Article(id=1190310110024012585, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1190243275249390089, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0467.2024.0913, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1712678400000, receivedDateStr=2024-04-10, revisedDate=null, revisedDateStr=null, acceptedDate=1716825600000, acceptedDateStr=2024-05-28, onlineDate=1761721645122, onlineDateStr=2025-10-29, pubDate=1748361600000, pubDateStr=2025-05-28, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1761721645122, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-10-29, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1761721645122, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1761721645122, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1190243275249390089, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, year='2025', volume='50', issue='5', pageStart='505', pageEnd='640', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1761705710470, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1765784077922, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1207349188233372409, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1190243275249390089, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1207349188233372410, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, issueId=1190243275249390089, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=632, endPage=640, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1190310110720267052, articleId=1190310110024012585, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189873630562394117, language=EN, title=Advances in research of pathophysiological mechanisms and diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease, columnId=1190243275882729994, journalTitle=Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, columnName=Review, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a major cause of dementia, is a common neurodegenerative disease, beginning with memory loss and difficulties with thinking, language and problem-solving skills. Intensification of population aging and the increasing incidence of AD have imposed a heavy burden on healthcare systems. Currently, the main pathological explanation remains the excessive accumulation of β‑amyloid plaques, formation of neurofibrillary tangles and neuronal loss, but the true etiology and pathogenesis of AD remain unknown. The advances of research in AD, with respect to genetics, pathophysiological mechanism, imaging diagnosis and laboratory diagnosis, are reviewed in this article, aiming to provide references for relevant research and potential clinical applications.

, correspAuthors=Bin Sun, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
E-mail:
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阿尔茨海默病(AD)是一种常见的进行性神经退行性疾病,是痴呆的主要病因,临床常表现为记忆丧失,思考、语言和解决问题的能力下降等。随着人口老龄化的加重,AD发病率也不断增高,给医疗保健系统带来了沉重负担。目前AD的主要病理解释为β淀粉样蛋白斑块过度累积、神经纤维缠结形成和神经元缺失,但其真正病因和发病机制仍然不清楚。本文综述近年来AD的遗传学、病理生理机制及影像学与实验室诊断等方面的研究进展,旨在为相关研究和潜在的临床应用提供参考。

, correspAuthors=孙彬, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
孙彬,E-mail:
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王亚楠,硕士研究生,主要从事临床疾病快速诊断方面的研究

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王亚楠,硕士研究生,主要从事临床疾病快速诊断方面的研究

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DASH. 膳食方法防治高血压;MIND. 一种综合了地中海饮食和DASH的饮食模式

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HSV. 单纯疱疹病毒

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阿尔茨海默病病理生理机制及其诊断研究进展
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王亚楠 1 , 任凌 1 , 韩伟 2 , 孙彬 2, 3, *
解放军医学杂志 | 综述 2025,50(5): 632-640
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解放军医学杂志 | 综述 2025, 50(5): 632-640
阿尔茨海默病病理生理机制及其诊断研究进展
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王亚楠1, 任凌1, 韩伟2, 孙彬2, 3, *
作者信息
  • 1首都医科大学电力教学医院(国家电网公司北京电力医院)核医学科,北京 100073
  • 2深圳润铭生物技术有限公司,广东深圳 518063
  • 3华润医药商业医疗器械研究院,北京 100009
  • 王亚楠,硕士研究生,主要从事临床疾病快速诊断方面的研究

通讯作者:

孙彬,E-mail:
Advances in research of pathophysiological mechanisms and diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease
Ya-Nan Wang1, Ling Ren1, Wei Han2, Bin Sun2, 3, *
Affiliations
  • 1Department of Nuclear Medicine, Capital Medical University Electric Power Teaching Hospital/State Grid Beijing Electric Power Hospital, Beijing 100073, China
  • 2Shenzhen Runming Biotech Co. Ltd., Shenzhen, Guangdong 518063, China
  • 3China Resources Pharmaceutical Commercial Medical Device Research Institute, Beijing 100009, China
出版时间: 2025-05-28 doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0467.2024.0913
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阿尔茨海默病(AD)是一种常见的进行性神经退行性疾病,是痴呆的主要病因,临床常表现为记忆丧失,思考、语言和解决问题的能力下降等。随着人口老龄化的加重,AD发病率也不断增高,给医疗保健系统带来了沉重负担。目前AD的主要病理解释为β淀粉样蛋白斑块过度累积、神经纤维缠结形成和神经元缺失,但其真正病因和发病机制仍然不清楚。本文综述近年来AD的遗传学、病理生理机制及影像学与实验室诊断等方面的研究进展,旨在为相关研究和潜在的临床应用提供参考。

阿尔茨海默病  /  认知障碍  /  影像学诊断  /  生物标志物

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a major cause of dementia, is a common neurodegenerative disease, beginning with memory loss and difficulties with thinking, language and problem-solving skills. Intensification of population aging and the increasing incidence of AD have imposed a heavy burden on healthcare systems. Currently, the main pathological explanation remains the excessive accumulation of β‑amyloid plaques, formation of neurofibrillary tangles and neuronal loss, but the true etiology and pathogenesis of AD remain unknown. The advances of research in AD, with respect to genetics, pathophysiological mechanism, imaging diagnosis and laboratory diagnosis, are reviewed in this article, aiming to provide references for relevant research and potential clinical applications.

Alzheimer's disease  /  cognitive impairment  /  imaging diagnosis  /  biomarkers
王亚楠, 任凌, 韩伟, 孙彬. 阿尔茨海默病病理生理机制及其诊断研究进展. 解放军医学杂志, 2025 , 50 (5) : 632 -640 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0467.2024.0913
Ya-Nan Wang, Ling Ren, Wei Han, Bin Sun. Advances in research of pathophysiological mechanisms and diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease[J]. Medical Journal of Chinese People’s Liberation Army, 2025 , 50 (5) : 632 -640 . DOI: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0467.2024.0913
阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer's disease,AD)是一种进行性神经退行性疾病,被世界卫生组织确认为全球公共卫生的优先事件。《2023世界阿尔茨海默病报告》指出,2019年全球痴呆患者超过5500万,预计2050年将增加到1.39亿[1];同年中国老年保健协会阿尔茨海默病分会发布的《阿尔茨海默病患者需求洞察报告》指出,目前中国60岁及以上人群中痴呆患者有1507万,其中AD患者983万,预计2050年AD患者将超过4000万[2]。自1907年以来AD的相关研究取得了众多进展,但其真正的病因和发病机制仍然不清楚[3]。本文综述近年来AD遗传学、病理生理机制、影像学与实验室诊断等方面的研究进展,旨在为AD的相关研究和潜在的临床应用提供参考。
AD是痴呆的主要病因,临床常表现为记忆丧失,思考、语言和解决问题的能力下降等[4]。这些症状对患者来说是新发的,但导致这些症状的大脑病理改变在20年或更久之前就已开始发生,并随着时间推移而恶化[5]。有报道预计到21世纪中叶,欧洲痴呆的发病率将增加1倍,全球将增加2倍;而根据AD的生物学(非临床)定义,这一估计数字将增加3倍,且低收入国家与中等收入国家患者数将增加更多[6]。痴呆的发病率随年龄增长而增高,65岁以上老人痴呆发病率为5%~8%,85岁以上老人痴呆发病率增加到25%~50%[4]。痴呆发病率在性别上也存在差异,男性发病率比女性低19%~29%[4]。此外,AD死亡数有上升趋势,2000-2019年,AD相关的死亡人数增加了145%[5]
老年是AD的主要危险因素,但仍存在多种其他可能影响AD进展或发展的危险因素或积极因素,主要包括预先存在的病症或疾病以及生活方式。目前公认的AD主要危险因素及积极因素见图1
AD发病与患者本身的基因表达密切相关。研究显示,AD的患病风险中58%~79%取决于遗传因素[7]。载脂蛋白E(apolipoprotein E,ApoE)基因位于19号染色体上,是一种含299个氨基酸的糖蛋白,参与体内的脂质代谢。ApoE含3种等位基因,分别为ɛ2等位基因、ɛ3等位基因、ɛ4等位基因,从而形成ApoEɛ2、ApoEɛ3、ApoEɛ4 3种亚型。ApoEɛ4是AD的主要危险因素,可导致AD发病提前及症状发展加速[8]。含ɛ4杂合子的等位基因可使AD发病风险增加3倍,而含ɛ4纯合子的等位基因可使AD的发病风险增加12倍;与此相反,ɛ2等位基因可降低AD的发病风险[9]。有研究指出,不同亚型ApoE与β淀粉样蛋白(amyloid β,Aβ)肽结合后发挥的作用不同,ApoEɛ4亚型与Aβ肽结合后可促进Aβ肽在纤维中的聚合与沉积,而ApoEɛ2亚型则可促进Aβ肽的清除,减少其在脑组织的沉积[8-9]
位于21号染色体的淀粉样前体蛋白(amyloid precursor protein,APP)基因、位于14号染色体的早老素1(presenilin 1,PSEN1)基因和位于1号染色体的早老素2(presenilin 2,PSEN2)基因的突变是导致早发性AD(early-onset AD,EOAD)常染色体显性遗传的主要因素,其中PSEN1突变已被确定为EOAD的常见致病因素[10]。PSEN1是γ-分泌酶复合体的成员,在APP加工和淀粉样蛋白肽生成中发挥关键作用。PSEN1本身可能并不是酶,而是γ-分泌酶裂解过程中的一个重要调节蛋白;PSEN1功能缺失可能损害APP的加工过程,导致淀粉样蛋白肽的产生发生改变[10]
除以上基因外,已有研究通过新一代测序技术在髓系细胞触发受体2(triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2,TREM2)、ATP结合盒转运体A7(ATP-binding cassette transporter A7,ABCA7)、分拣蛋白相关受体1(sortilin-related receptor 1,SORL1)等基因的表达中发现了罕见的蛋白损伤变异,而这些蛋白的完整性对于维持大脑健康至关重要。
TREM2基因位于染色体6p21上,是中枢神经系统小胶质细胞和吞噬细胞表面的高表达受体,具有调节中枢神经系统吞噬及抗炎功能的作用。该受体与隐性早发性痴呆有关。有研究指出,TREM2的变异体R47H可使AD患病风险明显增高,其相关机制可能为R47H不能通过脾酪氨酸激酶(spleen tyrosine kinase,SYK)激活小胶质细胞,干扰了正常TREM2在大脑中参与的神经免疫作用,无法包裹Aβ斑块,从而加速了大脑的病理进程及行为障碍[11]ABCA7基因位于染色体19p13.3上,其编码蛋白是ABC转运体超家族的成员。一项AD影像学队列研究指出,ABCA7的rs3752246风险等位基因与Aβ增多明显相关[12]ABCA7基因提前终止密码子突变在AD患者中高度富集[13],且ABCA7基因剪接与AD相关[14]SORL1基因位于染色体11q23.2-q24.2上,其编码的SorLA蛋白是人脑中的低密度脂蛋白受体家族成员。SorLA蛋白是处理APP和分泌Aβ肽的关键蛋白;蛋白截断突变(protein-truncating variants,PTV)可导致SorLA蛋白功能丧失,而错义突变可不同程度影响SorLA的功能,两者皆可导致Aβ的分泌增加[15]。有研究报道AD患者发生PTV富集的风险明显高于健康对照者,其比值比(odds ratio,OR)为12.29(95%CI 4.22~35.78)[16]
目前对于AD的主要病理解释仍然为Aβ斑块的过度累积、神经纤维缠结形成和神经元缺失。尽管存在遗传易感性,但越来越多的证据显示,神经胶质细胞增生、炎症、活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)产生与清除的平衡失调、线粒体功能障碍和金属离子过度积累等因素与AD的发病机制或疾病进展密切相关[17]。遗传学研究显示,APP或生成Aβ的酶发生突变会诱发常染色体显性遗传性AD,提示Aβ可能是疾病启动的关键因子,而神经纤维缠结、神经元缺失与临床症状表现更为密切[18]。目前关于AD发病机制的几种主流学说如图2所示。
Aβ级联假说认为Aβ是APP裂解的主要蛋白水解片段,是AD发病的关键因素。APP存在于神经元的树突和轴突区,是一种单通道Ⅰ型膜蛋白,具有单跨膜结构域、胞外结构域和胞质尾部等结构[19]。APP在其胞外结构域内的裂解有两种不同的机制:淀粉样蛋白生成途径和非淀粉样蛋白生成途径。在非淀粉样蛋白生成途径中,α-分泌酶裂解APP产生可溶性胞外结构域APPα和膜结合C-末端片段α;随后,膜结合C-末端片段α被γ-分泌酶裂解,产生名为p3的APP片段,该片段为非淀粉样蛋白肽,不具有病理效应。在淀粉样蛋白生成途径中,β-分泌酶裂解APP产生可溶性胞外结构域APPβ和膜结合C-末端片段β,γ-分泌酶可在多个位点裂解膜结合C-末端片段β,并生成Aβ肽[19-20]。Aβ肽具有自我聚集能力,且该单体容易低聚,从而形成原纤维和纤维诱导神经中毒。此外,Aβ还可干扰信号通路、膜蛋白和受体,损害细胞信号转导[19]
神经纤维缠结是AD的第二大组织病理学特征,主要是由于Tau蛋白聚集并嵌入神经元内形成的。Tau蛋白属于微管相关蛋白家族,大部分存在于轴突,小部分存在于树突和神经胶质细胞[19]。Tau蛋白负责微管的稳定和装配,其生物活性受翻译后修饰的调控,如多位点磷酸化、糖基化等。Tau蛋白的过度磷酸化可降低其对微管的亲和力[19],亦可使其自身聚集成神经原纤维缠结,使Tau蛋白的固有功能丧失,导致受累神经元微管结构破坏、轴突运输和树突结构受损、突触缺失,以及神经元死亡,并最终导致痴呆[21]。此外,Tau蛋白还可通过细胞外空间在神经元之间传播,同时神经元活动的增加可刺激体外Tau蛋白的释放[22]
AD的病理机制并不是单一的,往往是多种机制共同作用的结果。有研究显示,Aβ与Tau蛋白的相互作用可加速患者的认知能力下降[23],其原因可能为Aβ的存在加速了Tau蛋白在大脑中的累积,而Tau蛋白沉积与认知能力下降密切相关[24]。此外,有研究指出,只有当存在Aβ沉积时,总Tau蛋白与磷酸化Tau蛋白水平才与认知表现相关[25]
氧化应激是由于抗氧化防御功能失效,氧化剂产生和清除失衡导致的。氧化应激可通过直接和间接两种机制促进疾病进展。在直接机制中,活性物质可直接影响细胞功能,导致细胞死亡;在间接机制中,H2O2作为第二信使可引起细胞氧化还原信号通路功能障碍,通过修饰蛋白质和线粒体影响正常的生物学功能,同时也可促进炎症发生、细胞凋亡或干扰自噬。在AD中,氧化应激主要通过以下4个方面影响神经功能:(1)Aβ的产生和沉积;(2)小胶质细胞活化;(3)氧化还原活性金属离子的失调;(4)线粒体功能障碍。关于Aβ的产生,有研究显示,氧化应激有助于降低α-分泌酶的活性,同时增强β-分泌酶和γ-分泌酶的活性,从而增加Aβ的形成[26];同时,寡聚物的聚集也会增强氧化应激[27]。氧化物还可刺激小胶质细胞和星形胶质细胞中的促炎基因转录。活化的小胶质细胞同时产生ROS和促炎细胞因子,如白细胞介素(interleukin,IL)-6、IL-1β、肿瘤坏死因子-α(tumor necrosis factor-α,TNF-α),从而引发AD脑内的炎症反应;而IL-1、IL-6和TNF-α也有利于Aβ的产生和积累[26,28]。金属离子在细胞代谢、信号传递等生理活动中发挥重要作用,其中具有较强氧化还原活性的金属是铜和铁。铜主要参与神经递质和神经肽的稳态,为神经元和神经胶质细胞提供保护,当体内铜水平失衡时ROS产生过量,从而导致氧化应激[19]。铁作为多种酶的辅助因子参与ROS的形成和清除,ROS的产生可诱导多种细胞损伤且与Aβ的神经毒性相关。此外,金属可与Aβ形成高亲和力复合物,并可改变Aβ的聚集[19,29],促进氧化还原反应的发生。线粒体是对氧化应激高度敏感的细胞器,其功能障碍引起的氧化应激可导致ROS过度产生;线粒体功能障碍主要包括线粒体形态改变、数量减少,以及ATP水平降低、线粒体膜去极化等[26]
铁死亡是一种铁依赖性的细胞程序性死亡方式,主要是由于抗氧化的谷胱甘肽(glutathione,GSH)依赖系统失活引起氧化应激,最终导致有毒脂质-ROS积累所致。有别于细胞凋亡和细胞自噬,铁死亡的主要特征包括铁离子含量增加、ROS积累、脂质氢过氧化物水平升高、还原型GSH消耗、逆向转运系统Xc-抑制和胱氨酸摄取减少等[29-30]。大量不稳定的铁离子可促进非酶促脂质过氧化,导致过量ROS形成,引发细胞铁死亡。逆向转运系统Xc-可增强谷氨酸与胱氨酸的交换,促进GSH的生物合成;抑制该逆向转运系统可导致GSH消耗以及谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶4(glutathione peroxidase 4,GPX4)失活,最终诱发铁死亡[30]。在AD患者大脑中已发现脂质氢过氧化物积累的现象,这可能与Xc-系统功能抑制,导致GPX4失活、细胞内GSH耗尽和ROS积聚有关[30]
准确诊断对于AD患者的早期干预至关重要;从认知测试、影像学诊断到相关生物标志物,多种诊断方法的有效性已得到验证。以下主要讨论AD的影像学诊断技术和实验室相关诊断标志物。
3个较有效的AD影像学诊断标志:通过磁共振成像(magnetic resonance imaging,MRI)观测到内侧颞叶萎缩;通过18-氟脱氧葡萄糖正电子发射断层显像(fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography,18F-FDG PET)观测到扣带回和颞顶叶代谢减低(神经变性的测量指标);通过淀粉样蛋白-PET(amyloid-PET)成像观测到皮质Aβ沉积。
AD的病理变化在大脑中呈典型的扩散模式,部分区域首先受到影响,而其他区域只是在AD的严重阶段才会受损。内侧颞叶是AD病程中较早显示萎缩的区域,与早期神经纤维缠结的受累部位一致[31]。海马体是内侧颞叶的重要组成部分,也是人体的记忆储存区域。海马神经元损伤表现为海马体积缩小;MRI扫描可通过手动或自动分割测量海马体积,其体积与神经元数量密切相关[32]。此外,还可使用该技术检测大脑某些区域的皮质厚度。有研究显示,受AD影响,旁边缘皮质变薄[33]。由于MRI不涉及电离辐射,因此一般认为其是非侵入性的;但海马体积减小不是AD的特异性表现,其他神经退行性疾病如帕金森病、癫痫、亨廷顿病等也以海马体积减小为特征[34-35],故该方法的特异度不高。还有研究显示,在非典型AD中海马区是不受影响的[36]。因此,MRI在非典型AD中可能难以发现早期病变。
18F-FDG PET可测量静息状态下的大脑葡萄糖代谢率。与健康个体相比,AD患者常表现为代谢低下;这种变化与局部神经元和突触活动相关,且会随着疾病进展而加重[37]。在AD中,代谢减低首先发生在大脑的颞顶区(包括扣带回和颞顶叶),其次为额叶、颞叶周围和前颞叶[38]。相比于CT或MRI,18F-FDG PET可更早检测到神经元和突触活动的变化,有利于早期发现大脑结构的改变,即18F-FDG PET可在MRI未检出大脑结构改变时就可敏感地检测到早期神经退行性变,且具有更高的诊断准确性。此外,该方法可鉴别多种痴呆症。因此,18F-FDG PET可用于AD的早期诊断[39]。但该方法需注射放射性示踪剂,对患者有一定的侵入性,且价格相对昂贵,不适用于大范围的筛查。
淀粉样蛋白斑块是AD的主要神经病理学标志之一。淀粉样蛋白-PET可观测大脑中Aβ的沉积情况。Aβ沉积进展缓慢,可持续20年以上;随着AD病程的发展,Aβ的沉积遵循S形轨迹[40]。在Aβ沉积过程中,会形成Aβ沉积平台期,此时患者的认知能力急剧下降[41],即Aβ的积累先于认知能力下降,一旦达到定量平台期,疾病将变得更加严重。因此,Aβ沉积可能是患者从认知能力下降转为AD的风险标志物;然而,一旦患者确诊为AD,Aβ沉积对于跟踪疾病进展的作用并不突出。对于AD进展的预测能力,淀粉样蛋白-PET的敏感度略高于¹⁸F-FDG PET,而¹⁸F-FDG PET的特异度相对更高,预测短期进展的准确性更好[42-43]。因此,如果临床怀疑非AD性痴呆,可采用¹⁸F-FDG PET作为首选检测方式;而怀疑AD性痴呆时,则可将淀粉样蛋白-PET作为首选。
Tau-PET是一种新兴的诊断及评估认知障碍的成像工具。AD早期患者(Braak 1期或2期)虽然不存在明显的认知缺陷,但在临床早期已存在Tau蛋白的病理变化。Tau-PET可通过Tau蛋白示踪剂的保留情况观测大脑内早期Tau蛋白的病理改变,且结果与Braak分期一致[44];这增加了Tau-PET用于临床早期患者识别与分期的可能。此外,由于Tau蛋白过度磷酸化与认知障碍相关[45],且不同时期AD的临床表型具有其特异性[46],Tau-PET还能预测AD后的认知衰退和脑萎缩率[47]。但Tau-PET示踪剂18-氟吡啶哚(18F flortaucipir)2020年5月才被美国食品和药物监督管理局(FDA)批准临床使用[48],因此,对于该方法的研究还处于初级阶段,尚需大量的临床实践验证。
影像学诊断可较为直观地观察AD患者脑部的病理学变化,但其成本较高,部分检查需注射放射性药物,具有潜在的危险性。近年AD的实验室体液诊断取得了较大进展,主要集中于脑脊液(cerebrospinal fluid,CSF)标志物及血液标志物方面。
目前AD的CSF核心标志物为Aβ1-42、t-Tau和p-Tau181,并被认为可作为AD早期诊断的标志物。在没有明显临床症状的情况下,这些生物标志物也可发生改变,因而有助于AD的早期诊断与干预。
1-42是一种含42个氨基酸的多肽,是淀粉样蛋白斑块的主要成分;CSF中Aβ1-42水平可反映斑块的形成情况。与正常对照组相比,AD患者CSF中Aβ1-42水平明显降低,且与AD患者大脑皮质和海马中的淀粉样斑块数量呈负相关[49];在其他类型痴呆患者的CSF中也可观察到Aβ1-42水平降低[50],可能与AD病理上的重叠相关。一项关于轻度认知障碍(mild cognitive impairment,MCI)患者CSF生物标志物的研究指出,Aβ1-42是预测MCI或AD进展的良好指标,调整后的风险比(hazard ratio,HR)为16.0(3.8~66.4)[51]。Tau蛋白是神经纤维缠结的基本成分,主要位于神经轴突、树突及神经细胞体内。CSF中的t-Tau水平可反映AD患者的神经元损伤和神经变性程度。Arai等[52]研究发现,t-Tau水平与记忆功能相关,Aβ1-42水平与AD分期相关;但AD患者CSF中Tau蛋白水平升高并非特异性的,因其也可在其他神经退行性疾病患者的CSF中积聚。p-Tau不是简单的轴突损伤标志,它与AD的病理生理机制及神经丝蛋白(neurofilament light,NFL)形成密切相关。Struyfs等[53]检测了AD性痴呆及非AD性痴呆患者CSF中的生物标志物水平,发现p-Tau181对AD性痴呆与非AD性痴呆的鉴别价值高于Aβ1-42和t-Tau。另有研究显示,联合使用Aβ1-42、t-Tau及p-Tau181三种标志物可明显提高诊断AD的敏感度及特异度[54]。事实上,p-Tau的多个表位皆对AD有较高的诊断能力。近期有研究指出,与CSF中p-Tau181相比,p-Tau217、p-Tau231与淀粉样蛋白-PET及Tau-PET的相关性更好,其中p-Tau217升高最明显,可更好地区分AD与其他神经退行性疾病,而p-Tau231升高最早,且与Aβ沉积相关性最好[55]
NFL作为CSF中相对成熟的诊断标志物,是一种存在于长轴突中的结构蛋白,被认为是神经元损伤的非特异性标志物。AD患者CSF中NFL的浓度升高,尤其是在疾病进展迅速的患者中,但在克雅病、额颞痴呆等其他神经退行性疾病中也可明显升高[56]
此外,一些新的诊断标志物近年来也受到了关注,如神经粒蛋白(neurogranin,Ng)、突触体相关蛋白25(synaptosomal-associated protein 25,SNAP-25)、黏蛋白样蛋白1(visinin-like protein 1,VLP-1)、壳多糖酶3样蛋白1(chitinase 3-like 1,CHI3L1)、β-位点淀粉样前体蛋白裂解酶(beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme,BACE1)等。
Ng是一种参与长时程增强(long-term potentiation,LTP)的树突蛋白,与AD患者的突触缺失密切相关,主要表达于皮质、海马和杏仁核等。AD患者CSF中Ng含量明显增加,且与认知能力下降及脑萎缩相关。相较于其他多种神经退行性疾病,Ng对AD的诊断特异度较高[57]。SNAP-25是一种突触前可溶性N-乙基马来酰亚胺敏感因子附着受体蛋白,在囊泡胞吐中发挥关键作用,在AD患者及克雅病患者的CSF中升高,而在其他神经退行性疾病中变化不明显[58]。VLP-1是一种在中枢神经系统神经元中大量表达的钙传感蛋白。AD患者脑脊液VLP-1水平高于健康人群及MCI患者,但其变化不如Aβ1-42、t-Tau及p-Tau181等成熟标志物明显[59]。CHI3L1常被称为YKL-40,是一种神经炎症标志物,主要在星形胶质细胞及外周的巨噬细胞中表达。AD患者CSF中YKL-40水平高于认知正常者及MCI患者[60-61]。当与Aβ1-42联合使用时,CSF中YKL40/Aβ42的比值可用作临床前AD的诊断标志物[62]。BACE1是β分泌酶的一种,除可生成Aβ外,也可作为AD的检测标志物。有研究显示,AD患者CSF中BACE1水平升高,且其变化与海马体萎缩相关[63]
尽管CSF诊断标志物敏感度较高,但CSF的采集往往需要进行腰椎穿刺,患者配合度差,而血液采集则更加便捷。有研究显示,血液标志物的出现时间与CSF中标志物的出现时间没有明显差异[64],因此,血液标志物用于AD诊断的潜力很大。
常规的CSF标志物在血液中均可检出,但由于存在血脑屏障,血液中相关标志物的变化往往不如CSF中明显。CSF中的Aβ1-42水平可反映早期大脑的病理改变,但血液中Aβ1-42含量较低,且相较于CSF,其变化并不明显[65]。随着新检测方法的开发,AD患者血液Aβ1-42水平的微小变化可通过单分子阵列等超敏检测方法检出[66]。与其他血液标志物相比,血液p-Tau181变化较为明显,在诊断AD方面优于其他血液标志物,且在Aβ阳性患者个体中随年龄增加其表达水平逐渐升高[65]。Ng在AD患者血液中的水平与健康对照组差异不明显,但其在血浆外泌体中的水平明显下降[67]。NFL在AD患者血液中升高,但其诊断特异度较低,在其他神经退行性疾病中也表现为升高趋势[68]。YKL-40作为炎症标志物,在AD患者的血液与CSF中变化一致,且与Aβ沉积程度呈负相关,可能与AD的发病机制有关[61]
慢性神经炎症是AD疾病进展的重要因素之一,特异性的炎性基因表达可用于临床疾病的诊断。IL是白细胞或免疫细胞间相互作用的一类细胞因子,在神经炎症反应中起重要作用,如IL-17、IL-21、IL-23、IL-33等在AD患者血液中均明显升高,其中IL-33水平升高被认为与认知功能改善有关[69-72]。趋化因子可调节炎症细胞的聚集,趋化因子CC配体2(chemokine C-C motif ligand 2,CCL2)是趋化因子家族的成员,对于单核细胞及小胶质细胞具有强大的趋化作用,可加重血脑屏障损害。AD患者血液和CSF中的CCL2水平可明显升高;MCI患者CSF中CCL2基线水平较高时,其认知能力下降更快[73]。细胞黏附分子(cell adhesion molecules,CAM)是一种细胞表面糖蛋白,可促进细胞间黏附以及细胞与细胞外基质间的黏附,是AD的另一组潜在炎症标志物。有研究指出,AD患者血浆中血管细胞黏附分子1(vascular cell adhesion molecule-1,VCAM-1)水平较对照组高1.3倍[74],且活化白细胞黏附分子(activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule,ALCAM)及VCAM-1水平均与内侧颞叶萎缩程度呈正相关[75]。以上标志物在神经炎症时变化较为敏感,但特异性不强,只能作为AD诊断的辅助标志物。
近年来逐渐开发了多种新型蛋白标志物。表皮生长因子(epidermal growth factor,EGF)是多种神经细胞发育的神经营养因子。在AD患者中,血浆EGF水平下降;有研究认为EGF水平可预测AD患者的认知能力,且二者呈正相关关系[76]。胰多肽是一种与餐后食欲抑制有关的小信号肽,在AD患者血浆中升高,可能反映了神经元的缺失,但与病因无关[77]。此外,血浆中的miRNA也被用于AD的诊断或检测。成熟的miRNA是含20~25个核苷酸的单链RNA分子,可通过与mRNA的3'-非翻译区(3'UTR)结合,阻断蛋白质合成或导致靶mRNA降解,从而在转录后调控基因表达。miRNA的包囊及其与蛋白质的结合增强了它们在体液中的稳定性,增加了其成为体外诊断标志物的可能。有研究显示,与正常健康对照组相比,AD患者血液中miR-9-5p表达下调,miR-28-3p、miR-128和miR-455-3p表达上调[78-81],且miR-28-3p、miR-128、miR-331-3p、miR-103和miR-107的表达水平与AD患者的痴呆严重程度呈负相关[79-80,82-83]
近几年来,AD相关研究取得了许多实质性进展。学者们丰富了AD的发病机制假说,不再局限于Aβ级联反应或Tau蛋白过度磷酸化的单方面病理作用,阐述了多种可能的AD发病机制,并探讨了不同发病机制间可能存在的相互作用。对于AD相关基因的研究已从单基因诊断转向多基因共同分析。影像学及生物标志物等多种检测方法的开发为AD的诊断奠定了基础。未来的挑战是开发出非侵入性及敏感度更高的诊断方法或生物标志物,以用于AD的早期诊断与筛查。同时,新型生物标志物的发现对于AD治疗药物的开发有重要价值,探索生物标志物与AD病理生理机制之间的相互作用,可能推进靶向AD关键基因或蛋白的预防和治疗药物的开发,这对于未来AD的临床治疗意义深远。
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doi: 10.11855/j.issn.0577-7402.0467.2024.0913
  • 接收时间:2024-04-10
  • 首发时间:2025-10-29
  • 出版时间:2025-05-28
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  • 收稿日期:2024-04-10
  • 录用日期:2024-05-28
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    1首都医科大学电力教学医院(国家电网公司北京电力医院)核医学科,北京 100073
    2深圳润铭生物技术有限公司,广东深圳 518063
    3华润医药商业医疗器械研究院,北京 100009

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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