Article(id=1198200260343460408, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1198200256912519683, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0020.2024.0726, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1704470400000, receivedDateStr=2024-01-06, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1711555200000, acceptedDateStr=2024-03-28, onlineDate=1763602803550, onlineDateStr=2025-11-20, pubDate=1732723200000, pubDateStr=2024-11-28, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763602803550, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-20, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763602803550, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763602803550, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198200256912519683, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, year='2024', volume='49', issue='11', pageStart='1221', pageEnd='1342', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1763602802732, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763603918291, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198204935973204862, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1198200256912519683, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198204935973204863, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1198200256912519683, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1327, endPage=1335, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198200261094240843, articleId=1198200260343460408, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, language=EN, title=Research progress on the role of mesenchymal stem cells in regulating immune response for treatment of traumatic brain injury, columnId=1190243275882729994, journalTitle=Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, columnName=Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) is a significant global cause of mortality and disability, severely compromising public health and quality of life. TBI can be divided into primary and secondary brain injuries according to pathological mechanism, with excessive infiltration of immune cells post-injury triggering neuroinflammation being one of the crucial mechanisms in the cascade of secondary brain injury. Currently, There is a lack of targeted therapeutic agents for TBI, and treatment mainly relies on symptomatic care. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have shown promising potential in the treatment of brain injury through their immune-modulatory properties, which can mediate immune responses to reduce neuroinflammation and repair nerve damage. The review summarizes the recent research progress on immune responses following TBI and the immune regulatory effects of MSCs, aiming to provide references for subsequent research and clinical applications.

, correspAuthors=He-Wei Qin, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
E-mail:
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创伤性脑损伤(TBI)是世界范围内死亡或残疾的重要原因,严重危害公众的健康和生活质量。TBI按病理机制可分为原发性脑损伤和继发性脑损伤,其中脑损伤后免疫细胞过度浸润诱发的神经炎症是继发性脑损伤级联反应形成的重要机制之一。目前,TBI缺乏针对性的治疗药物,主要依赖对症治疗。间充质干细胞的免疫调节特性作为治疗脑损伤的潜在机制应用前景较好,可介导免疫反应减轻神经炎症,修复神经损伤。本文综述了TBI发生后的免疫应答及间充质干细胞的免疫调节作用的相关研究进展,以期为后续研究和临床应用提供参考。

, correspAuthors=秦合伟, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
秦合伟,E-mail:
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高洋,医学硕士,主要从事心血管病临床康复方面的研究

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MSC. 间充质干细胞;MSC-EXO. 间充质干细胞外泌体;NETs. 中性粒细胞胞外陷阱;TSG-6. TNF-α刺激基因/蛋白6;PGE2. 前列腺素E2;TGF-β. 转化生长因子-β;IDO. 吲哚胺2,3-双加氧酶;HLA-G5. 人类白细胞抗原-G5;HGF. 肝细胞生长因子;COX-2. 环氧化酶-2;MMP-9. 基质金属蛋白酶9;ZO-1. 闭锁小带蛋白-1;Occludin. 闭合蛋白;VEGFR2. 血管内皮生长因子受体2;MAPK. 丝裂原活化蛋白激酶;BDNF. 脑源性神经营养因子;TIMP3. 组织金属蛋白酶抑制因子3;Jak/Stat5. 蛋白酪氨酸激酶/信号传导及转录激活因子5;IL. 白细胞介素;Nrf2 . 核因子E2相关因子2;EP. G蛋白偶联受体;ROS. 活性氧;NF-κB. 核因子κB;Treg细胞. 调节性T细胞;NK. 自然杀伤

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间充质干细胞调控免疫反应治疗创伤性脑损伤的作用机制研究进展
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高洋 1 , 秦合伟 1, 2, * , 刘丹丹 1
解放军医学杂志 | 综述 2024,49(11): 1327-1335
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解放军医学杂志 | 综述 2024, 49(11): 1327-1335
间充质干细胞调控免疫反应治疗创伤性脑损伤的作用机制研究进展
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高洋1, 秦合伟1, 2, * , 刘丹丹1
作者信息
  • 1河南中医药大学康复医学院,河南郑州 450046
  • 2河南中医药大学第二附属医院康复医学科,河南郑州 450000
  • 高洋,医学硕士,主要从事心血管病临床康复方面的研究

通讯作者:

秦合伟,E-mail:
Research progress on the role of mesenchymal stem cells in regulating immune response for treatment of traumatic brain injury
Yang Gao1, He-Wei Qin1, 2, * , Dan-Dan Liu1
Affiliations
  • 1School of Rehabilitation Medicine, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, Henan 450046, China
  • 2Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China
出版时间: 2024-11-28 doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0020.2024.0726
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创伤性脑损伤(TBI)是世界范围内死亡或残疾的重要原因,严重危害公众的健康和生活质量。TBI按病理机制可分为原发性脑损伤和继发性脑损伤,其中脑损伤后免疫细胞过度浸润诱发的神经炎症是继发性脑损伤级联反应形成的重要机制之一。目前,TBI缺乏针对性的治疗药物,主要依赖对症治疗。间充质干细胞的免疫调节特性作为治疗脑损伤的潜在机制应用前景较好,可介导免疫反应减轻神经炎症,修复神经损伤。本文综述了TBI发生后的免疫应答及间充质干细胞的免疫调节作用的相关研究进展,以期为后续研究和临床应用提供参考。

创伤性脑损伤  /  间充质干细胞  /  免疫调节  /  血脑屏障  /  作用机制

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) is a significant global cause of mortality and disability, severely compromising public health and quality of life. TBI can be divided into primary and secondary brain injuries according to pathological mechanism, with excessive infiltration of immune cells post-injury triggering neuroinflammation being one of the crucial mechanisms in the cascade of secondary brain injury. Currently, There is a lack of targeted therapeutic agents for TBI, and treatment mainly relies on symptomatic care. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have shown promising potential in the treatment of brain injury through their immune-modulatory properties, which can mediate immune responses to reduce neuroinflammation and repair nerve damage. The review summarizes the recent research progress on immune responses following TBI and the immune regulatory effects of MSCs, aiming to provide references for subsequent research and clinical applications.

traumatic brain injury  /  mesenchymal stem cells  /  immunomodulation  /  blood-brain barrier  /  action mechanism
高洋, 秦合伟, 刘丹丹. 间充质干细胞调控免疫反应治疗创伤性脑损伤的作用机制研究进展. 解放军医学杂志, 2024 , 49 (11) : 1327 -1335 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0020.2024.0726
Yang Gao, He-Wei Qin, Dan-Dan Liu. Research progress on the role of mesenchymal stem cells in regulating immune response for treatment of traumatic brain injury[J]. Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, 2024 , 49 (11) : 1327 -1335 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0020.2024.0726
创伤性脑损伤(traumatic brain injury,TBI)是由直接或间接的外部机械冲击导致的大脑正常结构和功能破坏[1];在原发性机械损伤后,脑代谢变化、神经炎症、脑水肿等病理变化会诱发继发性脑损伤[2],其持续影响可导致认知能力下降以及记忆、注意力和行为障碍[3-4]。据统计,全世界每年约发生50万例TBI,给患者家庭和社会带来了巨大的经济负担[5]。目前临床多采用对症治疗策略改善脑功能,尚缺少针对TBI的有效治疗药物[6-7],因此迫切需要探索TBI治疗的新靶点。TBI后小胶质细胞、中性粒细胞、适应性免疫细胞等募集至损伤部位,引发一系列免疫调节反应,而免疫稳态失调介导的脑损伤加速了疾病进程[8]。间充质干细胞(mesenchymal stem cells,MSCs)因其自我更新能力、归巢和低免疫原性等特点而备受关注,其免疫调节特性可在维持免疫稳态方面发挥关键作用,成为TBI治疗的有力候选者[9-10]。有研究显示,MSCs诱导的免疫调节有助于减轻脑损伤,促进神经损伤修复[11]。本文以免疫调节为立足点,综述TBI相关的免疫应答及MSCs在TBI中的免疫调节作用,旨在为相关的治疗研究提供新视角和新思路。
MSCs是一类异质细胞群,来源于多种组织,除骨髓和脂肪组织外,胎盘、脐带、羊水、牙髓、母乳和滑膜也已被确认为MSCs的来源[12]。不同来源的MSCs虽然具有相似的细胞表型和标记谱,但可表现出不同的分子谱系和分化潜能[13]。从骨髓中分离的MSCs可自然分化为中胚层细胞(如骨细胞、软骨细胞和脂肪细胞),并可能转分化为外胚层或内胚层谱系[14],而从中获得的表观遗传记忆有利于MSCs沿着成骨细胞谱系分化。脂肪来源的MSCs分化为成骨细胞的潜力较小,提示MSCs的分化潜能受DNA甲基化表观遗传调控的影响[15]。由此可知,MSCs具有多向分化潜能和自我更新能力,而低免疫原性、归巢效应和可发挥免疫调节作用的特点是其应用于细胞治疗的关键。
MSCs主要通过与免疫细胞直接接触和分泌细胞因子、趋化因子的方式调节先天和适应性免疫应答,可影响树突细胞的抗原呈递,调节中性粒细胞的吞噬能力,调节自然杀伤(NK)细胞毒性、小胶质细胞极化和CD4+ T细胞的增殖活化[16]。在免疫系统中,MSCs可介导免疫调控,减轻持续炎症的神经毒性损伤,其内在机制包括抑制T细胞的增殖和凋亡,增强调节性T细胞(regulatory T cells,Treg)功能,促进小胶质细胞M2表型的极化等[17];但MSCs不具有结构性免疫抑制作用,而是在暴露于高水平的促炎因子时极化为免疫抑制表型[18]。此外,在炎症早期阶段,MSCs可通过分泌趋化因子募集免疫细胞至损伤部位,引发剧烈的炎症反应而促进损伤组织愈合[19]。由此可见,MSCs可参与维持机体的免疫稳态,其早期表达促炎表型可通过调节免疫细胞而抵御病原体,随后的抗炎表型则可通过缓解持续的炎症反应而促进组织恢复。此外,MSCs具有来源广泛、易获取、低免疫原性等优势,有望成为治疗TBI的潜在多能干细胞。
TBI发生后的炎症反应在数分钟内开始,涉及细胞因子、趋化因子、损伤相关分子模式(damage associated molecular patterns,DAMPs)的释放和中性粒细胞浸润,以及随后的神经胶质细胞活化和白细胞迁移、募集。外部机械力导致脑膜挫伤、轴突剪切和脑血管损伤时,受损细胞释放腺苷三磷酸(adenosine triphosphate,ATP)、热休克蛋白、高迁移率族蛋白B1等内源性因子,这些内源性因子作为DAMPs被Toll样受体和核苷酸寡聚化结构域样受体家族识别,触发炎症信号通路,激活先天免疫反应[20]。胶质细胞是大脑驻留的免疫细胞,当暴露于DAMPs时,小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞被激活而启动炎症反应;小胶质细胞由正常形态转变为分支细胞结构和更大的细胞体并响应微环境信号,极化为M1或M2表型[21],同时产生炎性因子白细胞介素(interleukin,IL)-1β、IL-6、肿瘤坏死因子(tumor necrosis factor,TNF)-α和趋化因子,募集中性粒细胞、淋巴细胞等透过血脑屏障(blood brain barrier,BBB)到达损伤区域清除碎片和受损细胞,而免疫细胞持续浸润可诱发慢性炎症导致继发性脑损伤[22]。中性粒细胞在脉络丛上皮分泌的单核细胞趋化蛋白1作用下穿过BBB迁移到损伤部位并浸润到脑实质,控制病变以及清除细胞和髓鞘碎片。虽然中性粒细胞胞外陷阱(external neutrophil traps,NETs)有助于捕获病原体微生物而发挥保护作用[23],但过度的NETs形成是先天免疫的双刃剑,如Toll样受体和精氨酸脱亚胺酶4介导的NETs形成可增高颅内压引发脑水肿,从而加剧神经功能损伤[24]。此外,中性粒细胞释放基质金属蛋白酶(matrix metalloproteinase,MMP)、TNF和活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)可导致BBB进一步降解,还可促进IL-17A表达上调并激活核因子-κB(nuclear factor-κB,NF-κB)途径加剧神经炎症[25]。TBI发生后3~5 d,损伤部位的中性粒细胞数量减少,而小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞聚集增多,此时,血源性单核细胞在趋化因子浓度梯度的作用下浸润损伤组织,成为主要的免疫细胞,并高表达IL-1β来诱导炎症损伤[26]。暴露于IL-1β的星形胶质细胞迅速产生免疫信号,导致中性粒细胞的募集和促炎因子释放[27];而来自坏死神经元的高迁移率族蛋白B1通过激活Toll样受体4启动小胶质细胞释放IL-6,进而增加星形胶质细胞水通道蛋白4的表达导致脑水肿,加重脑损伤[28]。迁移到组织的单核细胞几天后分化为树突细胞,不断对自身和外来抗原进行采样,促进CD4+ T细胞的增殖活化,抗原呈递过程中二者之间的通信决定了辅助细胞的分化命运,从而连接先天和适应性免疫反应[29]
TBI发生后,适应性免疫系统的主要效应细胞T细胞和B细胞通过细胞因子和BBB破坏浸润中枢神经系统。CD4+ T细胞活化后可分化为辅助性T细胞(T helper cell,Th)1、Th2、Th17或Treg等不同亚型。Treg细胞可分泌IL-10和转化生长因子β(transforming growth factor-β,TGF-β)等抗炎细胞因子减轻神经炎症[30],还可通过限制Th0向Th1转化及星形胶质细胞的增殖减轻脑损伤[31]。免疫稳态条件下Th1和Th2细胞处于平衡状态,Th1分泌IL-2、γ干扰素(interferon-γ,INF-γ)和TNF-α有助于促炎表型经典活化巨噬细胞(M1)介导炎症反应,Th2的作用由抗炎因子IL-4、IL-10、IL-13主导,可诱导具有抗炎表型的选择性巨噬细胞(M2)发挥抗炎和组织修复作用,二者与巨噬细胞协同调节损伤组织的微环境[32]。TBI发生后,髓系细胞上的Toll样受体4介导Th细胞的极化,小胶质细胞分泌促炎趋化因子INF-γ诱导蛋白10(interferon γ inducible protein-10,IP-10),可刺激Th1细胞的浸润,从而促进炎症反应。在急性炎症条件下,抗原呈递信号可使CD8+ T细胞分化为细胞毒性效应细胞,除分泌TNF-α和IFN-γ发挥促炎作用外,还可通过释放胞毒颗粒和穿孔素上调Fas配体(Fas ligand,FasL)的表达而触发细胞死亡。有研究显示,星形胶质细胞表面高表达IL-15,可触发CD8+ T细胞的活化和颗粒酶B的释放,颗粒酶B可作用于神经元并通过胱天蛋白酶3诱导的底物切割促进神经元凋亡[33];而CD8+ T细胞耗竭可导致CD4+ T细胞发生神经保护性Th2/Th17细胞转化从而改善神经功能[34]。B淋巴细胞介导的体液免疫在创伤性脑损伤后的作用尚未得到广泛探索,但有研究显示,TBI发生后7 d在患者脑组织观察到活化B细胞比例增高,B细胞可能诱导浸润和驻留在神经系统的髓样细胞的抗炎表型,并降低活化小胶质细胞的比例,从而发挥神经保护性免疫调节作用[35]。因此,先天免疫和适应性免疫相辅相成,共同维持机体的免疫稳态,二者持续且异常激活时可增强对神经功能的破坏。
中性粒细胞是TBI发生后循环中最丰富的先天免疫细胞,是先天性免疫的关键组成部分;其作为第一类被招募到急性炎症部位的细胞,通过吞噬作用、释放衍生因子和NETsg来消除入侵的病原体,促进机体防御。但过度活跃的中性粒细胞可释放有毒物质,增加BBB的通透性导致继发性脑损伤;有研究显示,中性粒细胞/淋巴细胞比值增高与TBI患者较差的临床结果相关[36]。MSCs在增强中性粒细胞吞噬作用的同时,可通过抑制中性粒细胞浸润、阻止NETs形成来削弱其细胞毒性,从而发挥更强的免疫调节作用。
MSCs已被证实可减轻挫伤组织中的中性粒细胞浸润,减少促炎细胞因子(如IL-1β、IL-17、TNF-α、IFN-γ)及增加抗炎细胞因子(如IL-10、TGF-β)的表达,改善TBI大鼠的感觉、运动功能;这种效应与TNF‑α刺激基因/蛋白6(TNF-α stimulated gene/protein 6,TSG-6)表达增加,下调NF-κB通路有关[37]。进一步研究显示,TSG-6可抑制体内中性粒细胞的迁移,其内在机制为TSG-6与趋化因子CXCL8直接相互作用,拮抗CXCL8结合细胞表面的葡萄糖胺聚糖(glycosaminoglycan,GAG)后介导其向中性粒细胞上G蛋白偶联受体的呈递,抑制趋化因子寡聚化而减少中性粒细胞浸润[38]。另一方面,NETs在有效杀死入侵病原体的同时形成所必需的酶肽基精氨酸脱亚胺酶4,可增加IFN基因刺激蛋白(stimulator of interferon gene,STING)介导的IFN-β产生,增加BBB的通透性,从而促进免疫细胞浸润。因此,阻止NETs形成是MSCs减弱中性粒细胞的毒性作用及发挥免疫调节作用的潜在方法[39]。Magaña-Guerrero等[40]发现,人羊膜MSCs条件培养基与中性粒细胞共培养时,可分泌TSG-6并明显降低线粒体膜电位和减少中性粒细胞ROS生成,从而抑制ROS依赖性NETs释放。近期研究显示,人羊膜MSCs亦可分泌前列腺素E2(prostaglandin E2,PGE2),并通过其受体抑制肽基精氨酸脱亚胺酶-4依赖途径中NETs的释放[41]。此外,TBI发生后数小时内即可诱导中性粒细胞来源的MMP-9表达并降解神经血管单元的结构,也可直接导致BBB通透性增加而加剧炎症反应。在细胞凋亡方面,MSCs可通过细胞直接接触诱导中性粒细胞凋亡,减少NF-κB、MMP-9的释放而减轻损伤程度,但其具体机制尚不清楚[42]。综上可知,MSCs可通过细胞接触和分泌因子的方式介导中性粒细胞抑制,减轻TBI后的神经功能缺损,但目前基于TBI探究MSCs调节中性粒细胞的机制研究较少,相关机制仍有待进一步阐明。
NK细胞是一种可识别、杀死病毒感染细胞的毒性先天免疫细胞。TBI发生后外周血中NK细胞的数量减少,活化的NK细胞释放穿孔素、颗粒酶等毒物质杀伤靶细胞[43]。然而,NK细胞也可发挥细胞毒性和促炎作用,募集中性粒细胞并与其共同损伤BBB,加速脑水肿[44]。研究显示,MSCs是NK细胞的有效抑制剂,能以剂量依赖性的方式抑制NK细胞的增殖并减轻其细胞毒性,进而减轻继发性脑损伤。
MSCs可分泌可溶性因子PGE2抑制NK细胞的毒性。NK细胞可释放IL-1β激活环加氧酶2途径并生成最终产物PGE2,人脐带来源的MSCs与NK细胞密切接触后可引起PGE2大量释放,从而产生更有效的细胞毒性抑制作用[45]。TGF-β是MSCs产生的另一种主要可溶性因子,携带TGF-β和血小板反应蛋白-1(thrombospondin-1,TSP-1)的外泌体可通过诱导下游TGF-β/Smad2/3信号转导抑制NK细胞的增殖,且使用TGF-β中和抗体可恢复其细胞毒性[46]。此外,MSCs来源的吲哚胺2,3-双加氧酶(indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase,IDO)可抑制NK细胞产生IFN-γ,并下调激活的NK细胞受体NKp2、NKp30和NKG44D的表达,进而损伤NK细胞活性[47]。然而,MSCs不仅可改变NK细胞的效应功能,自身也会成为活化NK细胞的靶标。研究显示,MSCs高表达主要组织相容性复合体(MHC)Ⅰ类分子时对NK细胞的易感性降低,可延长在体内的存活时间及发挥更强的免疫抑制作用[48]。MSCs除了分泌可溶性因子介导免疫反应外,细胞间的直接接触也可抑制NK细胞毒性作用。人牙髓干细胞与NK细胞共培养时,可诱导NK细胞过表达CD73,后者可促进ATP水解为腺苷,进而抑制NK细胞的细胞毒性[49]。因此,MSCs可通过降低激活的NK细胞受体表达水平而抑制其活化,削弱NK细胞的毒性作用,从而抑制有害的免疫反应,减轻脑损伤。
小胶质细胞是中枢神经系统的固有免疫细胞,也是急性脑损伤后的第一反应者,具有高度的可塑性,可根据神经系统微环境变化改变细胞表型而发挥环境监视和免疫防御作用,其中M1型小胶质细胞表现为促炎和神经毒性活性,M2型则表现为抗炎和组织修复特性。TBI发生后,小胶质细胞在早期阶段被激活,M2型小胶质细胞在疾病发展进程中数量减少,而NADPH氧化酶2活性增强可驱动M1型小胶质细胞数量增加,并持续产生IL-1β、IL-6、一氧化氮(NO)等炎性介质而诱发慢性炎症,导致继发性脑损伤[50]。在炎症后期阶段,小胶质细胞被激活为抗炎的M2表型,可抑制炎症状态,并作为组织修复剂发挥作用。研究显示,MSCs减缓脑损伤进程的机制在于抑制小胶质细胞活化及促进小胶质细胞向M2表型分化。
在抑制小胶质细胞活化方面,MSCs来源的PGE2可降低BBB的通透性,抑制皮质中小胶质细胞的活化和积累[51];亦可分泌TSG-6,通过抑制NF-κB/丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinase,MAPK)通路减轻活化小胶质细胞诱导的炎症反应[52]。大脑具有高能量消耗的特点,线粒体功能障碍导致的ATP缺乏和ROS增多可加剧脑损伤。一方面,将人脐带MSCs衍生外泌体及从中收获的线粒体进行移植可有效降低小胶质细胞标记物的表达,抑制其过度活化,改善TBI模型动物的运动功能,但具体作用机制和外泌体类型尚未明晰,仍有待进一步研究[53]。另一方面,MSCs调控小胶质细胞向M2表型转化、改善免疫环境是抑制炎症损伤的有效策略。脂肪MSCs衍生外泌体特异性地进入小胶质细胞可抑制NF-κB和P38MAPK蛋白激酶信号转导,使M1型小胶质细胞释放炎性因子减少,并促进小胶质细胞向M2表型转化[54]。近期研究显示,脂肪来源的干细胞通过递送circ-SCMH1诱导小胶质细胞M2型极化,可减轻炎症诱导的海马神经元损伤[55]。以上研究提示,脂肪源性干细胞在免疫调节和体内稳态维持中发挥了重要作用。此外,Wen等[56]发现,骨髓MSCs携带microRNA(miR)-181b的外泌体可通过激活IL-10/STAT3信号通路诱导M2表型转化,增加损伤周围M2小胶质细胞的数量,降低小胶质细胞M1/M2比例,并释放抗炎因子IL-10、TGF-β改善免疫环境,抑制脑组织炎症。
星形胶质细胞是脑中数量最多的细胞类型,负责BBB完整性和神经递质稳态的维持,并与小胶质细胞共同调节炎性因子的表达。TBI发生后,模式识别受体识别DAMPs并导致NF-κB活化,驱动星形胶质细胞激活,使先前活化的小胶质细胞释放IL-1β、TNF和补体成分C1q,诱导星形胶质细胞获得促炎表型[57],并分泌细胞因子、趋化因子促进TBI的炎症反应[58]。然而,有研究显示,活化的小胶质细胞也可促进星形胶质细胞向神经保护表型(A2)分化,从而减少神经元损伤[59];但这两种细胞间的关系仍待进一步研究。此外,星形胶质细胞活化后可产生IL-33,进一步促进小胶质细胞和免疫细胞的募集、活化,从而诱导持续性的神经炎症[60]。近期研究发现,星形胶质细胞活化在TBI中具有破坏性的作用,而抑制活化的星形胶质细胞的促炎状态可明显缓解神经炎症[61]。因此,抑制星形胶质细胞活化对缓解神经炎症及促进组织修复至关重要。
越来越多的证据显示,MSCs可通过抑制星形胶质细胞活化而减轻炎症损伤。Cui等[53]发现,在TBI大鼠脑室内注射脐带MSCs衍生外泌体后,特异性的外泌体表面蛋白CD81、CD63和CD9可下调星形胶质细胞标志物神经胶质纤维酸性蛋白的表达,抑制细胞过度活化,从而减轻胶质瘢痕,促进神经功能恢复;外泌体介导的反应性星形胶质细胞数量减少可能与Nrf2-NF-κB信号通路激活有关,同时降低TNF-α和IL-1β的表达可减轻海马神经的炎症反应[62]。A2星形胶质细胞可释放脑源性神经营养因子(brain-derived neurotrophic factor,BDNF)促进骨髓MSCs外泌体减轻TBI后的炎症反应,抑制神经元凋亡,其内在机制可能与miR-92b-3p、miR-216a-5p等miRNA高表达抑制高迁移率族蛋白B1的表达有关[63]。此外,Tang等[64]发现,在脂多糖处理的星形胶质细胞中,IL-1β、IL-6和TNF-α表达呈上升趋势,而骨髓MSCs分泌的TSG-6可拮抗活化的星形胶质细胞介导的炎症反应,并通过抑制NF-κB信号通路调节活化的星形胶质细胞介导的炎症反应,同时改善BBB的通透性及减轻脑水肿。
T细胞介导的免疫应答是适应性免疫系统的关键组成部分。T细胞包括CD4+和CD8+亚群。TBI发生后,异常的内质网应激导致IFN-β过量释放,并通过分泌促炎趋化因子IP-10作为CXC趋化因子受体3(CXCR3) Th1细胞的配体,刺激T细胞浸润而损伤脑白质[65]。在TBI模型中,CD4+ T细胞先增多后减少,而CD8+ T细胞则呈相反的变化趋势,且活化的CD8+ T细胞可造成长期的神经损伤,进而导致脑功能缺陷[34]。MSCs主要通过抑制T细胞增殖,形成稳定的修复系统抵御病原体并避免有害的免疫反应。
可溶性介质IL-10上调MSCs中白细胞抗原G5的分泌和表达,可抑制T细胞增殖,且有助于Treg细胞的扩增[66]。研究发现,IDO也可介导对T细胞增殖的抑制作用,脐带来源的MSCs在T淋巴细胞释放的IFN-γ的诱导下可分泌IDO诱导T细胞凋亡,并导致细胞周期停滞,从而有效抑制T细胞增殖[67];外泌体也可通过停滞细胞周期来抑制T细胞增殖,其内在机制为上调p27kip1蛋白和下调周期素依赖性激酶2蛋白的表达[68]。此外,脑损伤可导致反应性胶质细胞中程序性死亡配体1(programmed cell death-ligand 1,PD-L1)急性短暂表达,而阻断PD-L1信号可提高浸润至脑组织的T细胞的活性,增加病变体积,加重运动功能缺陷[69]。MSCs分泌富含PD-L1的外泌体,可通过与T细胞表面的PD-1结合抑制T细胞活性,从而可预防TBI后过度的神经免疫反应和神经炎症反应[70]
Treg细胞已被证实可产生IL-10和TGF-β而介导免疫反应。Treg细胞可通过膜结合的TGF-β激活Notch-HES1发挥免疫调节作用,维持免疫稳态[71]。IL-33是对Treg细胞扩增至关重要的细胞因子,有研究发现,TBI发生后使用IL-33治疗可增加脑组织中驻留Treg细胞的数量,同时促进IL-10、TGF-β的释放,从而改善免疫环境,提示Treg细胞增多可减轻脑功能损伤[72]。Treg细胞被认为是平衡免疫环境和改善弥漫性TBI神经功能的潜在靶标,MSCs可促进Treg细胞发挥抗炎作用,涉及细胞间接触、可溶性介质生成及细胞外泌体释放等途径。
外周血MSCs与T淋巴细胞共培养可诱导Treg细胞分化,降低Th17/Treg比例,进而促进Treg抗炎[73]。在TBI大鼠模型中,移植脐带MSCs可抑制介导神经炎症的Th17分化,亦可促进Th17向Treg转分化,维持Th17/Treg的平衡,调节体内微环境,从而修复神经损伤,其机制与TGF-β/Smad3/NF-κB信号通路有关[74]。有研究显示,MSCs源性细胞因子也参与了Treg细胞的增殖分化。MSCs可释放肝细胞生长因子[75];骨髓来源的MSCs可分泌TGF-β,促进完全分化的Th17细胞转化为Treg细胞,明显提高Treg细胞含量,抑制有害的免疫反应[76]。此外,Treg细胞高度表达叉头框蛋白P3(FOXP3)及表面标志物CD25(IL-2受体α链),具有免疫调节和抗炎作用,MSCs源性外泌体磷酸化蛋白酪氨酸激酶3(pJAK3)和信号转导及转录激活因子(STAT)可延长Treg细胞的存活时间,并调节细胞表面FOXP3的表达以增强其免疫抑制作用[77]。综上可知,提高Treg细胞含量、维持Th17/Treg平衡是MSCs调节免疫、治疗脑损伤的潜在方案。
BBB作为血液与大脑之间溶质交换的屏障,可抑制外周免疫细胞进入,并保障营养物质输送和有毒物质去除,在维持大脑稳态方面至关重要。TBI发生时,由于强烈的外部撞击直接导致BBB破坏,免疫细胞透过BBB浸润损伤脑组织,并产生促炎因子、ROS、蛋白水解酶等物质增加BBB的通透性,而屏障紧密性降低又加速了免疫细胞的浸润,从而形成恶性循环[78-79]。BBB破坏可导致微环境稳态失衡,诱导脑血流改变、脑水肿、脑代谢失衡及炎性因子累积等病理反应,加重脑损伤[80]。因此,修复BBB可有效减轻脑损伤,促进神经功能恢复。
毛细血管内皮及细胞间紧密连接、星形胶质细胞脚板等形成的屏障限制功能与BBB通透性密切相关。一方面,MMP是催化细胞外基质降解的主要酶,MSCs释放的可溶性MMP-3组织抑制剂可通过直接结合血管内皮生长因子受体2(vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2,VEGFR2)来抑制血管内皮生长因子A(vascular endothelial growth factor A,VEGF-A)诱导的内皮细胞间紧密连接的分解,从而降低BBB的通透性[81]。由于VEGF可促进血管通透性增加,所以,Li等[82]采用从骨髓MSCs分离获取的细胞外囊泡干预脑损伤,发现BBB完整性、神经功能缺陷均得到改善,其内在机制可能为抑制VEGF-A和MMP-9的活性,并提高闭锁小带蛋白-1、紧密连接闭合蛋白的表达水平。另一方面,细胞间紧密连接的破坏导致细胞旁通透性明显增加,进而加重脑损伤,而MSCs可增强血管内皮钙黏蛋白和β-连环蛋白的相互作用,有助于降低BBB的通透性[83]。此外,骨髓MSCs分泌的TSG-6可抑制NF-κB信号通路,降低MMP-9和内皮型一氧化氮合酶的含量,上调紧密连接组分闭合蛋白、闭锁小带蛋白-1的表达,降低BBB的通透性[64]。值得一提的是,BBB的构成者星形胶质细胞中水通道蛋白4(aquaporin 4,AQP4)的表达与脑水肿密切相关。有研究显示,AQP4的异常表达与TBI的进展相关,抑制星形胶质细胞MMP-9/AQP4轴是治疗TBI的有效靶点[84]。Datta等[85]以动脉内输注MSCs治疗,调控蛋白激酶Cδ以降低AQP4的表达,结果显示其可减轻BBB损伤和血源性水肿,增强神经保护作用。此外,立体定向移植脂肪来源的MSCs可激活丝裂原活化蛋白激酶通路,降低AQP4的表达水平,减少细胞凋亡,减轻脑水肿,从而保护神经组织,提示星形胶质细胞中AQP4表达降低更有利于保持BBB功能的完整性[86]
综上所述,MSCs可抑制小胶质细胞、星形胶质细胞、T淋巴细胞的活化,从而减少促炎细胞因子的表达,同时可促进M2型小胶质细胞、Treg等抗炎细胞的增殖和活化,并能调节中性粒细胞、抑制NK细胞毒性、修复BBB完整性,从而发挥免疫调节作用,改善脑功能(图1)。
TBI是全球范围内多发且致残率、病死率较高的机械性损伤,造成了沉重的公共卫生负担。MSCs可通过细胞间接触或旁分泌途径减少中性粒细胞浸润,抑制小胶质细胞、星形胶质细胞活化,抑制NK细胞毒性,抑制T淋巴细胞增殖及提高Treg细胞数量,介导免疫调控作用,避免过度免疫防御引起的神经炎性损伤;也可重塑BBB的完整性,减轻脑水肿,缩小病变体积,进而改善脑损伤的预后。因此,MSCs的免疫调节作用有望用于TBI的治疗,具有广阔的应用前景。然而,MSCs的应用仍存在诸多挑战,其中移植干细胞的存活率低是其主要障碍。研究显示,通过静脉输注的MSCs积累在肺部且存活时间较短,只有极少数MSCs到达靶点发挥作用,而单核细胞吞噬MSCs可导致输注的MSCs被快速清除[87]。此外,MSCs具有强大的可塑性,不同实验中输注时间、剂量和途径不同导致的差异也是需要解决的难题,未来可建立标准化的操作方法以保证MSCs的治疗效果。再者,尽管MSCs治疗TBI的有效性已得到验证,但相关机制特别是先天性免疫的免疫调节研究还不充分,且多停留在基础研究探索阶段,仍有待进一步的临床转化。因此,未来仍需开展大量基础和高质量临床对照试验以探讨MSCs免疫调控治疗TBI的作用机制,推动MSCs早日应用于临床治疗。
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doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0020.2024.0726
  • 接收时间:2024-01-06
  • 首发时间:2025-11-20
  • 出版时间:2024-11-28
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  • 收稿日期:2024-01-06
  • 录用日期:2024-03-28
基金
Central Plains Talent Program of Central Plains Youth Top Talent Project (Yu Zu Tong [2021] 44)
中原英才计划中原青年拔尖人才项目(豫组通[2021]44号)
Henan Province TCM Top Talent Training Project Special Topic(2022ZYBJ15)
河南省中医药拔尖人才培养项目专项课题(2022ZYBJ15)
作者信息
    1河南中医药大学康复医学院,河南郑州 450046
    2河南中医药大学第二附属医院康复医学科,河南郑州 450000

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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