网则表现出明显的无序膨胀[37]。最新研究发现,在饥饿诱导的内质网巨自噬过程中,FAM134家族成员FAM134A和FAM134C也参与其中。据此,国际人类基因组组织分别赋名FAM134A和FAM134C为内质网自噬调节因子2(RETREG2)和RETREG3[38]
内质网膜上存在由SEC61复合体及SEC62/SEC63二聚体构成的孔道结构,称为易位子,在新生肽链向内质网腔内转运的过程中发挥重要作用[39]。SEC62是一个含有399个氨基酸的内质网膜蛋白,具有两个跨膜片段,两片段间的连接部向内位于内质网腔内,形成类似U形结构,其N端和C端则向外接触细胞质。生物信息学分析发现,SEC62可能存在一个LIR结构域,是潜在的内质网自噬受体;后续研究证实,SEC62可通过内质网微自噬促进ERS后内质网的恢复,减少细胞死亡。在营养缺乏的条件下,SEC62则通过诱导内质网巨自噬提高细胞的适应性,且该过程与其易位功能相对独立[2239]。由于SEC62结构中缺少RHD结构域,无法弯折离断内质网膜,因此需借助其他具有RHD结构域的内质网自噬受体,如FAM134C,以协助其提高内质网膜的曲率,片段化待降解的内质网膜[40]
RTN家族具有4个成员,包括RTN1、RTN2、RTN3及RTN4,所有成员均含有RHD结构域,且富集于管状内质网膜,为潜在的内质网自噬受体。目前研究发现,RTN3同型异构体长型RTN(RTN3L)蛋白在营养缺乏刺激下可诱导内质网自噬,而其他成员均不能结合LC3。RTN3L的结构特点为其近N端具有一个由800个氨基酸残基组成的狭长胞质段,包含6个LIR结构域。该结构域可与ATG8同源蛋白GABARAP及囊泡转运相关蛋白相互作用[41];同时,其LIR结构域还参与内质网自噬底物的分类聚集,并促进内体成熟[42]。此外,RTN3L诱导的内质网自噬主要降解管状内质网区域,也可协助其他没有弯曲内质网能力的受体完成内质网片段化[41]
CCPG1全称为细胞周期进展基因1,早期研究发现,过表达CCPG1可使酿酒酵母的细胞周期停滞于G1[43],因而得名。但事实上,自然状态下该基因仅在脊柱动物中表达。2019年Smith等[44]证实CCPG1为一种新型内质网自噬受体。结构上,CCPG1的N端具有诱导内质网自噬的结构域(FIP200 interacting region,FIR)和LIR结构域。与FAM134B及RTN3L不同,CCPG1内质网膜部分只有一个跨膜结构域(transmembrane domain,TM),缺少RHD结构域;其C端位于内质网腔内,同时具有超过500个氨基酸残基组成的腔内段[44]。功能上,CCPG1诱导的内质网自噬与ERS引起的UPR高度相关,其可减少ERS所致的蛋白堆积,并降低UPR的强度。此外,由于缺少RHD结构域,CCPG1需要与RTN3L等受体协作诱导内质网自噬。在营养缺乏引起的内质网自噬过程中,CCPG1的FIR和LIR结构域也参与了其他受体的活化过程[37,41,45-48]
内质网塑形蛋白atlastin(ATL)是一种dynamin超家族蛋白,由ATL1、ATL2及ATL3组成。该家族成员均为内质网驻留蛋白,其特点是具有GTP酶(GTPase)活性,并参与内质网的形态和结构变化[49-50]。不同的ATL成员之间可组成不同的异源二聚体,从而增强单一成员的功能。作为受体,ATL3的表达水平在饥饿诱导的内质网自噬早期即明显升高,ATL3缺乏LIR结构域,无法招募结合LC3,但可通过两个GABARAP相互作用基序(GABARAP interaction motif,GIM)结合GABARAP,从而参与内质网自噬过程[46]。随后,许多学者对不同家族成员的结构与功能进行了探索。例如,ATL1主要分布于中枢神经系统,结构分析显示其具有GIM结构域及结合GABARAP的能力,但未发现其作为独立受体诱导内质网自噬的证据[46]。在营养缺乏诱导的内质网自噬过程中,ATL2的缺失可明显降低内质网自噬活性。据报道,ATL2是FAM134B的下游分子,主要在FAM134B片段化内质网膜以及囊泡形成过程中发挥作用[46,51]。目前认为,ATL2对内质网的形态影响最为明显,而ATL3敲除后内质网形态并无明显改变[52]
TEX264是一种广泛表达的内质网驻留蛋白[47],由313个氨基酸残基组成,包括一个单跨膜结构域和一个LIR结构域,其腔内段非常短,仅有6个氨基酸残基。TEX264能与自噬上游启动因子ULK1和PI3K复合物相互作用。在目前发现的所有内质网自噬受体中,TEX264与LC3和GABARAP的结合效率最高,是对内质网自噬效应贡献最显著的受体之一。单独敲除TEX264可有效抑制内质网自噬水平,如联合敲除Fam134bCcpg1基因,则内质网自噬现象几乎完全消失[47]。此外,TEX264 LIR结构域附近的固有无序区域(intrinsically disordered domain,IDR)是降解粗面内质网所必需的,因粗面内质网上附着大量核糖体,形成了约20 nm的间隙;LC3构成的吞噬泡膜无法直接接触粗面内质网膜,而IDR相当于连接两者的桥梁,使降解粗面内质网变成可能[23,47]。作为最高效的受体,内质网自噬泡启动时,大量TEX264聚集在LC3颗粒周围。利用邻近标记联合质谱技术分析发现,多种内质网膜蛋白、自噬调节分子及大自噬受体,如p62、NDP52和TAX1BP1等均出现在TEX264的LIR结构域附近,且存在相互作用,这为研究TEX264受体功能提供了丰富的线索[53]
TRIM13是新近明确的非典型内质网自噬受体。2005年,有学者已经注意到TRIM13所属的TRIM家族成员参与了自噬活动[54]。因TRIM13自身未含有LIR结构域,其主要作用机制是TRIM蛋白通过与p62相互作用,利用p62蛋白的LIR结构域完成对LC3的募集,促进隔离膜和自噬体的形成。在超过80个TRIM家族成员中,TRIM13是唯一定位于内质网膜的蛋白[54]。Tomar等[55]在HEK293细胞中观察到,TRIM13可调节ERS时自噬的启动,降低细胞的增殖能力。近年来诸多研究证实,TRIM13是一种非经典的内质网自噬受体,参与多种内质网及蛋白质降解过程,是维持内质网稳态的重要成员[56-58]
TRIM13编码基因位于13号常染色体长臂1区4带。靠近N端有3个家族经典的锌指结构域,从N端到C端依次为RING环状结构域(RING domain)、一个2型B box结构域(B box type 2)和螺旋结构域(coiled-coil domain);C端则拥有一个TM,该结构域也是TRIM亚家族CXI的标志,因此,TRIM13也归为此类[59]。值得指出的是,TRIM13也是一种E3泛素连接酶。组成TRIM13的RING结构域即为E3中负责共价结合E2的接头结构。TRIM13的结构特点决定了其功能的多面性,其可参与多种内质网生理活动,包括UPS、自身泛素化后形成TRIM13-p62复合物诱导内质网自噬以及ERAD过程[57-58]。在ERS反应中,内质网自噬及ERAD是应对ERS的有效途径,其中内质网自噬可通过选择性降解老化、异常的内质网亚结构域及其包含的蛋白质聚集体缓解内质网压力,有效地支持ERS后内质网的更新和重建,对维持内质网稳态和细胞内环境稳定发挥了重要作用。
在感染、细胞应激和组织损伤状态下,固有免疫系统通过模式识别受体识别病原体相关分子模式(pathogen associated molecular pattern,PAMP)和损伤相关分子模式(damage associated molecular pattern,DAMP),从而启动相关的固有免疫应答[60]。近年来,cGAS-STING通路在炎症免疫反应中的作用和意义受到关注,其活化可促进核因子-κB(nuclear factor kappa-B,NF-κB)和磷酸化干扰素调节因子3(interferon regulatory factor 3,IRF3)入核,并诱导1型干扰素(interferon type 1,IFN-1)等促炎细胞因子的表达。有研究发现,cGAS-STING通路的关键分子STING参与感染后免疫细胞内的内质网自噬,是潜在的内质网自噬受体[61]。STING是一种定位于内质网的膜蛋白,含有数个LIR结构域,其中以第4、6、7位LIR为主要效应结构域[62]。使用cGAS-STING通路激动剂可观察到STING-LC3复合物的形成,该过程依赖ATG5的协助[62]。但值得注意的是,cGAS-STING诱导LC3脂化形成独特的单层膜结构囊泡,而非经典的内质网巨自噬双层膜吞噬泡,此过程依赖于V-ATPase和ATG16L1,并可绕过其他经典上游自噬启动路径[63]。在功能上,STING介导内质网自噬可减轻革兰阳性细菌引起的ERS,并调控cGAS-STING通路引起的IFN-1过度分泌,尤其对减少免疫吞噬细胞死亡、稳定细胞免疫功能具有重要意义[64]
除定位于内质网膜的受体外,部分可溶性蛋白也具有选择性自噬受体活性,可识别包括泛素化蛋白等胞内底物,以及包含内质网、高尔基体等在内的细胞器[4],在某些特殊刺激因素作用下能选择性介导内质网进行自噬降解,但该过程通常需要借助其他内质网膜分子,甚至内质网自噬受体的协助。例如,受体p62结构中含有一个LIR和一个UBA结构域,一方面能募集LC3,另一方面可与泛素相互作用,结合泛素化标记蛋白。无LIR结构域的内质网膜蛋白TRIM13(特殊内质网自噬受体)与p62介导的内质网自噬即是他们相互作用的结果[65]。类似情况还可见于可溶性受体CALCOCO1,该受体启动内质网自噬时,需要内质网膜VAP蛋白(VAPA、VAPB)招募其接近内质网并形成吞噬泡[17];胞质泛素化结合自噬受体BRCA1相邻基因(neighbor of BRCA1 gene,NBR1)和视神经蛋白(optineurin,OPTN)需通过与内质网膜蛋白IRE1协作参与内质网自噬[66]。此类可溶性受体在胞质内广泛存在,单独或同时参与包括内质网自噬在内的多种选择性自噬降解过程。
需要注意的是,尽管哺乳动物细胞中存在如此多的内质网自噬受体,但多数情况下,这些受体是冗余的。因此,不同内质网区域、不同原因诱发的内质网自噬仅激活相应的受体。例如,FAM134B主要介导片状内质网的降解,而RTN3L和ATL3则介导管状内质网的降解。营养缺乏引发的内质网自噬主要由FAM134B、RTN3L、ATL3和TEX264介导。CCPG1和SEC62则在ERS及其恢复过程中介导内质网自噬。内质网自噬受体类型及其诱导信号总结如表1所示。
阿尔茨海默病是一种慢性起病的神经退行性疾病,其病理特征是在大脑组织中大量沉积的淀粉样β蛋白、神经元丢失及突触功能异常。在疾病发展过程中,淀粉样β蛋白的产生与β-淀粉样转化酶1(β-amyloid converting enzyme 1,BACE1)的活性和表达水平呈正相关[67]。RTN3及家族其他成员均能与BACE1结合,促进RTN蛋白表达,显著减少淀粉样β蛋白产生,反之亦然,提示RTN蛋白是BACE1的负调控因子。在此基础上,有研究发现,在大脑神经元中,BACE1主要与RTN3共定位,且RTN3在神经元中高表达[67-68]。同样,针对汉族早发和迟发阿尔茨海默病患者的基因筛查发现了多个RTN3变异,提示该疾病与RTN3突变之间具有相关性[69],但其具体作用及机制尚不清楚,尚无明确证据表明RTN3L介导内质网自噬与其调节BACE1活性有关,提示含有LIR结构域的RTN3 N端可能不参与BACE1活性的调节过程[70]
遗传性感觉和自主神经病(hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies,HSAN)是一种常染色体隐性遗传性疾病,其发展呈进行性,随着背根神经节神经元的变性,可出现疼痛、温度和触觉受损并伴有远端肢体的溃疡。该疾病发病率低,但对患者的工作、生活影响很大[71]。HSAN分为5型,一项对HSAN Ⅱ型患者的基因缺陷筛查发现,HSAN ⅡB亚型与FAM134B的缺失突变高度相关[71-72]。FAM134B缺失突变可编码出新的顺式高尔基蛋白,引起顺式高尔基体结构的改变,进一步导致背根神经节细胞凋亡,而感觉和自主神经功能的损害最终促使疾病的发生与发展。FAM134B广泛存在于内质网、高尔基体及线粒体等单层膜细胞器上,而内质网和高尔基体是蛋白合成加工及分泌的重要场所。在FAM134B敲除小鼠的背根神经节组织中,可观察到内质网小管扩大和高尔基池畸变的现象。进一步分析发现,该敲除位点包含与选择性自噬功能相关的RHD和LIR结构域,从而损害了FAM134B诱导内质网片段化以及募集LC3分隔转运的能力,表明FAM134B作为内质网自噬受体与其在神经退行性疾病中的潜在作用相关[73]。但目前仍缺少确凿证据,证实HSANⅡB病理生理过程与内质网自噬缺陷直接相关。
细胞中ATL3主要定位于管状内质网的三向连接处,此处是连接管状内质网与本体的节点,ATL3突变可直接影响内质网的形态结构变化。研究发现,HSAN患者的基因发生大量的ATL3错义突变[74-75]。更重要的是,相关突变Y192C和P338R涉及ATL3的GIM结构域,影响ATL3与GABARAP的结合以及诱导内质网自噬的能力[47]。以上结果提示,ATL3错义突变所致内质网自噬功能受损可能与疾病的病理过程有关。
FAM134B最早发现是因其参与肿瘤抑制过程,并作为一种新型肿瘤抑制因子JK1研究的[76]。尤其以结肠癌为甚,通过体内外实验干预FAM134B的表达,并结合不同恶性程度结肠癌样本的分析,证实FAM134B是结肠癌重要的抑制因子,FAM134B突变或表达水平降低与结直肠癌的发生、发展及预后有关[77-79]。利用液相色谱-串联质谱技术分析FAM134B潜在交互蛋白,发现FAM134B与微管骨架组织中关键因子EB1相互作用;在结直肠癌细胞中,导入外源性FAM134B促进EB1的表达,可显著下调肿瘤抑制因子介导的Wnt/β-catenin信号通路活化,参与结直肠癌的发生过程[80]。同样,FAM134B突变与多种肿瘤的发生和发展有关,包括食管鳞状细胞癌、肝细胞癌、胰腺癌及神经胶质瘤等[81-83]
另一个与肿瘤发生密切相关的内质网自噬受体是SEC62,不同于FAM134B的肿瘤抑制效应,SEC62突变和(或)高表达与肿瘤的发生、发展及转移呈正相关。SEC62复合体和SEC61/SEC63复合体共同构成内质网膜的易位子,该孔道结构利于新生肽链的进出和钙离子释放。研究发现,易位子的其他亚基(包括SEC61和SEC63)也与肿瘤发生有关[33]。如SEC62高表达与前列腺癌、宫颈癌、甲状腺癌、肝癌、肺癌相关[33],SEC62高表达使得这些肿瘤具有更高的转移和侵袭潜能,以及更强的ERS耐受性,并可减少ERS诱导的细胞死亡[84]。SEC61γ高表达与神经胶质瘤相关,沉默该基因能降低胶质瘤细胞的增殖活性并诱导其凋亡[85]。SEC63框移突变是消化道肿瘤(包括胃肠道肿瘤、结肠肿瘤及肝细胞癌)中的高频突变,动物模型观察到过表达SEC63可促进肝肿瘤细胞增殖[86-87]。不同肿瘤中SEC61或SEC63表达升高并不伴随着SEC62的表达变化。有研究认为,SEC复合物组成的易位子活性改变并不是诱导肿瘤发生的病因[22],提示SEC62介导的内质网自噬是影响肿瘤发生的因素,但目前尚无明确证据支持。
病毒入侵机体需要借助宿主细胞进行增殖和传播。内质网自噬本质上是一种特异性降解机制,且常与其他吞噬降解途径联动。若某些病毒侵入细胞后定位于内质网,细胞则可利用内质网自噬清除该病原体。FAM134B作为发现最早的内质网自噬受体,早期的研究即报告了其与黄病毒科病毒(包括登革病毒、寨卡病毒和西尼罗河病毒等70多种病毒)的相互作用。例如,上述3种病毒感染细胞后,依赖内质网作为病毒复制和组装的场所,并借助内质网的分泌途径,将新复制病毒转移至胞外。复制一开始上述病毒即主动表达一种NS3蛋白酶使FAM134B裂解,以避免其诱导的内质网自噬将病毒清除。体外研究发现,下调FAM134B的表达则可观察到上述病毒的复制明显增强[35]。另有研究发现,原本抑制肠道病毒复制的BPIFB3能促进登革病毒和寨卡病毒的感染和复制[88]。进一步分析发现,敲除BPIFB3基因可明显增强FAM134B介导的内质网自噬,内质网周转代谢加快,病毒复制下降。该作用可通过沉默FAM134B逆转,而其他受体SEC62或RTN3沉默则未观察到类似结果,表明BPIFB3是FAM134B介导内质网自噬抗病毒效应的重要效应因子[88]。除黄病毒科外,依赖FAM134B的内质网自噬还能限制埃博拉病毒的复制[19]
除上述疾病外,近年来研究发现,过敏、自身免疫等常见疾病的发病机制也涉及内质网自噬[89-90],对其调控机制的研究可能为此类疾病的治疗提供新的思路。例如,过敏性鼻炎是一种因过敏原暴露引起的IgE相关气道反应性疾病,其患病率高,典型症状包括鼻痒、流涕、打喷嚏和鼻腔阻塞等。既往基础研究发现,调节性T细胞在调节过敏性鼻炎的免疫反应中起关键作用[91]。抑制损伤细胞释放至胞外的ATP是其中的一种作用机制。该过程中,胞外ATP可诱导明显的炎症反应,调节性T细胞可借助表面分子CD39水解胞外ATP,以调节炎症反应。一项针对过敏性鼻炎患者变异基因筛选的队列研究发现,内质网自噬受体蛋白FAM134B表达上调是导致患者CD39出现单核苷酸基因多态性的主要因素,提示该疾病患病风险与FAM134B基因表达水平密切相关[91]
感受胞内的异常外源核酸是启动固有免疫的重要机制。目前研究发现,线粒体DNA、病毒DNA、细菌DNA、自体DNA以及细胞碎片均可通过感受器cGAS及第二信使cGAMP激活下游STING[92]。此外,ERS、病毒脂质体和环二核苷酸可绕过cGAS-cGAMP通路直接激活STING,亦即外源病原体和自体DNA均能通过cGAS-STING引起固有免疫反应[93]。因此,STING突变可导致机体异常免疫应答。例如,婴儿期发病STING相关血管病变(STING-associated vasculopathy with onset in infancy,SAVI)是一种系统性红斑狼疮样疾病,于2014年报道并命名[94],其是一种发生在婴儿早期的系统性免疫疾病,表现为面部、手部和足部皮肤血管性变,如累积肺部,则出现肺纤维化及呼吸功能障碍。该病的发生机制是在缺乏cGAMP的情况下,STING突变造成STING的自发二聚化和激活,从而引起相关器官受累[95]。内质网自噬受体在疾病中的作用总结如表2所示。
内质网是细胞内蛋白合成、分泌的场所,也是维持细胞内环境稳定、提高细胞适应性的重要基础,对细胞乃至机体生理调节和病理调控发挥关键作用。内质网自噬是维护内质网稳态和保证质量控制体系的主要途径,尽管近年来该领域相关研究取得了一系列新进展,但仍有诸多重要科学问题尚不明确,很多研究方法和技术亟待更新突破:(1)内质网蛋白分子可通过自噬和蛋白酶体降解,而目前发现内质网膜只能通过自噬降解。以上途径对总体内质网质量控制的贡献尚不完全清楚,相互关系也不明确。他们之间可能存在相互拮抗效应,也可能并非相互排斥,而是相互调控、相互影响。有研究提示,许多蛋白质可通过上述两条途径降解[96]。选择偏好可能依赖于底物蛋白的特征,如蛋白质的拓扑结构和错误折叠的位置,以及不同的修饰方式等。但目前研究很难将不同代谢调控途径完全分隔,完全排除彼此之间的干扰和潜在影响。(2)内质网自噬活性的监测:监测内质网自噬活性对于阐明内质网自噬的分子机制具有重要意义,但现阶段准确监测内质网自噬活性仍有很大难度。因为内质网是连续合成的,其形态和分布很容易改变,且这种变化往往十分细微,使得通过常规的荧光显微镜或免疫印迹技术对内质网更新水平进行分析变得滞后且不够准确。最新观点认为,常用的经典自噬检测指标(如LC3)和内质网标记的共定位并非内质网自噬的准确指标,因为这些指标更可能标记附着在自噬体外侧的内质网,而不是作为降解底物的内质网。就目前技术水平而言,双荧光标记内质网膜蛋白是一种有良好应用前景的新方法,能够实时动态观察内质网自噬活性的变化,但制作技术和观察方法较为复杂[67]。因此,亟需研发一种更特异和更灵敏的方法来监测内质网自噬活性。
  • 国家自然科学基金(82130062)
  • 国家自然科学基金(82241062)
  • 国家自然科学基金(82272200)
参考文献 引证文献
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2024年第49卷第9期
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doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0217.2023.0719
  • 接收时间:2023-02-09
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2024-09-28
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  • 收稿日期:2023-02-09
  • 录用日期:2023-03-14
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National Natural Science Foundation of China(82130062)
国家自然科学基金(82130062)
National Natural Science Foundation of China(82241062)
国家自然科学基金(82241062)
National Natural Science Foundation of China(82272200)
国家自然科学基金(82272200)
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    解放军总医院医学创新研究部/第四医学中心,北京 100048

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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