Article(id=1190669171668172812, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1190669163988398295, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0506.2025.0328, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1742313600000, receivedDateStr=2025-03-19, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1742486400000, acceptedDateStr=2025-03-21, onlineDate=1761807252088, onlineDateStr=2025-10-30, pubDate=1745769600000, pubDateStr=2025-04-28, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1761807252088, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-10-30, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1761807252088, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1761807252088, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1190669163988398295, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, year='2025', volume='50', issue='4', pageStart='367', pageEnd='503', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=0, createTime=1761807250258, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1761807667423, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1190670913772339410, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1190669163988398295, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1190670913772339411, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1190669163988398295, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=367, endPage=386, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1190669171886276622, articleId=1190669171668172812, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, language=EN, title=Chinese guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of heatstroke (2025 edition), columnId=1190310109461971339, journalTitle=Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, columnName=Guideline and Consensus, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

In recent years, the incidence and mortality of heatstroke have been increasing annually alongside global warming, with a marked rise in cases exhibiting atypical symptoms. To address the increasingly complex challenges in heatstroke prevention and treatment, Heatstroke Prevention and Treatment Research Center of Chinese PLA, Expert Group of Heatstroke Prevention and Treatment of Chinese PLA, and Chinese PLA Professional Committee of Critical Care Medicine have jointly developed this guideline (2025 edition). Utilizing the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) system, Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation (AGREE) criteria, and Reporting Items for Practice Guidelines in Healthcare (RIGHT) standards, and based on the 2015 draft "Expert Consensus on the Standardized Diagnosis and Treatment of Heatstroke" and the 2019 "Chinese Expert Consensus on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Heatstroke", this guideline has been crafted. This guideline provides 25 evidence-based recommendations to guide the prevention, treatment and research of heatstroke, which thoroughly covers 8 critical domains: clinical classification, pathophysiological mechanisms, clinical manifestations, diagnostic criteria, differential diagnosis, treatment protocols, rehabilitation and return to work, and prevention.

, correspAuthors=Jing-Chun Song, Qing Song, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
Song Jing-Chun, E-mail:
Song Qing, E-mail:
, copyrightStatement=null, copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Jing-Chun Song, Qing Song, Wei Zhang, Wei-Qin Li, Xi-Jing Zhang, Shu-Yuan Liu, Yan Gao, Hai-Ling Li, Heatstroke Prevention and Treatment Research Center of Chinese PLA, Expert Group of Heatstroke Prevention and Treatment of Chinese PLA, and Chinese PLA Professional Committee of Critical Care Medicine), CN=ArticleExt(id=1190669312017973706, articleId=1190669171668172812, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, language=CN, title=中国热射病诊断与治疗指南(2025版), columnId=1190310109688463760, journalTitle=解放军医学杂志, columnName=指南与共识, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

近年来,随着气候变暖,热射病的发生率和死亡率均逐年增高,且具有不典型症状的热射病发病数明显增加。为了应对日益复杂的热射病防控形势,全军热射病防治与研究中心、全军热射病防治专家组和全军重症医学专业委员会采用推荐意见分级评价、制定与评估系统(GRADE),临床指南研究与评估标准(AGREE)以及国际实践指南报告标准(RIGHT),基于2015版《热射病规范化诊断与治疗专家共识(草案)》和2019版《中国热射病诊断与治疗专家共识》制定本指南。指南针对热射病的分型、病理生理机制、临床表现、诊断标准、鉴别诊断、治疗生命链、康复返岗和预防等8个方面,提出了25条推荐意见,以指导热射病的防治与研究工作。

, correspAuthors=宋景春, 宋青, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
宋景春,E-mail:
宋青,E-mail:
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绿色框和绿色线条代表热适应的生理改变,蓝色框和蓝色线条代表热射病的病理生理机制,蓝色框内的红色字体代表热射病相关的疾病诊断

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DIC. 弥散性血管性凝血

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GRADE system for grading the quality of evidence and evaluating recommendations

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
证据把握度级别 定义
证据等级
高(A) 非常有把握,观察值接近真实值
中(B) 对观察值有中等把握,观察值有可能接近真实值,也有可能差别很大
低(C) 对观察值把握有限,观察值与真实值可能有很大差别
极低(D) 对观察值几乎没有把握,观察值与真实值可能有很大差别
推荐强度
强推荐(Ⅰ) 明确显示干预措施利大于弊,或弊大于利
弱推荐(Ⅱ) 利弊不确定,或无论质量高低的证据均显示利弊相当
), ArticleFig(id=1190682908231873294, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1190669171668172812, language=CN, label=表1, caption=

推荐意见分级评价、制定与评估系统证据质量等级

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
证据把握度级别 定义
证据等级
高(A) 非常有把握,观察值接近真实值
中(B) 对观察值有中等把握,观察值有可能接近真实值,也有可能差别很大
低(C) 对观察值把握有限,观察值与真实值可能有很大差别
极低(D) 对观察值几乎没有把握,观察值与真实值可能有很大差别
推荐强度
强推荐(Ⅰ) 明确显示干预措施利大于弊,或弊大于利
弱推荐(Ⅱ) 利弊不确定,或无论质量高低的证据均显示利弊相当
), ArticleFig(id=1190682908345119503, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1190669171668172812, language=EN, label=Tab.2, caption=

Classification of heat-related illness (HRS)

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临床状况 严重程度 定义 症状和体征
热疹 轻度 由于过度出汗导致汗腺堵塞 出现皮疹、炎症、感染
热水肿 轻度 由于外周血管扩张和间质液体积聚引起的四肢肿胀 在热环境中久坐导致的四肢(通常是下肢)肿胀
热痉挛 轻度 在热环境中运动时由于液体和电解质耗竭引起的疼痛性肌肉痉挛 疼痛性肌肉收缩,受影响的肌肉僵硬且触诊时有压痛
热晕厥 中度 热环境导致血管内容量不足,在体位改变时发生眩晕或晕厥 全身无力、体位性晕厥,一旦平躺迅速恢复
热衰竭 中度 由于体液大量丢失导致心输出量减少 疲劳、恶心、呕吐、头痛、眩晕、焦虑、大量出汗,但意识状态正常
热射病 重度 极高的核心体温(>40 ℃)和中枢神经系统功能障碍 意识状态改变、癫痫发作、昏迷、多系统器官衰竭
), ArticleFig(id=1190682908449977104, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1190669171668172812, language=CN, label=表2, caption=

热相关疾病(HRS)的分类

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
临床状况 严重程度 定义 症状和体征
热疹 轻度 由于过度出汗导致汗腺堵塞 出现皮疹、炎症、感染
热水肿 轻度 由于外周血管扩张和间质液体积聚引起的四肢肿胀 在热环境中久坐导致的四肢(通常是下肢)肿胀
热痉挛 轻度 在热环境中运动时由于液体和电解质耗竭引起的疼痛性肌肉痉挛 疼痛性肌肉收缩,受影响的肌肉僵硬且触诊时有压痛
热晕厥 中度 热环境导致血管内容量不足,在体位改变时发生眩晕或晕厥 全身无力、体位性晕厥,一旦平躺迅速恢复
热衰竭 中度 由于体液大量丢失导致心输出量减少 疲劳、恶心、呕吐、头痛、眩晕、焦虑、大量出汗,但意识状态正常
热射病 重度 极高的核心体温(>40 ℃)和中枢神经系统功能障碍 意识状态改变、癫痫发作、昏迷、多系统器官衰竭
), ArticleFig(id=1190682908563223313, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1190669171668172812, language=EN, label=Tab.3, caption=

Risk factors for heatstroke

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
因素 举例
环境因素 高温、高湿环境(热浪、桑拿等)、缺乏空调
个体因素 运动过度、着装过多、高龄、肥胖、饮酒、未经热习服、儿童、遗传因素(钙结合蛋白1、肉碱棕榈酰转移酶Ⅱ)
社会因素 风险职业(军人、消防员、运动员、高温环境作业、户外工作)、强烈求胜的动机、流浪者、独居
共病 烧伤、脱水、腹泻、感染、糖尿病、神经系统疾病、呼吸系统疾病、认知障碍、心脏病、心理障碍、汗腺功能障碍、吸毒史
药物治疗 非甾体类解热镇痛药、抗胆碱能药物、抗精神病药、β受体阻滞剂、利尿剂、甲状腺药物、抗组胺药、抗帕金森病药、钙通道阻滞剂、泻药、三环类抗抑郁药、锂剂
), ArticleFig(id=1190682908680663826, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1190669171668172812, language=CN, label=表3, caption=

热射病的危险因素

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
因素 举例
环境因素 高温、高湿环境(热浪、桑拿等)、缺乏空调
个体因素 运动过度、着装过多、高龄、肥胖、饮酒、未经热习服、儿童、遗传因素(钙结合蛋白1、肉碱棕榈酰转移酶Ⅱ)
社会因素 风险职业(军人、消防员、运动员、高温环境作业、户外工作)、强烈求胜的动机、流浪者、独居
共病 烧伤、脱水、腹泻、感染、糖尿病、神经系统疾病、呼吸系统疾病、认知障碍、心脏病、心理障碍、汗腺功能障碍、吸毒史
药物治疗 非甾体类解热镇痛药、抗胆碱能药物、抗精神病药、β受体阻滞剂、利尿剂、甲状腺药物、抗组胺药、抗帕金森病药、钙通道阻滞剂、泻药、三环类抗抑郁药、锂剂
), ArticleFig(id=1190682908877796115, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1190669171668172812, language=EN, label=Tab.4, caption=

Laboratory monitoring indicators and frequency for heatstroke patients

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
项目 监测指标 频次
血常规 白细胞计数、中性粒细胞百分比、淋巴细胞计数、血小板计数、血红蛋白、血细胞比容 1~2次/d,出血者检查频次视病情而定
心肌标志物 肌钙蛋白、B型钠尿肽 1次/d
横纹肌溶解 肌酸激酶、肌红蛋白 1次/d
凝血功能 凝血酶原时间(PT)、活化部分凝血活酶时间(APTT)、D-二聚体、纤维蛋白原 早期1次/6 h,直至指标稳定
血栓弹力图(TEG),或凝血与血小板功能分析仪 早期1~2次/d,直至指标稳定
凝血酶-抗凝血酶复合物(TAT)、纤溶酶-α 2纤溶酶抑制物复合物(PIC) 早期1~2次/d,直至指标稳定
血管内皮功能 血栓调节蛋白(TM)、组织纤溶酶原激活物/纤溶酶原激活物抑制剂-1复合物(t-PAIC) 早期1次/d,直至指标稳定
肾功能 肌酐 1次/d
肝功能 谷丙转氨酶(ALT)、谷草转氨酶(AST)、总胆红素 早期2次/d,直至指标稳定
炎性指标 C反应蛋白(CRP)、白细胞介素-6(IL-6) 1次/d
电解质 钾、钠、氯、钙 1~2次/d,依异常情况增加频次
血糖 葡萄糖 1次/4 h,直至指标稳定
动脉血气 pH值、动脉血氧分压(PaO 2)、动脉血二氧化碳分压(PaCO 2)、碳酸氢根、碱剩余、血乳酸 1次/4 h,直至指标稳定
感染指标 降钙素原(PCT) 1次/d
病原学 血液培养 持续高热或可疑感染者
), ArticleFig(id=1190682908986848020, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1190669171668172812, language=CN, label=表4, caption=

热射病患者的实验室监测指标及频次

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
项目 监测指标 频次
血常规 白细胞计数、中性粒细胞百分比、淋巴细胞计数、血小板计数、血红蛋白、血细胞比容 1~2次/d,出血者检查频次视病情而定
心肌标志物 肌钙蛋白、B型钠尿肽 1次/d
横纹肌溶解 肌酸激酶、肌红蛋白 1次/d
凝血功能 凝血酶原时间(PT)、活化部分凝血活酶时间(APTT)、D-二聚体、纤维蛋白原 早期1次/6 h,直至指标稳定
血栓弹力图(TEG),或凝血与血小板功能分析仪 早期1~2次/d,直至指标稳定
凝血酶-抗凝血酶复合物(TAT)、纤溶酶-α 2纤溶酶抑制物复合物(PIC) 早期1~2次/d,直至指标稳定
血管内皮功能 血栓调节蛋白(TM)、组织纤溶酶原激活物/纤溶酶原激活物抑制剂-1复合物(t-PAIC) 早期1次/d,直至指标稳定
肾功能 肌酐 1次/d
肝功能 谷丙转氨酶(ALT)、谷草转氨酶(AST)、总胆红素 早期2次/d,直至指标稳定
炎性指标 C反应蛋白(CRP)、白细胞介素-6(IL-6) 1次/d
电解质 钾、钠、氯、钙 1~2次/d,依异常情况增加频次
血糖 葡萄糖 1次/4 h,直至指标稳定
动脉血气 pH值、动脉血氧分压(PaO 2)、动脉血二氧化碳分压(PaCO 2)、碳酸氢根、碱剩余、血乳酸 1次/4 h,直至指标稳定
感染指标 降钙素原(PCT) 1次/d
病原学 血液培养 持续高热或可疑感染者
), ArticleFig(id=1190682909133648661, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1190669171668172812, language=EN, label=Tab.5, caption=

Diagnostic criteria for heatstroke in China

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
项目 内容
病史信息 (1)暴露于高温、高湿环境
(2)高强度运动
临床表现 (3)中枢神经系统功能障碍表现(如昏迷、抽搐、谵妄、行为异常等)
(4)核心体温>40 ℃
(5)多器官(≥2个)功能损伤表现(循环、肝、肾、横纹肌、胃肠、肺等)
(6)严重凝血功能障碍或DIC
诊断 具备(1)(2)中任一条,和(3)(4)(5)(6)中任一条,且不能用其他原因解释时,可诊断为热射病
), ArticleFig(id=1190682909242700566, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1190669171668172812, language=CN, label=表5, caption=

中国热射病诊断标准

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
项目 内容
病史信息 (1)暴露于高温、高湿环境
(2)高强度运动
临床表现 (3)中枢神经系统功能障碍表现(如昏迷、抽搐、谵妄、行为异常等)
(4)核心体温>40 ℃
(5)多器官(≥2个)功能损伤表现(循环、肝、肾、横纹肌、胃肠、肺等)
(6)严重凝血功能障碍或DIC
诊断 具备(1)(2)中任一条,和(3)(4)(5)(6)中任一条,且不能用其他原因解释时,可诊断为热射病
), ArticleFig(id=1190682909347558167, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1190669171668172812, language=EN, label=Tab.6, caption=

Comparison of classic heat stroke (CHS) and exertional heat stroke (EHS)

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
对比维度 相同点 不同点
CHS EHS
发病机制 因体温调节失衡引发多器官损伤 (1)体温调节功能退化;(2)散热障碍(如高温封闭环境、穿衣过多) (1)高强度活动导致产热激增;(2)散热不足(高温、高湿环境)
易感人群 存在高温暴露史 老年人(尤其合并基础疾病者)、体弱/长期卧床者 青壮年(运动员、建筑工人、消防员和户外作业者)
临床表现 出现中枢神经系统障碍和器官功能损伤 起病隐匿,进展慢;意识模糊、皮肤干热、少汗,易导致心力衰竭 突发急症,进展快;高热、抽搐、横纹肌溶解
诊断要点 需有高热和器官损伤

(1)高温封闭环境;(2)老年/体弱群体;

(3)排除脑卒中等其他病因

(1)高强度体力活动史;(2)青壮年群体;

(3)横纹肌溶解(CK>5000 U/L)

治疗原则

需30 min内将核心体温降至

<39 ℃;避免使用退热药

(1)降温(物理降温联合液体治疗);(2)基础疾病管理;(3)预防并发症 (1)快速降温(优先冷水浸泡);(2)纠正电解质紊乱;(3)器官支持
预后特点 可能遗留神经系统后遗症;早期干预可明显降低病死率 病死率高达30%~70%(因基础疾病叠加) 病死率为5%~30%(及时救治可改善)
), ArticleFig(id=1190682909448221464, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1190669171668172812, language=CN, label=表6, caption=

CHS与EHS比较

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
对比维度 相同点 不同点
CHS EHS
发病机制 因体温调节失衡引发多器官损伤 (1)体温调节功能退化;(2)散热障碍(如高温封闭环境、穿衣过多) (1)高强度活动导致产热激增;(2)散热不足(高温、高湿环境)
易感人群 存在高温暴露史 老年人(尤其合并基础疾病者)、体弱/长期卧床者 青壮年(运动员、建筑工人、消防员和户外作业者)
临床表现 出现中枢神经系统障碍和器官功能损伤 起病隐匿,进展慢;意识模糊、皮肤干热、少汗,易导致心力衰竭 突发急症,进展快;高热、抽搐、横纹肌溶解
诊断要点 需有高热和器官损伤

(1)高温封闭环境;(2)老年/体弱群体;

(3)排除脑卒中等其他病因

(1)高强度体力活动史;(2)青壮年群体;

(3)横纹肌溶解(CK>5000 U/L)

治疗原则

需30 min内将核心体温降至

<39 ℃;避免使用退热药

(1)降温(物理降温联合液体治疗);(2)基础疾病管理;(3)预防并发症 (1)快速降温(优先冷水浸泡);(2)纠正电解质紊乱;(3)器官支持
预后特点 可能遗留神经系统后遗症;早期干预可明显降低病死率 病死率高达30%~70%(因基础疾病叠加) 病死率为5%~30%(及时救治可改善)
), ArticleFig(id=1190682909536301849, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1190669171668172812, language=EN, label=Tab.7, caption=

HIC diagnostic score system

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
积分 最高核心体温(℃) D-二聚体(μg/ml) PT延长值(s)
0分 <40.0 <1.0 <2
1分 40.0~42.0 1.0~2.5 2~4
2分 ≥42.0 ≥2.5 ≥4
), ArticleFig(id=1190682909649548058, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1190669171668172812, language=CN, label=表7, caption=

HIC诊断评分系统

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
积分 最高核心体温(℃) D-二聚体(μg/ml) PT延长值(s)
0分 <40.0 <1.0 <2
1分 40.0~42.0 1.0~2.5 2~4
2分 ≥42.0 ≥2.5 ≥4
), ArticleFig(id=1190682909746017051, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1190669171668172812, language=EN, label=Tab.8, caption=

Heatstroke severity scoring system (HSSS)

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
评分

核心体温

(℃)

氧合指数

(mmHg)

血小板计数

(×109/L)

胆红素

(μmol/L)

血压 血乳酸(mmol/L)

GCS

(分)

肌酐(μmol/L)或尿量(ml/d)
1分 39.1~40.0 >300(氧疗) <140 21~42 MAP<70 mmHg 2.1~4.0 10~14 肌酐100~160或尿量<800
2分 40.1~41.0 <300(机械通气) <100 43~101 多巴胺≤5 μg/(kg.min)或多巴酚丁胺(无论剂量) 4.1~8.0 7~9 肌酐161~250或尿量<400
3分 41.1~42.0 <200(机械通气) <50 102~204 去甲肾上腺素≤0.1 μg/(kg.min)或肾上腺素≤0.1 μg/(kg.min)或多巴胺>5 μg/(kg.min) 8.1~10.0 5~6 肌酐251~400或尿量<100
4分 >42.0 <100(机械通气) <20 >204 去甲肾上腺素>0.1 μg/(kg.min) 或肾上腺素>0.1 μg/(kg.min)或多巴胺>15 μg/(kg.min) >10.0 <5 肌酐>400或无尿
), ArticleFig(id=1190682909846680348, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1190669171668172812, language=CN, label=表8, caption=

热射病的危重程度评分系统(HSSS)

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
评分

核心体温

(℃)

氧合指数

(mmHg)

血小板计数

(×109/L)

胆红素

(μmol/L)

血压 血乳酸(mmol/L)

GCS

(分)

肌酐(μmol/L)或尿量(ml/d)
1分 39.1~40.0 >300(氧疗) <140 21~42 MAP<70 mmHg 2.1~4.0 10~14 肌酐100~160或尿量<800
2分 40.1~41.0 <300(机械通气) <100 43~101 多巴胺≤5 μg/(kg.min)或多巴酚丁胺(无论剂量) 4.1~8.0 7~9 肌酐161~250或尿量<400
3分 41.1~42.0 <200(机械通气) <50 102~204 去甲肾上腺素≤0.1 μg/(kg.min)或肾上腺素≤0.1 μg/(kg.min)或多巴胺>5 μg/(kg.min) 8.1~10.0 5~6 肌酐251~400或尿量<100
4分 >42.0 <100(机械通气) <20 >204 去甲肾上腺素>0.1 μg/(kg.min) 或肾上腺素>0.1 μg/(kg.min)或多巴胺>15 μg/(kg.min) >10.0 <5 肌酐>400或无尿
), ArticleFig(id=1190682910031229725, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1190669171668172812, language=EN, label=Tab.9, caption=

Alternative treatments for heatstroke patients with high bleeding risk or active bleeding

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
治疗目的 启动指征 替代措施
补充凝血因子 PT或APTT延长>1.5倍;或TEG R时间>15 min;或凝血与血小板功能分析ACT>240 s 新鲜冰冻血浆(10~15 ml/kg)或四因子凝血酶原复合物(10~15 U/kg)[92]
补充纤维蛋白原 纤维蛋白原<1.5 g/L;或TEG功能纤维蛋白原检测指标FFMA<10 mm;或凝血与血小板功能分析CR<10

冷沉淀(10 ml/kg)或人纤维蛋白原

(30~50 mg/kg)[108]

补充血小板 非出血的热射病患者血小板计数<20×109/L 机采血小板1~2个治疗量[109- 110]
发生活动性出血且血小板计数<50×109/L
TEG-MA<43 mm且纤维蛋白原>1 g/L
凝血与血小板功能分析PF<1
补充rhⅦa

经积极替代治疗仍无法有效止血,且凝血指标呈现明显低凝状态。

使用前需满足以下条件:(1)酸中毒、低体温和低钙血症已经纠正;(2)血细胞比容>24%,血小板计数>50×109/L,纤维蛋白原>1.5 g/L

初始剂量为100 μg/kg,视出血情况可以2 h为间隔继续追加rhⅦa 50 μg/kg。根据出血情况和凝血检测结果酌情停药[111]
), ArticleFig(id=1190682910165447454, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, articleId=1190669171668172812, language=CN, label=表9, caption=

高出血风险或活动性出血的热射病患者的替代治疗

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
治疗目的 启动指征 替代措施
补充凝血因子 PT或APTT延长>1.5倍;或TEG R时间>15 min;或凝血与血小板功能分析ACT>240 s 新鲜冰冻血浆(10~15 ml/kg)或四因子凝血酶原复合物(10~15 U/kg)[92]
补充纤维蛋白原 纤维蛋白原<1.5 g/L;或TEG功能纤维蛋白原检测指标FFMA<10 mm;或凝血与血小板功能分析CR<10

冷沉淀(10 ml/kg)或人纤维蛋白原

(30~50 mg/kg)[108]

补充血小板 非出血的热射病患者血小板计数<20×109/L 机采血小板1~2个治疗量[109- 110]
发生活动性出血且血小板计数<50×109/L
TEG-MA<43 mm且纤维蛋白原>1 g/L
凝血与血小板功能分析PF<1
补充rhⅦa

经积极替代治疗仍无法有效止血,且凝血指标呈现明显低凝状态。

使用前需满足以下条件:(1)酸中毒、低体温和低钙血症已经纠正;(2)血细胞比容>24%,血小板计数>50×109/L,纤维蛋白原>1.5 g/L

初始剂量为100 μg/kg,视出血情况可以2 h为间隔继续追加rhⅦa 50 μg/kg。根据出血情况和凝血检测结果酌情停药[111]
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中国热射病诊断与治疗指南(2025版)
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宋景春 1, * , 宋青 2, * , 张伟 3 , 李维勤 4 , 张西京 5 , 刘树元 6 , 高燕 7 , 李海玲 8 , 全军热射病防治与研究中心 , 全军热射病防治专家组 , 全军重症医学专业委员会
解放军医学杂志 | 指南与共识 2025,50(4): 367-386
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解放军医学杂志 | 指南与共识 2025, 50(4): 367-386
中国热射病诊断与治疗指南(2025版)
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宋景春1, * , 宋青2, * , 张伟3, 李维勤4, 张西京5, 刘树元6, 高燕7, 李海玲8, 全军热射病防治与研究中心, 全军热射病防治专家组, 全军重症医学专业委员会
作者信息
  • 1解放军联勤保障部队第908医院重症医学科,江西南昌 330002
  • 2解放军总医院海南医院重症医学科,海南三亚 572010
  • 3解放军联勤保障部队第900医院急诊科,福建福州 350002
  • 4东部战区总医院重症医学科,江苏南京 210002
  • 5空军军医大学西京医院重症医学科,陕西西安 710032
  • 6解放军总医院第六医学中心急诊医学科,北京 100037
  • 7北部战区总医院急诊科,辽宁沈阳 110016
  • 8海军第971医院重症医学科,山东青岛 266001

通讯作者:

宋景春,E-mail:
宋青,E-mail:
Chinese guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of heatstroke (2025 edition)
Jing-Chun Song1, * , Qing Song2, * , Wei Zhang3, Wei-Qin Li4, Xi-Jing Zhang5, Shu-Yuan Liu6, Yan Gao7, Hai-Ling Li8, Heatstroke Prevention and Treatment Research Center of Chinese PLA, Expert Group of Heatstroke Prevention and Treatment of Chinese PLA, and Chinese PLA Professional Committee of Critical Care Medicine
Affiliations
  • 1Department of Critical Care Medicine, the 908th Hospital of Joint Logistic Support Forces of Chinese PLA, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330002, China
  • 2Department of Critical Care Medicine, Hainan Hospital of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Sanya, Hainan 572010, China
  • 3Department of Emergency Medicine, the 900th Hospital of Joint Logistic Support Forces of Chinese PLA, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002, China
  • 4Department of Critical Care Medicine, General Hospital of Eastern Theater Command, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210002, China
  • 5Department of Critical Care Medicine, Xijing Hospital of Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710032, China
  • 6Department of Emergency Medicine, the Sixth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100037, China
  • 7Department of Emergency Medicine, General Hospital of Northern Theater Command, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, China
  • 8Department of Critical Care Medicine, the 971st Hospital of PLA Navy, Qingdao, Shandong 266001, China
出版时间: 2025-04-28 doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0506.2025.0328
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近年来,随着气候变暖,热射病的发生率和死亡率均逐年增高,且具有不典型症状的热射病发病数明显增加。为了应对日益复杂的热射病防控形势,全军热射病防治与研究中心、全军热射病防治专家组和全军重症医学专业委员会采用推荐意见分级评价、制定与评估系统(GRADE),临床指南研究与评估标准(AGREE)以及国际实践指南报告标准(RIGHT),基于2015版《热射病规范化诊断与治疗专家共识(草案)》和2019版《中国热射病诊断与治疗专家共识》制定本指南。指南针对热射病的分型、病理生理机制、临床表现、诊断标准、鉴别诊断、治疗生命链、康复返岗和预防等8个方面,提出了25条推荐意见,以指导热射病的防治与研究工作。

热射病  /  经典型  /  劳力型  /  诊断  /  生命链  /  热习服  /  重返岗位

In recent years, the incidence and mortality of heatstroke have been increasing annually alongside global warming, with a marked rise in cases exhibiting atypical symptoms. To address the increasingly complex challenges in heatstroke prevention and treatment, Heatstroke Prevention and Treatment Research Center of Chinese PLA, Expert Group of Heatstroke Prevention and Treatment of Chinese PLA, and Chinese PLA Professional Committee of Critical Care Medicine have jointly developed this guideline (2025 edition). Utilizing the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) system, Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation (AGREE) criteria, and Reporting Items for Practice Guidelines in Healthcare (RIGHT) standards, and based on the 2015 draft "Expert Consensus on the Standardized Diagnosis and Treatment of Heatstroke" and the 2019 "Chinese Expert Consensus on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Heatstroke", this guideline has been crafted. This guideline provides 25 evidence-based recommendations to guide the prevention, treatment and research of heatstroke, which thoroughly covers 8 critical domains: clinical classification, pathophysiological mechanisms, clinical manifestations, diagnostic criteria, differential diagnosis, treatment protocols, rehabilitation and return to work, and prevention.

heatstroke  /  classic type  /  exertional type  /  diagnosis  /  life chain  /  heat acclimation  /  return to work
宋景春, 宋青, 张伟, 李维勤, 张西京, 刘树元, 高燕, 李海玲, 全军热射病防治与研究中心, 全军热射病防治专家组, 全军重症医学专业委员会. 中国热射病诊断与治疗指南(2025版). 解放军医学杂志, 2025 , 50 (4) : 367 -386 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0506.2025.0328
Jing-Chun Song, Qing Song, Wei Zhang, Wei-Qin Li, Xi-Jing Zhang, Shu-Yuan Liu, Yan Gao, Hai-Ling Li, Heatstroke Prevention and Treatment Research Center of Chinese PLA, Expert Group of Heatstroke Prevention and Treatment of Chinese PLA, and Chinese PLA Professional Committee of Critical Care Medicine. Chinese guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of heatstroke (2025 edition)[J]. Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, 2025 , 50 (4) : 367 -386 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0506.2025.0328
热射病是由热损伤因素作用于机体引起的可致死性疾病[1]。随着全球气候持续变暖和气温不断升高,热射病的发病率和病死率也明显增高[2]。有研究显示,2017-2021年热相关疾病(heat-related illness,HRS)导致全球65岁以上死亡人数比2000-2004年期间升高68%[3],超过所有自然灾害导致的死亡总和[4]。为了规范热射病的诊疗技术,全军重症医学专业委员会于2015年发布了《热射病规范化诊断与治疗专家共识(草案)》[5],全军热射病防治专家组于2019年发布了《中国热射病诊断与治疗专家共识》[6]。为了应对日益复杂的热射病防控形势及综合热射病防治的最近进展,全军热射病防治与研究中心、全军热射病防治专家组与全军重症医学专业委员会组织专家根据现有的证据,梳理常见的关键问题,共同制定了《中国热射病诊断与治疗指南(2025版)》,以期提高热射病的防治与研究水平。
本指南遵循国际循证临床实践指南的制订标准,使用推荐意见分级评价、制定和评估(grading of recommendations,assessment,development,and evaluations,GRADE)系统进行证据质量评估,由全军热射病防治专家组专家根据证据现状、可接受度及可行性等因素投票表决,并形成临床问题、推荐意见和实施建议[7]。本指南的制订过程主要参考临床指南研究与评估(appraisal of guidelines,research and evaluation,AGREE)评价标准[8]并遵循卫生保健实践指南报告清单(reporting items for practice guidelines in healthcare,RIGHT)[9]。所有的临床专家和方法学家均向指南工作组报告了个人潜在的利益冲突(包含经济和学术方面的潜在利益冲突),指南工作组审核后确认所有临床专家组成员和方法学家均无利益冲突,可参与本指南的制订过程。
本指南推荐意见的应用对象为疑似或确诊为热射病的患者;使用者主要是各级医疗机构急诊医学、重症医学、神经病学、血液病学及其他内科临床医师,部队基层卫生人员,医学应急救援人员,以及训练或竞赛现场医疗保障人员。
参与本指南制定的临床专家组成员根据对临床实践有重要影响且有证据可用的情况,按照患者、干预、比较和结果(PICO)制定问题。特别关注的人群为热射病患者,而不是HRS(如热衰竭、热晕厥等)患者。在PICO问题最终确定后,由医学图书管理员使用数据库检索相关文献,英文数据库包括PubMed、Embase、Web of Science和Cochrane Library,中文数据库包括中国知网、万方数据库、中国生物医学文献数据库、维普数据库。检索时间范围为自数据库建立至2024年12月31日。本指南优先纳入随机对照试验(randomized controlled trial,RCT),当缺乏RCT研究证据时,补充纳入观察性研究。采用RevMan 5.3软件对检索出的文献进行Meta分析,对于不能开展Meta分析的研究进行描述性总结。使用GRADEpro软件将证据质量划分为高(A)、中(B)、低(C)和极低(D)4个等级,通过投票表决采纳超过80%通过率的推荐意见[10]。具体证据级别与推荐强度见 表1
推荐意见1:应根据病史和临床特点对HRS进行分型诊断(推荐强度,证据等级C)
热损伤因素作用于机体,可引起一系列病理生理变化,统称为HRS。按照病情由轻到重,HRS可分为热疹、热水肿、热痉挛、热晕厥、热衰竭和热射病[11](表2)。热射病是因暴露于热环境和(或)剧烈运动所致的机体产热与散热失衡,以核心体温>40 ℃和中枢神经系统异常(如精神状态改变、抽搐或昏迷)为典型特征,并伴有多器官损伤的可致死性综合征[12]
根据发病原因和易感人群的不同,热射病分为经典型热射病(classic heatstroke,CHS)和劳力型热射病(exertional heatstroke,EHS)[13]。CHS是被动暴露于热环境导致的机体产热与散热失衡,常见于年老、年幼、体弱和有慢性疾病的患者。CHS通常逐渐起病,前驱症状不易被发现,1~2 d后症状加重,可出现意识模糊、谵妄和昏迷等。大多数CHS患者的体温可达40~42 ℃,也有少部分患者体温升高不明显,部分患者可伴有大小便失禁、心力衰竭、肾衰竭等表现,易被误诊为感染性疾病。
EHS常见于健康年轻人(如部队官兵、运动员、消防队员、建筑工人等),在高温、高湿环境下进行高强度训练或从事重体力劳动后出现不适症状,如极度疲劳、持续头痛、运动不协调、行为不当、判断力受损、恶心、呕吐,可伴有大量出汗甚至无汗,体温迅速升高至40 ℃以上,严重者可发生谵妄、癫痫发作、晕厥甚至昏迷。需要注意的是,尽管EHS在高温、高湿环境中更容易发生,但也有在低温环境下发生的病例。
推荐意见2:应充分了解热射病的高危因素,以辅助诊断和预防热射病(推荐强度,证据等级B)
国外调查资料显示,CHS在夏季热浪期间人群发病率为(17.6~26.5)/10万,住院病死率为14%~65%,ICU病死率>60%[14-16];EHS在军事训练中的发病率为(20~1050)/10万,在长距离公路赛中的发病率为(160~213)/10万,合并低血压时病死率常>30%[17-18]。需要注意的是,不同时间和地域报道的热射病发病率和病死率差别很大,不具有可比性。导致这些差别的原因包括:(1)环境因素(如热浪强度及持续时间)的差异;(2)运动强度不同;(3)诊断标准不同;(4)早期现场处置是否恰当。另外,CHS具有更高的病死率,可能与患者的基础疾病有关。
近年来,我国的气候特点是地域性温差变小,高温持续时间延长,且多地最高气温屡破极值[19-20],这也导致我国的热射病发病率和死亡人数逐年增加[21]。据报道,2022年热浪袭击了我国83.64%的城市,因热射病就诊人数达到53.9万,达到2021年就诊人数的3倍左右[22]。一项纳入2022年我国西南地区83家医院收治的873例热射病患者的多中心研究显示,总体死亡率高达32.4%,其中CHS占比为73.6%,死亡率为33.8%,EHS占比为26.4%,死亡率为30.0%[23]。2022年,我国24家军队医院收治302例中暑患者,其中热射病患者占43.4%,死亡率为5.3%[24]
热射病易感因素多,且个体差异较大(表3)[7]。CHS主要由高温和(或)高湿环境因素引起,通常没有剧烈的体力活动,体温调节功能不健全的个体更容易发病,如婴幼儿、老年人、慢性基础疾病患者、长期卧床及肥胖患者等[25-26]。EHS的易感因素主要包括脱水、失眠、心理应激、基础疾病、体能不足、肥胖及训练前未进行热习服[27-28]。高强度训练考核前如有感冒、腹泻等表现且有服药史,可导致热射病发病阈值明显降低,需重点关注[29]。因基础疾病长期用药的患者,也可因所服用的药物增加热射病的发生风险。如β受体阻滞剂和非二氢吡啶类钙通道阻滞剂可降低服药者在热应激下增加心输出量的能力,利尿剂会加重热射病时低血容量和电解质紊乱的发生风险,血管紧张素转换酶抑制剂和血管紧张素受体阻滞剂可增加热射病性急性肾损伤的发生风险。非甾体类解热镇痛药是管理发热的常用药物,可通过调节下丘脑温度调定点发挥退热作用。但热射病时因产热、散热机制受损及脑功能障碍,非甾体类解热镇痛药不仅不能退热,反而会损害肝脏和凝血功能[30]
推荐意见3:重视热射病时肠肝损伤导致的继发性脓毒症反应(推荐强度,证据等级C)
以下主要从体温调节障碍、急性循环障碍、肠肝损伤与脓毒症、炎症失调与凝血紊乱、中枢神经损伤、横纹肌溶解与肾损伤、肺损伤等7个方面对热射病的病理生理机制进行阐述(图1)。
机体主要依赖蒸发、对流、传导和辐射进行散热,其中通过汗水蒸发是运动时主要的散热方式。剧烈运动时,骨骼肌收缩产生的热量是基础代谢的15~18倍[31]。大部分热量从肌肉传递到血液,再运送到身体核心。如无有效散热,这种规模的内源性产热足以在25 min内将核心体温从37 ℃升高到42 ℃。在高温、高湿环境下,机体散热效率明显下降,产热明显大于散热,形成急性热代谢障碍。由于细胞耐热能力在40~45 ℃范围,机体核心体温过高可导致细胞和器官损伤[32]。部分经过热适应训练的人员即使核心体温达到40~42 ℃,也不会出现中暑相关症状,其核心机制尚有待进一步研究。
为了满足加快散热和(或)肌肉耗氧增加的需求,机体会发生血流再分布,即流向肌肉和皮肤的血流明显增加,流向肠道、肾和脾的血流减少。同时因为大量出汗散热,大循环的血容量减少,心脏做功需求也明显增加[33]。机体可通过增加心脏每搏输出量和心率来适应这种高代谢率状态(持续大于最大耗氧量的75%),如循环过负荷就会发生急性循环障碍,导致肠、肾、肝、脑等多器官的缺血缺氧性损害[34]。老年人和有心脏基础疾病的患者因心脏储备功能下降,难以适应热负荷增加引起的外周血管阻力下降和低血容量,导致其因热射病致死的风险较健康人群高2.5倍[30]
血流再分布时,肠道血流的持续减少可造成肠黏膜屏障受损,肠道通透性增加,导致肠道内的微生物和内毒素通过肠屏障进入门静脉[35]。正常情况下,肝脏网状内皮系统会清除内毒素,避免其进入体循环。在极端热应激条件下,肝损伤后网状内皮系统的清除能力降低,致使内毒素进入体循环,导致脓毒症[36]。脓毒症一旦发生,可加重患者的免疫功能紊乱,促进多器官功能障碍快速进展。
高温造成的热损伤可通过损伤相关分子模式(damage-associated molecular patterns,DAMPs)与相应受体结合,促进肿瘤坏死因子(tumor necrosis factor,TNF)-α、白细胞介素(interleukin,IL)-1β及IL-6等细胞因子大量释放,加重器官衰竭[37]。热损伤还可通过炎症诱导细胞毒性效应,导致细胞出现凋亡、坏死和焦亡。细胞死亡后释放的DNA、组蛋白等物质可与纤维蛋白原组成多种细胞来源的胞外诱捕网(extracellular traps,ETs),促进免疫血栓广泛形成,加重凝血功能障碍[38]
热损伤时,强烈的应激反应和热损伤均可直接损伤血管内皮,导致大量凝血酶和血小板活化,微血栓广泛形成,进而加重多器官功能障碍。随着凝血底物大量消耗,可发生消耗性凝血病,当凝血底物水平不足以维持机体基础的止血能力时,则易发生难以控制的出血[39]。此外,肝肠损伤诱发的脓毒症也会加速、放大机体的免疫紊乱和凝血功能障碍[40]
热射病动物实验和临床死亡病例的尸检结果显示,热射病最易造成小脑损伤,在发病24 h后可出现中脑、丘脑、扣带回、海马体等部位的损伤[41]
热射病时中枢神经系统损伤的机制主要包括以下几个方面[42]:(1)热损伤导致血脑屏障的通透性增加,进而引起脑血流量减少和颅内压增高;(2)热损伤相关的炎症反应导致大量炎性因子释放,可直接或间接损伤神经细胞和血管内皮细胞,造成细胞性和血管性脑水肿;(3)高热造成血管内皮细胞损伤,促进微血栓形成,导致脑血流量减少,影响脑灌注;(4)热损伤造成线粒体损伤,导致神经细胞能量代谢障碍;(5)肠屏障损伤导致内毒素入血,可加重炎症反应和脑组织损伤。
热射病时核心体温过高可造成横纹肌细胞损伤,加上高强度运动可导致严重的横纹肌溶解,故多见于EHS[43]。如热射病患者发病前有酗酒或滥用药物史,可加重横纹肌损伤。肌细胞溶解后,细胞内的钾、磷酸盐、肌红蛋白、肌酸激酶和尿酸释放到血液中,引起严重的水电解质紊乱,甚至造成恶性心律失常。横纹肌溶解还可导致急性肾损伤,具体机制包括:(1)肌红蛋白对肾细胞的细胞毒性作用;(2)尿酸沉淀,导致肾小球血管内压力增加和肾小球滤过率降低;(3)肌红蛋白的血红素基团可引起肾血管收缩和缺血,激活细胞因子级联反应;(4)血红素诱导的活性氧物质如超氧阴离子、过氧化氢或羟基自由基可直接造成肾组织的氧化损伤[44]。除横纹肌溶解外,热射病时血流再分布、容量不足和微血栓形成导致的肾灌注下降,以及肾组织的过度炎症反应也是导致急性肾损伤的重要原因[45-46]
热射病时发生肺损伤的机制主要包括[47]:(1)热应激对肺组织的细胞毒性作用,可造成细胞骨架以及线粒体、溶酶体、高尔基体和内质网等细胞器的损伤,直接导致肺泡上皮细胞的程序性坏死;(2)热应激诱导的炎症反应释放大量炎性介质,造成肺泡毛细血管损伤,引起高通透性肺水肿和肺顺应性改变;(3)热应激可促进超氧化物歧化酶、水通道蛋白3和血红素加氧酶1等基因的表达,加剧氧化应激反应,从而导致血管炎症和内皮功能障碍;(4)热应激造成肺血管内皮细胞损伤,促发凝血级联反应形成微血栓,加重肺组织缺血缺氧;(5)热射病继发脓毒症可加重肺损伤。
推荐意见4:推荐应用颅脑CT动态评估热射病时的中枢神经系统损害(推荐强度,证据等级C)
推荐意见5:推荐使用血栓弹力图(thromboelastography,TEG)或凝血与血小板功能分析仪对热射病时的凝血状态进行动态评估(推荐强度,证据等级C)
推荐意见6:推荐对血流动力学不稳定的热射病患者进行连续性血流动力学监测(推荐强度,证据等级D)
推荐意见7:推荐应用磁共振成像(magnetic resonance imaging,MRI)评估热射病患者的脑、心肌和横纹肌的损伤程度(推荐强度,证据等级D)
热射病的临床表现以热代谢障碍导致的多器官功能障碍为主要特点,多数患者表现为高热、昏迷、无汗等典型症状,但由于发病诱因、病史的不同及个体差异,患者展现的各器官损害的程度及特点也各不相同。例如,部分患者神经系统受损表现比较隐匿,甚至在数天之后才会出现明显的症状;还有部分患者初测体表温度升高不明显,但核心体温已显著升高。CHS和EHS的表现亦有不同特点,EHS常有严重的横纹肌溶解,急性肾损伤、肝损伤和弥散性血管内凝血(disseminated intravascular coagulation,DIC)出现更早,甚至在发病几小时后即可出现,且病情进展更快,而CHS的表现可与基础疾病的表现混杂在一起,易引起误诊。此外,热射病患者出现意识障碍时可合并外伤、中毒或误吸等,使临床表现更为复杂。因此,热射病早期应动态监测实验室指标,及时评估病情变化(表4)。
中枢神经系统功能障碍是热射病的主要特征,早期即可出现严重损害,表现为谵妄、嗜睡、癫痫发作、昏迷等;还可出现其他神经系统异常表现,包括行为怪异、幻觉、角弓反张、去大脑强直等。部分患者可遗留长期的中枢神经系统损害后遗症,主要表现为注意力不集中、记忆力减退、认知障碍、语言障碍、共济失调等[48]
CT是针对中枢神经系统常用的检查方法。热射病发病早期头颅CT常无阳性发现,多于2~5 d后出现脑实质弥漫性水肿。如早期出现脑水肿提示病情危重。与创伤及卒中等造成的脑水肿相比,热射病患者的全脑水肿多数可逆,7~10 d病情稳定后可逐渐消退[49]。凝血功能障碍者可出现蛛网膜下腔出血、颅内出血或点状出血,也可出现梗死灶[50]
热射病早期MRI可显示双侧小脑、尾状核、皮质下白质异常及海马区均匀增强,严重者可出现小脑的缺血坏死甚至萎缩。热射病后期MRI可显示为基底节、苍白球、双侧内囊、壳核和小脑缺血或软化灶。小脑是中枢神经系统热损伤的重要部位,部分热射病患者出现小脑萎缩,长期随访MRI发现存活者的中枢神经系统损伤主要位于小脑和海马[51-52]
对于存在意识障碍的热射病患者,持续的脑电监测有助于早期发现异常波形,如低幅慢波、癫痫、纵向双极重叠波等,但这些脑电图改变多无特异性。热射病的脑电图可随着病情改善而完全恢复,这与原发性神经系统疾病的异常脑电图在预后方面存在明显区别[53-54]
在热应激或热射病早期,机体因交感神经兴奋、核心体温升高及血液浓缩可出现高凝状态,患有基础疾病的CHS患者可发生血栓如深静脉血栓,甚至脑梗死。随着热应激反应的持续,机体因凝血酶广泛活化而导致消耗性凝血病,凝血系统整体呈现低凝状态,临床可有出血表现,如皮肤淤点、淤斑、穿刺点出血、结膜出血、黑便、血便、咯血、血尿甚至颅内出血等。已有研究显示,代表热损伤严重程度的核心体温越高,凝血功能障碍越严重[55]。通常当核心体温>39.0 ℃时,可出现D-二聚体水平升高;当核心体温>40.0 ℃时,可出现血管内皮损伤,代表血管内皮功能的血栓调节蛋白(thrombomodulin,TM)和凝血酶活化的凝血酶-抗凝血酶复合物(thrombin-antithrombin complex,TAT)水平明显升高,代表凝血因子活性的凝血酶原时间(prothrombin time,PT)延长、纤维蛋白原水平降低,血小板计数相对减少(即低于基线水平的30%以上,但绝对值可能仍处于正常值范围);当核心体温>41.0 ℃时,活化部分凝血活酶时间(activated partial thromboplastin time,APTT)可明显延长,血小板计数可出现绝对减少(<100×109/L)[56-58]。凝血功能的评价高度依赖实验室检查,且热射病导致的凝血功能障碍进展快速,在热射病早期应及时复查。复查后如血小板计数快速减少,达到DIC甚至凝血功能衰竭诊断标准,提示预后不良。
基于全血监测的黏弹力设备如TEG和凝血与血小板功能分析仪,能够更全面准确地反映热射病患者的凝血功能。TEG的凝血反应时间(R)延长提示凝血因子活性降低,α角减小和k时间延长主要提示纤维蛋白原功能下降,最大振幅(maximum amplitude,MA)减小主要提示血小板功能障碍,30 min时溶解度(LY30%)>8%提示纤溶亢进。热射病性凝血病(heatstroke-induced coagulopathy,HIC)时TEG可表现为R时间延长、α角减小、k时间延长和MA减小[59-60]。凝血与血小板功能分析仪检测可表现为活化凝血时间(activated clotting time,ACT)延长,凝血速率(clot rate,CR)和血小板功能(platelet factor,PF)降低。ACT延长提示凝血因子功能降低,CR降低提示纤维蛋白原功能下降,PF降低提示血小板功能障碍。一项回顾性研究对106例热射病患者进行凝血与血小板功能分析,结果显示入院时有32.1%的热射病患者处于高凝状态(ACT≤119 s且CR>23),41.5%的患者处于低凝状态(ACT≥195 s且CR<7),处于低凝状态的热射病患者病死率(18.1%)更高[61]
心肌损伤在热射病发病第1天即可出现,心肌肌钙蛋白I(cardiac troponin I,cTnI)水平明显升高[62]。大多数患者血流动力学早期表现为典型高动力状态,心脏指数(cardiac index,CI)增高,外周血管阻力(systemic vascular resistance,SVR)降低[63]。随着心脏损伤的加重,高动力状态可逐渐转变为低动力状态,表现为CI降低,SVR增高。如存在心脏基础疾病,患者可在早期即表现为低动力状态,且往往是预后不良的表现[64]。热射病诱发的最常见的快速心律失常是窦性心动过速,其次是心房颤动和室上性心动过速。缓慢心律失常可见PR间期延长、室内传导延迟、右束支和左束支传导阻滞。在最严重的情况下,个别无心脏基础疾病的EHS患者可迅速发生快速性室性心律失常甚至心脏骤停,这可能与高强度运动造成急性代谢障碍和严重的内环境紊乱有关。如出现QT间期延长,需先明确是否存在电解质紊乱[65-66]。已有研究显示,热射病患者康复3个月后随访行心脏MRI检查,发现患者仍存在心肌细胞水肿和纤维化表现,其具体机制尚待深入研究[67]
热射病时肝损伤常见的临床表现为乏力、食欲缺乏和巩膜黄染。实验室检查显示,谷草转氨酶(aspartate aminotransferase,AST)和谷丙转氨酶(alanine aminotransferase,ALT)水平在发病后迅速升高,第3~4天达峰值(部分患者也可在2周时达峰),AST和ALT最高可升至10 000 U/L以上,之后随病情好转逐渐下降;而胆红素的升高相对滞后,通常在热射病发病后24~72 h开始升高,可高达400 μmol/L以上[68- 69]。以间接胆红素升高为主的进行性黄疸往往提示预后不良。
热射病患者多存在肾损伤,与直接热损伤、肾灌注不足、横纹肌溶解及DIC等多种因素有关,表现为少尿、无尿,尿色深(浓茶色或酱油色尿)。尿常规可见大量颗粒管型和红细胞。25%~35%的EHS患者和5%的CHS患者可出现急性少尿型肾衰竭[70]。除血肌酐水平升高可诊断急性肾损伤以外,血浆和尿液的中性粒细胞明胶酶相关脂质运载蛋白(neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin,NGAL)水平升高也被认为是诊断热射病性肾损伤的敏感指标[71-72]
横纹肌溶解是热射病的严重并发症,可表现为肌肉酸痛/僵硬、肌无力、茶色尿、酱油色尿,后期可出现肌肿胀、骨筋膜室综合征,最终导致急性肾衰竭[73]。与一般的运动性横纹肌溶解症不同,热射病导致的横纹肌溶解症发病24 h内CK升高往往并不突出,之后逐渐升高,常在发病5~7 d达到高峰,且其峰值较运动性横纹肌溶解症高,最高可达140万U/L。血肌红蛋白(Mb)常>1000 ng/ml,最高可达80 000 ng/ml以上[74]。通常CK增高>正常值上限的5倍即可诊断为横纹肌溶解。既往报道因参加马拉松比赛导致昏迷、横纹肌溶解和肾衰竭的EHS患者,经过住院治疗和康复训练3个月后复查,尽管患者未诉不适且血浆CK水平处于正常范围内,但MRI检查仍显示存在明显的横纹肌溶解[75]
热射病急性期因胃肠道黏膜缺血导致肠动力下降,发病72 h内即可出现胃肠功能紊乱,如恶心、呕吐、腹痛、腹泻、排大量水样便,严重者可出现消化道出血、穿孔、腹膜炎、腹腔高压等[76]。胃肠超声检查常可见肠壁水肿、肠管扩张或肠腔积液[77]。如因肠源性感染继发脓毒性休克,可严重影响热射病患者的预后[78]
热射病早期主要表现为呼吸急促、口唇发绀等,约60%的患者需要机械通气,其中约10%的患者可发展为急性呼吸窘迫综合征(acute respiratory distress syndrome,ARDS)[47,79]。动脉血气常提示代谢性酸中毒、呼吸性碱中毒、高乳酸血症、低氧血症等。
热射病急性期因大量出汗可导致低钾、低钠血症,如合并肾损伤、横纹肌溶解可导致高钾血症[80]。此外,部分未经适应性训练者进行高强度运动时,血液中的乳酸水平可迅速升高至20倍,以至于体内无法有效缓冲,可使pH值暂时下降到6.8。多数情况下,休息期间乳酸可被肝脏迅速代谢,pH值可纠正至正常范围。但在极少数情况下,严重的酸中毒可导致恶性心律失常乃至心搏骤停[81]
推荐意见8:推荐使用中国热射病和HIC诊断标准进行早期诊断,应用热射病危重程度评分系统(heatstroke severity scoring system,HSSS)对热射病的危重程度进行每日评价(推荐强度,证据等级C)
全军热射病防治专家组在2019年制定了热射病诊断标准[6],在2023年制定了HIC诊断标准[55],并制定了HSSS,用于对热射病病情和疗效进行每日评价。
由病史信息中任意一条加上临床表现中的任意一条,且不能用其他原因解释时,应考虑热射病的诊断(表5)。此外,由于CHS与EHS不同,在诊断时需要根据患者的病史特点和临床表现进行分型(表6)。
需要说明的是,因为高热是热射病的首位损伤因素,既往文献的诊断标准中多将核心体温(通常是直肠温度)≥40 ℃作为诊断的必要条件,但目前将其仅作为诊断热射病的条件之一[7]。其原因是:(1)部分CHS患者核心体温<40 ℃仍可出现严重的多器官衰竭;(2)多数情况下在现场无法测量直肠温度,而临床最常用的腋温会受到多种因素干扰,不能准确反映核心体温,导致热射病的发病率被低估;(3)不能为了测量准确的核心体温延误启动降温治疗;(4)部分患者的核心体温>40 ℃,但其中枢神经系统功能障碍并不明显。
热射病患者初到医院急诊时即应采用HIC诊断评分系统进行诊断。该诊断评分系统包括热射病发病后的最高核心体温、PT及D-二聚体共3个变量,积分≥3分即可诊断HIC(表7)。在热射病发病急性期,因血液浓缩的影响,患者早期的血小板计数往往处于相对减少状态,故早期用于诊断HIC的敏感度不高[56]。此外,由于核心体温会受到降温措施的影响,因此HIC的诊断应在热射病患者初入急诊时进行。HIC诊断成立时,即可考虑开始抗凝治疗。
热射病病情发展快,且涉及多个器官,迄今尚无统一的病情评估标准。因此,本指南根据热损伤的特点,综合现有研究选择热射病靶器官常用指标制定HSSS,用于每日评估热射病的危重程度和疗效[82](表8)。HSSS共包括核心体温、氧合指数、血小板计数、胆红素、血压、血乳酸、格拉斯哥昏迷评分(Glasgow coma score,GCS)、肌酐(或尿量)共8个变量,每项可评0~4分,其中未达1分标准可评为0分,最高总分为32分,得分为1~10分时认为热射病病情为轻度,11~20分病情为中度,>20分时病情为重度。
多数热射病患者以意识状态改变伴高热为首发症状,同时合并多脏器功能损害的相应症状,临床上应注意与下列疾病鉴别[83]
(1)脑血管疾病:常见脑出血、大面积脑梗死、蛛网膜下腔出血等,可表现为意识状态、肢体活动、言语等改变,此类患者多伴有高血压、糖尿病、血管畸形等基础疾病,发病早期一般无发热和神经系统以外的器官损伤,影像学检查可见责任病灶;(2)脑炎、脑膜炎:根据病原体不同可分为细菌性、病毒性、结核性等,临床症状与热射病相似,常表现为高热、头疼、抽搐等,但发病与环境因素及剧烈的体力活动无关,通过病史可鉴别;(3)癫痫:为发作性疾病,通常有反复发作史,非运动时间可以发作,无发热和多器官受损表现,脑电图检查可见异常波。
热射病易被误诊为感染性疾病导致的休克、多器官功能损害等,但后者多有感染病灶的相应表现、感染指标异常以及影像学改变,而前者有其特定的病史和易感因素,需要通过详细询问病史、查体等加以鉴别。
如低血糖昏迷、高渗昏迷、肝性脑病、尿毒症性脑病等,此类患者可出现意识障碍,但一般无发热,短期内通常无多器官损害,迅速纠正原发疾病后症状多可缓解。
恶性高热是一种亚临床遗传性肌肉病,主要通过病史鉴别。此类患者平时无异常表现,在全麻过程中接触挥发性吸入麻醉药(如氟烷、安氟醚、异氟醚等)和去极化肌松药(琥珀酰胆碱)后出现骨骼肌强直性收缩,产生大量能量,导致体温持续快速增高。在无特异性治疗药物的情况下,一般的临床降温措施难以控制体温的增高,最终可导致患者死亡。
热射病的救治生命链由快速识别、现场急救、后送转运、医院救治、康复与返岗5个环节组成(图2)[84]
推荐意见9:卫生人员应在5 min内完成热射病的快速识别与评估(推荐强度,证据等级C)
推荐意见10:热射病的降温治疗要在发病30 min内将核心体温降至<39.0 ℃,在发病2 h内降至<38.5 ℃(推荐强度,证据等级B)
推荐意见11:应持续监测核心体温,并作为诊断热射病和评价降温效果的依据(推荐强度,证据等级C)
热射病的快速评估应在5 min内完成。快速识别热射病应关注患者的热暴露史和临床表现。热射病的快速评估包括判断患者的意识、脉搏、呼吸、血压、核心体温和指脉氧等基础生命体征。意识评估可采用GCS,脉搏和血压可通过触诊外周动脉(桡动脉、股动脉、颈动脉)的搏动强弱和频率来判断。体温测量可通过触摸额头和腋下进行初步评估。有条件者可用耳温测量仪、电子血压计、指脉氧仪进行测量。EHS患者常在从事体力活动时发病,可出现共济失调、步态不稳、性格改变、非理性行为和(或)意识状态改变。CHS患者发病早期可能核心体温升高不明显,或意识障碍不严重,但随着病情发展可出现严重的器官障碍甚至危及生命。
近年来,不典型热射病患者逐渐增多,增加了快速准确识别热射病的难度。不典型热射病的主要特点有:(1)核心体温<40.0 ℃[85];(2)发病环境达不到高温、高湿的标准,甚至在寒冷环境下发病;(3)运动强度不高;(4)意识障碍不严重。对不典型热射病需严格执行热射病诊断标准,同时密切监测病情变化,及时调整治疗方案,以免错失治疗时机。
热射病患者现场治疗的重点是快速、有效、持续降温,具体方法可采用现场救治六步法:脱、泡、测、补、通、静[6]。热射病的现场救治应遵循“边降温边转运”的原则,当降温与转运存在冲突时,应做到“降温第一,转运第二”。
不论EHS还是CHS,均应将患者迅速脱离高温、高湿环境(参训者立即停止训练),转移至通风阴凉处,尽快除去患者衣物以利散热。有条件时可将患者转移至有空调的环境,建议室温调至16.0~20.0 ℃。
EHS救治的现场降温目标是在发病10 min内启动降温,发病30 min内将核心体温降至<39.0 ℃,发病2 h内降至<38.5 ℃,故所采用的降温速率应达到0.155 ℃/min以上[6,86]。目前能够达到降温要求的最好方式是冰水浸泡或冷水浸泡。具体实施方法可用大型容器(如浴桶、油布、水池)将患者躯干浸泡在冷水(2.0~20.0 ℃)中。若无冷水条件时可用室温水(如26.0 ℃)。因患者可能存在意识障碍,故在浸泡过程中需保护其呼吸道,防止淹溺和误吸。冷水浸泡降温的不良反应主要有寒战、躁动等,多在9~10 min后出现。
如无法做到浸泡降温,可参考以下几种降温方式[87]:(1)蒸发降温,凉水喷洒同时配合持续扇风。此法可用于CHS和EHS患者。(2)冰敷降温,可给患者头戴冰帽、头枕冰枕,或用纱布包裹冰袋置于颈部、腹股沟、腋下等部位,或反复冷水擦拭降温。为保证降温效果,冰敷时需及时更换降温材料。此法虽易于操作,但对降低核心体温的效果非常有限。(3)体内降温,用4.0~10.0 ℃生理盐水胃管灌洗或静脉输注。胃管灌洗法可在1 min内经胃管快速注入总量10 ml/kg的低温生理盐水,放置1 min后吸出,可反复多次,同时严密观察防止误吸。静脉输注法适用于存在明显脱水的EHS患者,通常在1 h内输注总量为1000~1500 ml的4.0 ℃生理盐水。需要强调的是,热射病发病时存在体温调节中枢功能障碍,因此在现场救治中禁止使用非甾体类药物进行降温。
快速准确测量核心体温是准确评估病情和指导有效降温的前提。通常使用直肠温度(肛温)来反映核心体温,可弯曲式直肠温度计插入深度至少为15 cm[88]。无法测量肛温时,也可使用耳蜗温度代替。腋窝温度受环境和降温措施的影响大,故腋温不高时不能排除热射病的可能,应在10 min后至少复测一次体温。有条件者可持续监测体温。现场如无监测体温的条件,可触摸患者体表估测温度并尽快开始降温,决不能因为测量温度而延误降温。
应在现场快速建立静脉通路,首选外周较粗的静脉,建议建立外周双通路,优选套管针而非钢针,因后者不易固定。如有条件也可建立骨髓腔液体通路。输注液体首选含钠液体(如生理盐水或林格液)。通常在现场第1小时输液总量1500~2000 ml。如患者的血压和心率改善,尿量达到100~200 ml/h时,应调整输液速度,避免输入过多液体。同时应避免早期大量输注葡萄糖注射液,因其易导致稀释性低钠血症,加重神经损伤[89]
应将昏迷患者头偏向一侧,及时清除气道内分泌物,保持呼吸道通畅。对于意识不清的患者,应禁止喂水。如已发生呕吐,应尽快清理口腔分泌物。如现场条件允许,可持续监测脉搏血氧饱和度(SpO2),并首选鼻导管吸氧方式,维持SpO2≥90%。若鼻导管吸氧未能达标,应给予面罩吸氧,仍不能达标者可进行气管插管[90]
抽搐、躁动不仅会干扰降温治疗,还可使产热及耗氧量增加,加剧神经系统损伤。如患者反复或持续出现抽搐、躁动,可静脉注射地西泮10~20 mg,在2~3 min内推完,静脉注射困难时也可肌内注射。首次用药后如抽搐不能控制,可在20 min后再次静脉注射10 mg。抽搐控制不理想时,可在地西泮的基础上加用苯巴比妥5~8 mg/kg肌内注射。
推荐意见12:现场降温效果不理想的热射病患者应边降温边后送(推荐强度,证据等级B)
现场降温效果不理想的热射病患者应尽快组织后送[91]。转运后送指征包括:(1)体温>40.0 ℃;(2)实施降温治疗(抬到阴凉地方、洒水、浸泡、扇风等)30 min后体温仍>39 ℃;(3)意识障碍无改善;(4)现场缺乏必要的救治条件。转运前应全面评估患者是否具备转运条件,具体包括评价患者的意识、心率、血压、氧饱和度、有无呼吸道梗阻、心律失常情况等。转运时优先选择附近有救治经验的医院,且后送过程中应持续进行降温治疗。
对于病情危重的热射病患者,应采用可实现的快捷、安全的交通工具。空中、水面及陆路交通工具均可用于转运后送。目前救护车后送仍是最常用的转运方式。转运时应选派具有重症患者救治经验的医护人员陪同,至少1名医师、1名护士。转运前应备齐急救设备及药物。转运过程中应做到:(1)密切监测体温,每0.5 h测量1次,如有条件应测量直肠温度,同时做好生命体征的监测记录;(2)持续有效降温[92],可将救护车空调温度调至最低或打开车窗,冷水全身擦拭配合持续扇风降温,体表冰敷降温,静脉输注4.0~10.0 ℃生理盐水,不要因腹泻、呕吐、躁动或癫痫发作而中断降温[93-94]
医院内救治热射病需遵循“十早一禁”的救治原则,即早降温、早补液、早镇静、早插管、早抗凝、早补凝、早抗感染、早抗炎、早血液净化、早胃肠管理及凝血功能障碍时禁止手术操作(图3)。
推荐意见13:常规降温方法效果不理想的热射病患者应尽早行血液净化治疗(推荐强度,证据等级C)
所有入院的热射病患者均应实施以核心体温<38.5 ℃为目标的温度管理(targeted temperature management,TTM)策略[95]。如果入院时核心体温已达到目标温度,仍应持续监测体温,避免体温过低或再次升高。如核心体温>40.0 ℃的时间超过2 h,提示患者热损伤严重和预后不良。准确测量核心体温是实施TTM策略的前提。院内治疗时可通过持续监测直肠温度、膀胱温度、食管温度和血液温度来反映核心体温,其中直肠温度是最容易获取且无损伤的方法。
院内治疗时可采用的降温治疗措施更多,主要包括:(1)控温毯。此法是简单易行且无创的降温方法,但效果有限。具体操作时可将控温毯设定为启动温度38.5 ℃、停机温度37.5 ℃、毯面温度4.0 ℃。患者平卧于降温毯上,同时配合冰帽或冰枕,可实现快速降温。(2)连续性血液净化治疗(continuous blood purification,CBP):常规降温手段无效、患者核心体温持续>40.0 ℃即可启动CBP,这是采取CBP治疗热射病的独特适应证。CBP可将血液引出体外,并使用透析/置换液实现快速降温。血液流速越快,置换液量越大,降温越迅速。(3)血管内热交换降温:利用传导降温原理,置入深静脉血管内的热交换导管可与血液进行热交换,其降温速率可达0.08 ℃/min,常用于心搏骤停后脑复苏的亚低温治疗[96],但目前尚缺乏在热射病救治中应用的证据。(4)药物降温:药物降温可能会引发严重的并发症,中暑/热射病治疗不建议使用药物降温。临床上常用的非甾体类解热镇痛药可通过抑制前列腺素或降低体温调定点而发挥作用,但对中暑导致的高热无效,盲目使用还可能加重凝血功能障碍及肝脏、肠道损伤;丹曲林可用于治疗恶性高热,但对中暑/热射病患者的降温无效[97]。有报道氯丙嗪对中暑/热射病患者有较好的降温效果,但可能加重患者的意识障碍、横纹肌溶解和呼吸抑制,需谨慎使用[98]
推荐意见14:热射病患者应在血流动力学监测下进行精准液体管理(推荐强度,证据等级C)
热射病患者应连续监测血压、心率、呼吸频率、SpO2、中心静脉压(central venous pressure,CVP)、动脉血气、乳酸、每小时尿量及尿液颜色。无创血流动力学监测首选使用床旁超声评估容量、心功能和胸腹腔积液情况。有创血流动力学监测推荐使用脉搏指数连续心输出量监测(pulse indicator continuous cardiac output,PICCO)判断容量负荷、心脏做功及肺水肿情况[99]。液体治疗首选晶体液,如生理盐水和林格液。所用液体量须既能达到充分的液体复苏,又要避免液体过负荷[100]。如果在充分的液体复苏后患者仍存在组织低灌注表现,应尽早使用血管活性药物,首选去甲肾上腺素,若仍不达标可联合使用肾上腺素。对于需使用升压药的患者,推荐以平均动脉压(MAP) 65 mmHg作为初始复苏目标。
推荐意见15:伴有严重中枢神经损害的热射病患者应尽早行镇痛镇静治疗(推荐强度,证据等级C)
治疗热射病性脑病的原则是尽快去除损伤因素、减轻氧耗、保证脑灌注、控制脑水肿和预防并发症[42]。主要措施包括:(1)快速有效降温,除尽快降低核心体温外,存在脑水肿的患者可采用冰帽进行头部亚低温治疗。(2)充分镇痛镇静,镇痛镇静治疗可控制患者的躁动、抽搐,减轻应激导致的炎症和凝血紊乱,减少脑组织氧耗,预防和控制脑水肿,是脑保护的重要手段。镇静药首选起效快、作用强、不良反应少的药物,如环泊酚、丙泊酚、瑞马唑仑、右美托咪定等。咪达唑仑的半衰期较长,当合并肝肾功能障碍时其代谢时间可明显延长。(3)控制脑水肿,热射病早期的液体治疗应严格控制容量,注意避免液体过负荷,从而加重脑水肿。如明确出现脑水肿,在保证脑灌注的前提下可使用白蛋白联合速尿脱水,或使用甘露醇125 ml,2~3次/d,疗程视脑水肿情况而定。(4)控制癫痫,如经脑电图检查明确癫痫改变或患者出现癫痫、抽搐表现,可使用丙戊酸钠、左乙拉西坦控制癫痫。但热射病患者常合并肝肾损伤,需根据肝肾功能调整药物剂量。(5)呼吸循环支持,持续昏迷、误吸、窒息或咳嗽反射减弱的患者需行气管插管以保护气道,并进行呼吸和循环支持,以避免脑缺氧加重。(6)高压氧治疗,对于生命体征稳定但中枢神经系统功能障碍尚未恢复的热射病患者,可行高压氧治疗。高压氧治疗可有效缓解炎症反应,增加脑组织血流量,减轻氧化损伤,从而促进脑康复。
推荐意见16:伴有中枢神经系统损害的热射病患者应尽早行气管插管(推荐强度,证据等级C)
热射病救治时的气管插管指征为:(1)意识障碍,谵妄且躁动不安、全身肌肉震颤、抽搐样发作等症状;(2)深镇静状态;(3)气道分泌物多,且排痰障碍;(4)有误吸风险或已发生误吸;(5)呼吸衰竭;(6)血流动力学不稳定,对液体及血管活性药物反应欠佳。不建议在热射病救治早期行气管切开术,特别是在患者合并凝血功能障碍时。
热射病患者的呼吸支持目标以SpO2维持在94%~99%或动脉血氧分压(PaO2)维持在70~90 mmHg为宜;动脉血二氧化碳分压(PaCO2)维持在35~45 cmH2O或基础水平[101]。具体措施包括严格的容量管理控制肺水肿、机械通气改善氧合、纤维支气管镜管理气道、控制肺部继发感染、小剂量激素减轻肺部炎症以及体外膜肺氧合支持治疗。
推荐意见17:符合HIC诊断标准的患者,在排除活动性出血的前提下,应尽早启动抗凝治疗(推荐强度,证据等级C)
抗凝治疗可减少凝血物质的过度消耗,减轻微循环血栓负荷,改善器官灌注。此外,已有研究证实,肝素类和蛋白酶抑制剂类药物除具有抗凝作用外,还具有抗炎和血管内皮保护作用[55]。传统观点认为,代表凝血酶活性的标志物如TAT或纤溶标志物D-二聚体水平明显升高提示血栓负荷增加,可考虑启动抗凝。最新观点认为,热射病一旦符合HIC的诊断标准,即可启动抗凝治疗[24,55]。需要注意的是,活动性出血是抗凝治疗的禁忌证,如存在活动性出血(如颅内出血、消化道大出血等),需在出血基本控制后再评估抗凝指征(图4)。
抗凝药物宜选择胃肠外抗凝药物,以静脉用药为宜。供选择的药物包括[102]:(1)普通肝素(unfractionated heparin,UFH)。因UFH具有半衰期短、监测方便和可用鱼精蛋白中和的优点,建议首选UFH治疗[103]。UFH建议静脉给药,药物剂量需根据凝血功能和器官功能状况选择1~8 U/(kg.h)的维持剂量,可根据APTT、TEG R时间、凝血与血小板功能分析仪的ACT值较基础值的变化进行动态调整。有条件者可进行TEG肝素酶对比试验,以R/Rh比值在1.5~2.0范围调整肝素剂量。肝素严重过量可考虑使用鱼精蛋白进行拮抗。UFH可能会引起肝素诱导的血小板减少症(heparin-induced thrombocytopenia,HIT)。应用UFH后出现血小板计数下降>基础值的50%,和(或)出现动静脉血栓的征象,可采用4T's评分。该评分由血小板减少的数量特征(thrombocytopenia)、血小板减少的时间特征(timing of onset)、血栓形成类型(thrombosis),以及是否存在其他导致血小板减少的原因(other cause of thrombocytopenia)4个要素构成。将4项评分相加,根据得分确定HIT的临床可能性[≤3分为低度、4~5分为中度、6~8分为高度临床可能性],并检测HIT抗体来确诊HIT。对于高度可疑或确诊HIT的患者,应停用UFH,并改用非肝素类抗凝药。(2)低分子肝素。低分子肝素因半衰期长,不易调整和监测剂量,建议在急性凝血功能障碍缓解后作为肝素的替代选择继续抗凝治疗。由于产品规格多有不同,起始剂量一般建议0.5~1.0 mg/kg,每12 h一次静脉注射或皮下注射,并以抗a活性维持在0.3~0.5 U/ml范围来调整剂量。低分子肝素经由肾脏代谢,存在肾功能不全者尤需进行监测。应用肝素类药物时应尽量维持抗凝血酶活性>80%,否则可能影响抗凝效果。(3)阿加曲班。患者对肝素过敏或出现HIT时可选择阿加曲班进行抗凝。阿加曲班为直接凝血酶抑制剂,在肝脏代谢,可导致凝血酶时间(thrombin time,TT)明显延长。推荐阿加曲班以0.2~0.5 μg/(kg.min)的起始剂量静脉滴注,并根据APTT或TEG R时间或凝血与血小板功能分析仪ACT值较基础值的变化动态调整。合并肝衰竭者尤需注意使用剂量。(4)甲磺酸萘莫司他。该药可抑制活化的凝血因子a、a、a及组织因子TF-复合物,同时还具有抗血小板聚集、抑制纤溶酶、抗炎及保护血管内皮的作用[104]。萘莫司他的半衰期仅8 min,在血液中可被羧酸酯酶迅速降解,故出血风险低,常被用于体外循环及DIC的抗凝治疗[105]。通常根据体内APTT调整甲磺酸萘莫司他的抗凝剂量,对严重凝血功能障碍的患者也可根据TEG R时间调整剂量[106]
当凝血功能基本纠正,具体表现为血小板计数可自行维持在正常水平,TAT、D-二聚体、TEG等凝血指标基本正常即可停用抗凝药物。停药后需监测凝血功能变化。如凝血功能再次发生紊乱,需分析原因并评估再次启动抗凝治疗的指征。患者如合并深静脉血栓,需针对深静脉血栓制定抗凝策略。
推荐意见18:对有出血倾向或发生出血的热射病患者,应采用目标导向的替代治疗(推荐强度,证据等级D)
热射病的凝血功能紊乱推荐进行目标导向的替代治疗,即用常规凝血监测指标、TEG或凝血与血小板功能分析仪的监测指标指导替代治疗[107]。凝血功能障碍的替代治疗主要包括补充凝血因子、纤维蛋白原及血小板等;热射病患者进行替代治疗总体应采取个体化输血原则,防止因过早、过多输注而加重血栓形成(表9)[92,108-111]
推荐意见19:对疑似合并脓毒症的热射病患者应尽早使用广谱抗生素控制感染(推荐强度,证据等级D)
推荐意见20:具有过度炎症反应的热射病患者可启动抗炎治疗(推荐强度,证据等级D)
热射病患者容易合并脓毒症,且一旦发生血流感染,患者的死亡风险明显增高。热射病患者并发脓毒症休克的高危因素包括:(1)高热时间过长;(2)早期降温效果不佳;(3)热射病发病前发生感冒、腹泻;(4)热射病发病后出现明显腹泻;(5)热射病发病后出现淋巴细胞计数减少;(6)热射病合并低心排血量且需大剂量血管活性药物维持血压;(7)热射病合并肝功能障碍持续加重;(8)热射病发生后高乳酸血症长时间不能纠正。预计合并脓毒症的患者应尽早行广谱抗感染治疗。如合并严重腹泻,总量>1000 ml的水样便,可考虑使用万古霉素口服或灌肠进行肠道去污治疗,同时密切监测患者血象、血降钙素原和病原学指标。如总体病情趋于好转,可及时调整抗感染方案。
因直接热损伤和继发脓毒症反应,热射病患者常合并剧烈的全身炎症反应,临床表现为高热,心率和呼吸频率增快,白细胞计数增加,C反应蛋白和IL-6水平明显升高。抗炎治疗:(1)小剂量糖皮质激素,具体方案为氢化可的松200 mg/d或甲泼尼龙40 mg/d,不超过7 d[112];(2)蛋白酶抑制剂,具体方案为乌司他丁10~30万U,3次/d,疗程7 d[113-114]
推荐意见21:热射病患者发生横纹肌溶解或严重急性肾损伤时,可尽早行血液净化治疗(推荐强度,证据等级C)
推荐意见22:热射病患者合并急性肝衰竭时,可尽快启动人工肝治疗(推荐强度,证据等级D)
热射病时肝肾功能障碍较为常见,EHS患者更容易合并横纹肌溶解。CBP是治疗横纹肌溶解和肝肾功能障碍的重要方法,可通过人工血管通路将患者血液引出体外,经血液净化装置去除致病物质,并调整患者内环境。常用的血液净化模式包括连续静脉-静脉血液滤过(continuous veno-venous hemofiltration,CVVH)、连续静脉-静脉血液透析(continuous veno-venous hemodialysis,CVVHD)或连续静脉-静脉血液透析滤过(continuous veno-venous hemodiafiltration,CVVHDF)。已有文献报道,CVVH模式容易引起血小板过度消耗,因此血小板明显减少的HIC患者慎用CVVH模式[115]。血液净化对重症热射病患者的治疗作用包括:(1)实现有效的血管内降温;(2)对合并急性肾损伤的热射病患者实现精确容量管理;(3)纠正电解质紊乱和酸中毒,维持内环境稳定;(4)清除炎性介质和代谢废物,减轻器官负担和继发损伤[116]
热射病患者启动CBP治疗的指征包括:(1)一般物理降温方法无效且体温持续>40 ℃超过2 h;(2)血钾>6.5 mmol/L;(3)CK>5000 U/L,或上升速度超过1倍/12 h,出现急性肾损伤表现;(4)少尿、无尿,或难以控制的容量超负荷;(5)血肌酐每日的递增值>44.2 μmol/L或上升至基线值的2倍;(6)难以纠正的电解质和酸碱平衡紊乱。停用CBP的指征为:(1)生命体征和病情稳定;(2)CK<1000 U/L;(3)水、电解质和酸碱平衡紊乱得以纠正;(4)尿量>1500 ml/d或肾功能恢复正常。
热射病合并严重的急性肝衰竭时,如发生短期内黄疸进行性加深、血清总胆红素快速上升、ALT和AST快速大幅升高、凝血酶原活动度≤40%或国际标准化比值(INR)≥1.5、TEG提示显著低凝(排除抗凝药干扰)等情况,需考虑采用人工肝支持系统(artificial liver support system,ALSS)治疗[117]。ALSS的治疗模式较多,适用于HIC合并肝衰竭患者的是血浆置换及血浆透析滤过(plasma diafiltration,PDF)。血浆置换是最常用的ALSS治疗方式,通过将患者血液引至体外,经离心法或膜分离法分离血浆及细胞成分,弃去血浆,然后将细胞成分及所需补充的白蛋白、血浆及平衡液等回输体内,以清除体内致病物质[118]。对于有高炎症反应的热射病患者,血浆置换既能清除大量炎性介质,又能祛除患者血浆中的胆红素等毒性物质,同时可补充凝血因子以改善危重患者的凝血状态。但血浆置换对血浆需求量大,其应用往往受条件限制。对于合并DIC的热射病患者,进行血浆置换时应选择新鲜冰冻血浆,以避免发生低纤维蛋白原血症。
PDF是选择性血浆滤过与透析一体化的治疗方式,利用血液透析滤过的原理,使用蛋白筛选系数介于血浆分离器与血液滤过器之间的血浆成分分离器,同时完成血浆滤过及透析治疗。临床上可根据不同需求选用具有不同蛋白筛选系数的血浆成分分离器,其膜孔径可允许水溶性的中小分子溶质、部分蛋白结合毒素通过,而分子量更大的球蛋白、纤维蛋白原及绝大部分凝血因子无法通过。该模式治疗时可丢弃部分含蛋白结合毒素的血浆,再通过弥散、对流不同程度地清除水溶性毒素,同时将置换液(新鲜冰冻血浆)补充入体内。已有文献报道,应用PDF治疗EHS既可支持肝功能,又能清除炎性细胞因子,可用于治疗热射病引起的多器官功能障碍[119]。对于人工肝治疗效果不理想且肝衰竭程度严重的患者,可选择肝移植[120]
推荐意见23:血流动力学稳定的热射病患者应尽早给予肠内营养(推荐强度,证据等级D)
如患者血流动力学及内环境稳定,且无消化道出血和麻痹性肠梗阻,应尽早给予肠内营养[121]。不能经口进食者可通过鼻胃或鼻空肠管途径给予营养,管饲时患者头部需抬高30°~45°,以减少吸入性肺炎的发生。为确保肠内营养制剂的安全输入,应根据病情、配方种类和输入途径来决定肠内营养的输注方式。肠内营养输注应遵守由少到多、由慢到快、由稀到浓循序渐进的原则,温度宜保持在37~40 ℃。肠内营养用鼻饲泵连续输注,一般从20 ml/h开始,若能耐受,则逐渐增加速度。对不耐受者,可将速度减至能耐受的水平,以后再逐渐增加。
应根据患者肝肾功能损伤的程度制定营养方案。肠内营养制剂分为短肽制剂和整蛋白型匀浆膳。胃肠道功能障碍者选择肠内营养制剂时,需先从短肽制剂逐渐过渡到整蛋白型匀浆膳。病情危重时,可采用允许性低营养摄入来保持摄入的热量为20~25 kcal/(kg.d)。可应用床旁超声评估胃肠功能耐受情况。如果患者出现腹胀、腹痛,特别是腹腔压力增高时,应减量或停止肠内营养。
推荐意见24:EHS患者临床痊愈后,可进行热耐力测试及重建治疗(推荐强度,证据等级D)
热耐力是从温暖到炎热条件下保持身体活动的能力,是机体心血管功能、神经生物学功能及全身细胞反应能力的综合反映。EHS患者的热耐力损伤可持续数年,如欲重返工作岗位需进行热耐力重建[122]。热耐力重建需在患者结束医院治疗至少7 d后,经生理和心理评估合格后方可进行。
受训人员在温度40 ℃、相对湿度40%的人工热室内进行热耐力训练。跑步机坡度设置为2°,跑步速度设置为5 km/h。热耐力测试时长以跑步机上跑步2 h为上限。测试过程中需实时监测核心体温(肛温或耳温)和脉率。如受训者脉率>150次/min,或直肠(耳蜗)温度>38.5 ℃,或诉不适时应停止测试。热耐力测试过程中提供2 L液体(1.5 L矿泉水+0.5 L口服补液盐)进行补充,且在测试期间配备2名医护人员进行安全保障。测试结束后计算生理应激指数(physiological stress index,PSI),PSI≥5提示热耐力不良,<5提示热耐力合格,<4提示热耐力良好。绝大多数患者接受7~14 d的训练后可基本恢复热耐力[123]
推荐意见25:科学开展热习服可有效预防热射病(推荐强度,证据等级C)
由于热射病的发病高度依赖环境因素、个体因素及训练因素,因此热射病是可以有效预防的。除了防控热射病发病的高危因素外,CHS可使用生脉散、仁丹、藿香正气滴丸等传统中药进行预防[124]。开展热习服训练、提高热耐受能力是预防EHS的重要方法[125]
热习服是机体对热环境刺激的保护性生理反应,具有可产生、可加强、可脱失的特点。一旦热刺激作用停止,热耐受能力会逐渐减弱,恢复到习服前的水平,称为脱习服。随着天气变得炎热,人们被动形成的热适应过程属于被动热习服(heat acclimatization),而通过积极主动训练获得的热适应能力称为主动热习服(heat acclimation)[126]
根据既往每年2-11月均有热射病发生的现状,每年入夏前应常规开始热习服训练,如需参加高强度训练或比赛应提前进行热习服训练。热习服训练前应对参训人员进行排查,重点关注夜间执勤睡眠过少、失眠、新兵新训和肥胖人员,如有感冒、发热、腹痛、腹泻的人员需评估是否能参加训练。热习服训练的环境温度应由低到高,避开极端高热天气;训练强度逐步增加,以不超出生理耐受为限;每日跑步训练1~2次,每次训练时间为1.5~2.0 h(不少于50 min);总训练次数不少于10次,训练周期10~14 d。如有条件,可在训练中佩戴可穿戴设备监测核心体温和心率,保证训练安全[127]。训练时应合理安排时间,尽量避开气温较高的时段,训练中应及时补水补盐,出现异常(面色苍白、面色潮红、精神/行为异常、自觉身体不适等)的人员需重点观察,一旦发现核心体温>39 ℃应立即停止训练[128]
本指南在既往工作和临床需求的基础上,丰富了HRS的分型和病理生理机制,提出了HSSS、热射病救治生命链和康复返岗治疗策略,优化了现场积极降温、后送持续降温和院内有效降温的方法,更新了“十早一禁”的救治原则。但热射病防治中仍存在以下问题有待深入研究:(1)热射病发病的核心机制仍不明确;(2)不同个体热损伤导致靶器官损伤的临床表现各不相同,但其具体机制尚不清楚;(3)热射病的诊断标准主要依赖病史,尚缺乏特征性的热损伤标志物;(4)现场和后送过程中仍缺乏高效易行的降温方法;(5)针对热射病时的免疫紊乱仍缺乏有效手段;(6)热耐力评估依赖室内环境,目前尚缺乏适合广泛开展的评估标准。
编委会成员(按拼音排序):边革元(解放军联勤保障部队第920医院);崔岩(北部战区总医院重症医学科);崔云亮(解放军联勤保障部队第960医院重症医学科);方庆(中部战区总医院急诊科);高燕(北部战区总医院急诊科);何蕾(解放军总医院第一医学中心肝胆外科);李福祥(西部战区总医院重症医学科);李海玲(海军第971医院重症医学科);李楠(北部战区总医院急诊科);李庆华(解放军联勤保障部队第990医院重症医学科);李维勤(东部战区总医院重症医学科);李新宇(西安医学院第二附属医院重症医学科);李奕鑫(解放军联勤保障部队第910医院急诊科);林洪远(解放军总医院第四医学中心重症医学科);刘东(解放军联勤保障部队第940医院重症医学科);刘红升(解放军总医院第四医学中心急诊科);刘树元(解放军总医院第六医学中心急诊科);刘玉秀(东部战区总医院重症医学科);宁波(空军特色医学中心重症医学科);宋景春(解放军联勤保障部队第908医院重症医学科);宋青(解放军总医院海南医院重症医学科);唐忠志(中部战区总医院急诊科);汪茜(解放军总医院第三医学中心急诊科);王涛(解放军总医院海南医院急诊科);文强(南部战区总医院重症医学科);张伟(解放军联勤保障部队第900医院急诊科);张西京(空军军医大学西京医院重症医学科);张玉想(解放军总医院第八医学中心重症医学科);周新(陆军乌鲁木齐总医院重症医学科);朱海燕(解放军总医院第一医学中心急诊科)
秘书:李磊(南部战区海军第二医院急诊科),何龙平(解放军联勤保障部队第908医院重症医学科),林青伟(解放军联勤保障部队第908医院重症医学科)
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2025年第50卷第4期
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doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0506.2025.0328
  • 接收时间:2025-03-19
  • 首发时间:2025-10-30
  • 出版时间:2025-04-28
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  • 收稿日期:2025-03-19
  • 录用日期:2025-03-21
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    1解放军联勤保障部队第908医院重症医学科,江西南昌 330002
    2解放军总医院海南医院重症医学科,海南三亚 572010
    3解放军联勤保障部队第900医院急诊科,福建福州 350002
    4东部战区总医院重症医学科,江苏南京 210002
    5空军军医大学西京医院重症医学科,陕西西安 710032
    6解放军总医院第六医学中心急诊医学科,北京 100037
    7北部战区总医院急诊科,辽宁沈阳 110016
    8海军第971医院重症医学科,山东青岛 266001

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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