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Critical Review of Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) Topologies: Communication, Power Flow Characteristics, Challenges, and Opportunities
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Gaurav KUMAR, Suresh MIKKILI
CPSS Transactions on Power Electronics and Applications | 2024, 9(1) : 10 - 26
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CPSS Transactions on Power Electronics and Applications | 2024, 9(1): 10-26
• Papers •
Critical Review of Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) Topologies: Communication, Power Flow Characteristics, Challenges, and Opportunities
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Gaurav KUMAR, Suresh MIKKILI
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  • National Institute of Technology Goa Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Goa 403401 India

    • Gaurav Kumar is a Ph.D. student in the Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department of the National Institute of Technology, Goa. He has done M.Tech. Degree in Power Electronics and Power Systems from the National Institute of Technology, Goa, India (2017). His research interests include electric vehicles, renewable energy, and DC-DC converters. He has achieved the MHRD scholarship during his M.Tech. degree.

    Suresh Mikkili received M.Tech. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical Engineering from the National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, India, in 2008 and 2013, respectively. He is currently working as an Associate Professor in the department of EEE at the National Institute of Technology Goa, India. He has been Head of the EEE department at NIT Goa from June 2014 to November 2015, Dean of student welfare at NIT Goa from September 2015 to July 2019. He is serving as BoG Member and Center In-Charge of B.Tech Admissions, NIT Goa. His research interest includes smart electric grid, electric vehicles, grid connected/stand-alone PV systems, wireless power transfer, power quality issues and applications of soft computing techniques. He has authored a book entitled "Power Quality Issues: Current Harmonics," published by the CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, August 2015, ISBN 9781498729628. He has reported results of his research (125+ articles) in reputed international journals (SCI/SCI-E) and at international conferences (Annual/Bi-Annual). Personal link: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5802-3390, https://nitgoa.irins.org/profile/141228.

Published: 2024-03-10 doi: 10.24295/CPSSTPEA.2023.00042
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The rise in demand for energy storage solutions and the widespread adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) have given rise to the creation of vehicletoeverything (V2X) topologies. V2X technology enables communication and power flow between EVs, the grid, homes, buildings, and other loads. This paper provides an acute review of V2X topologies, including the communication and power flow between EVs and the grid, homes, vehicles, and loads. The different types of V2X communication, including IEEE standards, the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), ISO standards, WiFi, and Internet of Things (IoT)based protocols, are discussed, along with their advantages and disadvantages. Finally, the challenges and opportunities for the adoption of V2X topologies are presented.

5G  /  C-V2X  /  DSRC  /  internet of things  /  vehicle to grid  /  vehicle to home  /  vehicle to vehicle
Gaurav KUMAR, Suresh MIKKILI. Critical Review of Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) Topologies: Communication, Power Flow Characteristics, Challenges, and Opportunities[J]. CPSS Transactions on Power Electronics and Applications, 2024 , 9 (1) : 10 -26 . DOI: 10.24295/CPSSTPEA.2023.00042
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I. Introduction
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THE advent of electric vehicles (EVs) has caused a substantial shift in the transportation industry, offering the possibility to mitigate greenhouse gas emanations and lessen reliance on non-renewable energy sources. However, the integration of EVs into the power grid offers new challenges and opportunities for the power system. vehicle-to-everything (V2X) technology is one of the promising solutions that allows bi-directional power flow between EVs and the grid, enabling EVs to integrate and support the grid’s stability and reliability. This technology includes several topologies that can provide various services, including vehicle-to-grid (V2G), vehicle-tohome (V2H), vehicle to building (V2B), vehicle to load (V2L), and vehicle to vehicle (V2V)[1].
V2G provides EVs with the ability to store and supply energy to the grid during high energy demand hours, while V2B and V2H allow EVs to power buildings and homes during power outages or reduce energy consumption during peak hours. Therefore, the integration of V2X topology is likely to diminish the environmental impact of transportation and increase the efficiency and resilience of the power system. In this review paper, our purpose is to provide an outline of this technology and its potential applications, benefits, opportunities, and challenges.
V2X communication systems are a key enabler of connected and autonomous vehicles. Dedicated Short-Range Communications (DSRC) is one of the communication protocols. The allocation of 75MHz on the 5.9GHz band to Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) uses by the United States FCC in 1999 aimed to enhance road safety, optimize rush-hour traffic flow, provide passenger infotainment, and enhance producer services [2]-[7]. V2X communications protocols include various types of communication, such as vehicle to network (V2N), vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I), vehicle-to-grid (V2G), and vehicle-to-pedestrian (V2P), each with its own applications and Quality of Service (QoS) requirements [3].
DSRC, a recognized Radio Access Technology (RAT), is specifically crafted for use in automotive and Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS). It enables units to share status data via short-distance communication. The shared data, referred to as Basic Safety Messages (BSMs), encompasses crucial vehicle details such as velocity, location, and direction. The DSRC system is created based on a sequence of IEEE and Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) standards, which describe the network design and security protocols. The physical and MAC layer architecture of DSRC is defined by the IEEE 802.11p protocol. This simplifies the verification related processes and data communication before sending information, enabling vehicles to broadcast relevant security information directly to nearby units. The IEEE 1609/Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments (WAVE) protocol is used to describe the network design and safety protocols [4]. Moreover, the SAE J2735 standard is employed to develop the application layer of the DSRC-based EV network. In addition to standardized BSMs, European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) has defined Cooperative Awareness Messages (CAMs) and distributed Environmental Notification Messages (DENMs) at the European level to upkeep the employment and utilization of Cooperative Intelligent
Transport Systems (C-ITS)[5]. The DSRC technology has several advantages, including efficient data transmission with low latency, reliable communication, and real time information exchange between vehicles and surrounding infrastructure. It facilitates the development of various vehicular applications, including collision avoidance, intersection safety, and traffic management. However, DSRC has some limitations, such as limited bandwidth width susceptibility and susceptibility to interference, making it challenging to support high-bandwidth applications.
V2X communication facilitates the exchange of data between V2I. C-V2X uses 5G’s features like high bandwidth, low latency, and multiple connections to enable real-time data exchange between EVs and different connections. It has excellent prospects for development and is the subject of current research [2],[6]. The Uu interface in C-V2X supports long-range communication between Evolved NodeB (eNB) and user equipment, while the sideline (PC5) interface enables direct V2V/V2I short-range communication [7]. 3GPP plays a crucial role in setting the technical standards for telecommunication technologies, including V2X systems [8],[9]. The 3GPP Release 15 standard introduced the 5G Phase 1 or New Radio (NR) air interface technology, while the 3GPP Version 16, also known as the 5G second stage, specifies the requirements for the next generation of C-V2X called NR-V2X [10]. Unlike C-V2X, NR-V2X supports broadcast, group cast, and unicast transmissions. There have been several efforts to emulate the functions of NR-V2X in various research projects. Table I shows the recent research on the V2X topologies. Table II shows the recent research on V2X communications. The third column explains the motive of the research paper.
Section II describes the different V2X topologies and their definitions. Section III describes the technical requirements for V2X communication and V2X topologies. Section IV describes the standards used in V2X communication. Section V describes the opportunity and challenges for V2X communication. In [1], it is discussed the different V2X topologies and their benefits, applications, barriers, and measures in the implementation of the V2X topology. V2X topologies provide services like emergency backup, energy sharing, energy arbitrage, voltage regulation, reactive power consumption, and frequency regulation.
In [11], the author discusses the V2G operation and a survey done for Shenzhen, China. In this survey, he discusses the optimization model for the charging of EVs during peak hours.
A. Brief Overview of V2X Topologies and its Applications
V2X topologies state to the ability of EVs to communicate with infrastructure, other vehicles, and the grid. This topology enables a widespread range of applications, including but not limited to V2V, V2I, V2G, V2H, and V2L. Each of these V2X applications is designed to provide specific energy services, and therefore, the load demand on the battery pack is different for each of them. Fig. 1 shows the different topologies of power flow from vehicles to other things. Vehicles are charged through the utility grid. It can be used as dynamic energy storage system.
V2X topologies can be divided into two categories: energy-based products and power-based products. Energy-based products include V2G energy arbitrage, spinning reserves, demand response, and emergency backup power. While the occurrence of use and daily utilization rates for each of these services will diverge, they will have a similar load profile.
Power-based products, on the other hand, are designed to respond quickly to fluctuations in the grid. V2G frequency regulation is a prime example of a power-based product where fast response time is essential and there is considerably less energy exchange involved. The inherent energy service for these products is charge/discharge flexibility. Fig. 2 shows the types of V2X topology and V2X communication. The power flows from the vehicle to others are shown in Fig. 3. It shows the complete structure of power flow from G2V and from vehicle to others through communication. It is explained on-board and off-board chargers of an EV. These are explained below.
1) On-Board Charger
An on-board charger is an electronic device that is installed in EVs and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles to convert AC from an external power source to DC to recharge the vehicle’s battery pack.
2) Off-Board Charger
An off-board charger is an EV charging device that is not built into the vehicle but is located outside of it. It is designed to charge the electric vehicle by providing electricity from an external source. Table III shows the applications of V2X topologies.
B. Overview of V2X Communication
The field of vehicular communication has been accelerating over the past few years and is anticipated to fundamentally influence the automotive industry and the way vehicles are utilized in society. V2X communication is projected to yield significant benefits. As per a study by the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), the implementation of V2V technology could enhance traffic safety by averting 439000 to 614000 accidents, sparing 987 to 1365 lives, and reducing 537000 to 746005 property destruction happenings each year. An article from the European Commission (EC) indicates that the comprehensive advantages of deploying the C-ITS comprise reductions in travel times, enhancements in efficiency, fewer accident rates, and fuel savings.
The initial standardized V2X technology is grounded in IEEE 802.11p (IEEE 802.11 external the Context of Basic Service Set (OCB) mode). In the U.S., the V2X system employing the 802.11 OCB mode is designated as DSRC, and its superior layer is known as WAVE as defined in the IEEE 1609 series and the SAE International (SAE) standard J2735. In Europe, ITS systems predicated on the IEEE 802.11 OCB mode are named ITS-G5, with their upper layer referred to as C-ITS. These standards and their interrelationships are discussed thoroughly in [27]. An overview of the V2X communication system is depicted in Fig. 4. V2X represents an umbrella term encompassing various communication types (V2V, V2P, V2I, and V2N).
C. Integration of V2X Communication and V2X Topology
V2X communication (V2V, V2P, V2I, and V2N) can be used in the V2X topology (V2G, V2V, V2H, and V2L) for power flow from EV to others. This is the new concept of equipping the EV with V2X communication. V2X communication with EVs will be very useful to enhance safety and enable the vehicles to share information about their speed, direction, and location with each other and infrastructure, helping to prevent accidents by alerting drivers or triggering autonomous systems in advance about potential collisions, road hazards, or other dangerous conditions. For effective integration of V2X communication and V2X topology, a few key factors need to be considered. Fig. 5 shows the major features for the integration of V2X communication with V2X topologies.
II. Different V2X Topologies and Their Definitions
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V2X topologies refer to the various modes of connection and interface between EVs and the power grid. V2X is an umbrella term that covers a range of technologies and services that enable EVs to interact with various elements of the power system, such as the grid, buildings, other EVs, and even pedestrians. V2X topologies represent the different ways in which these interactions can occur, depending on the application, location, and energy service being provided.
There are several V2X topologies, including V2G, V2B, V2H,V2L, and V2V [29]. Each topology describes a distinct mode of interaction and energy service that EVs can offer. V2G involves the use of EVs as a source of mobile storage of energy and flexibility for the grid. V2H and V2B refer to the usage of EVs as backup power sources for homes or buildings, respectively. V2L involves using EVs to power various loads, such as lighting or appliances, directly. V2V refers to the use of EVs to transfer energy between vehicles, for example, in the case of a stranded EV that needs a boost from another EV. Fig. 6 shows the unidirectional power flow from the utility grid to the EVs.
The details of the different components required for V2X topologies are given in Table IV. The advantages and disadvantages of V2X topologies are given in Table V. Table VI shows the recent projects on V2X topology. Table VII shows the communication protocols for V2X topologies. A year-wise analysis of V2X topologies and applications is given in Table VIII. The services, optimization objective, and constraints for V2G are listed in Table IX.
A. Vehicle to Grid
$\mathrm{V}2\mathrm{G}$ is a topology that allows $\mathrm{{EVs}}$ to discharge electricity from their batteries spinal to the electrical grid during periods of high demand or in emergency situations, in addition to charging from the grid. Fig. 7 indicates the power flow from an EV to the grid with an energy storage system.
V2G topology is based on bidirectional charging, which allows EV batteries to be charged or discharged based on the needs of the grid. The technology permits EV owners to sell excess electricity stored in their vehicle batteries back to the grid, either for a profit or as a way to offset the cost of charging. It can also help grid operators manage peak demand periods, provide frequency regulation and spinning reserve services, and improve the overall reliability and stability of the grid. Fig. 8 shows the power flow from an EV to the grid without an energy storage system.
For utilities and grid operators, V2G can help manage peak demand and reduce the need for expensive grid infrastructure upgrades. Additionally, it can provide an alternative source of backup power in the result of a grid outage or other emergency.
B. EVs to Building or EV to House
V2B and V2H are two different types of V2X topologies. Both technologies allow EVs to discharge their batteries to provide energy to buildings or homes in peak demand periods or power outages [26].
It can help reduce stress on the power grid and lower energy costs for building owners. In this scenario, the EVs are connected to the building’s electrical system via a specialized charging station. Power flow from EV and PV to homes without Grid is given in Fig. 9. Power flow from EV, PV, and utility grids to homes is given in Fig. 10. The aggregator is used to collect the power from all the EVs and send it for further transfer. During a blackout, the EV can be connected to the home’s electrical system via a bidirectional charger to provide power. In this scenario, the EV can also be used as a temporary power source during emergency situations or natural disasters.
C. Vehicle to Vehicle
V2V power flow, which refers to the capability of sharing energy with each other. The V2V bidirectional power flow system involves two electric vehicles that are equipped with bidirectional chargers, which can either charge the battery or discharge it. The charger can communicate with the other vehicle and determine the amount of energy required or available for transfer [21]. V2V bidirectional power flow has several potential applications shown in the Fig. 11. For instance, it can enable electric vehicle owners to share energy with each other, reducing their dependence on the electric grid. It can also be used in emergency situations to provide energy to vehicles that are stranded or have run out of battery power. Additionally, it can help balance the grid by allowing excess energy to be transferred to other vehicles or the grid [1].
V2V scenarios rarely happen, but in countries like India where there is a lack of charging stations, if the BEV car is far away and has a shortage of energy, another BEV can supply enough energy to reach the nearest charging station.
D. Vehicle to Load
V2L refers to a technology that allows EVs to transfer energy from their battery to power external loads. This can be done using the vehicle’s onboard charging system or with the help of off-board system and can be useful in a variety of situations, such as powering tools at a job site, providing electricity during a power outage, or even serving as a backup power source for a home or for a remote site. V2L topology is becoming increasingly popular as EV adoption continues to grow and as more advanced charging systems are developed. The power flow from an EV to AC or DC Loads is given in Fig. 12.
III. TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR V2X Communication and V2X Topology
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Communication protocols: V2X systems require specific communication protocols that enable the transfer of data and information between different devices and systems. Some of the commonly used communication protocols include IEEE 802.11p, 3GPP, Cellular V2X (C-V2X), DSRC, internet of Things, Bluetooth, etc.
Hardware components: V2X systems require specific hardware components to facilitate communication and power transfer. These components may include antennas, power electronics, batteries, inverters, and voltage converters.
Safety standards: V2X systems must comply with strict safety standards to ensure that they do not pose any risks to drivers, passengers, or pedestrians. Safety standards may include crash testing, Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) testing, and environmental testing.
Power requirements: V2X systems require a reliable power source to operate effectively. The power source may be a battery, a fuel cell, or a direct connection to the grid. The power source must provide enough energy to support the V2X system’s power requirements.
Data security: V2X systems must confirm the security and privacy of the data and information being transferred between different devices and systems. This may involve using encryption techniques, digital signatures, and secure communication protocols.
Interoperability: V2X systems must be interoperable, meaning they can communicate and exchange information with other systems regardless of the manufacturer or technology used.
IV. Standards for V2X Communication
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V2X communication technology enables vehicles to communicate with other vehicles, infrastructure, and devices. It provides a range of aids, including enhanced safety, abridged traffic congestion, and increased energy efficiency[51],[52]. It uses various communication protocols and topologies, including V2V, V2I, V2P, and V2G [52],[53]. These topologies have different advantages and disadvantages, and technical requirements and specifications need to be met for successful implementation. This technology can also be applied to CAVs [54] to improve safety and efficiency. A few communication technologies are given below. Fig. 13 shows V2V, V2P, V2I, and V2N wireless communication. It has two types of communication ranges: long and short distance. Short communication is done with DSRC and Wi-Fi. For long-distance communication, C-V2X is required. GPS can also be used to detect the location of vehicles and send data to other infrastructure using different communication protocols. Table X shows the standards used for V2X communication. Table XI contains the details of the review of standards for V2X communication. Table XII shows the industrial application project regarding V2X communication throughout the world.
A. IEEE Standard
In 2010, IEEE accepted the revision IEEE 802.11p, aimed at standardizing vehicular communication systems. Subsequently, in 2016, this amendment was incorporated into the IEEE 802.11 standard [63]. It introduced a new operation mode called OCB mode for 802.11p-compliant devices, which does not require authentication or association. Instead, only the central channel frequency and channel bandwidth need to be set for communication. This amendment primarily focuses on the PHY and MAC layers for WLAN-based V2X communications. Fig. 14 shows the protocol stack of WAVE-DSRC.
To extend this standard to the application layer, the IEEE developed the IEEE 1609 standard, also known as WAVE. In Europe, the ETSI ITS worked on standardizing applications and a security outline on top of IEEE 802.11p. Two initiatives that benefited from this work are SAE [64], known as DSRC, and ETSI ITS-G5. Both define upper layer protocols operating on top of the 802.11 OCB mode. These initiatives enable short-range communication for direct interactions, including V2V between vehicles and V2I between vehicles and RSUs.
B. 3GPP Standard
Since 2014, the 3GPP has been focusing on the standardization of vehicular communication based on the already standardized $4\mathrm{G}$ LTE and later incorporating $5\mathrm{G}$ mobile cellular connectivity. The initiative commenced with the introduction of Proximity Services (ProSe) functionality in Release 12, originally developed for public safety communication. Support for direct vehicle-to-vehicle communication was later added in Release 13.
To extend ProSe abilities to D2D communications within a cellular environment, a new interface known as PC5 was established in 3GPP TS 23.285 [65] for the LTE system. A corresponding functionality for the 5G system exists in 3GPP TS 23.287 [66]. The PC5 interface, also known as side link, provides an additional communication path to the existing Uu interface between the user equipment and the base station (referred to as eNodeB in LTE and gNodeB in 5G in standard specifications). This integrated approach of short-range side link (PC5) and long-range (Uu) communications within the same system is seen as corresponding, facilitating a variety of new use cases or services. This technology, leveraging 4G LTE or $5\mathrm{G}$ for V2X communications, is incorporated under the 3GPP standard for C-V2X. Fig. 15 shows the protocol stack of ETSI ITS-G5.
C. ISO Standard
The International Standard Organization (ISO) has formulated numerous standards relevant to vehicles. ISO 26262 [64] provides a definition for the functional safety of electrical and electronic devices used in the automotive industry. This standard is adapted from IEC 61508, a universally applicable safety standard that prescribes the safety lifecycle for electronic systems and products. As a risk-based safety standard, it enables vehicles to evaluate and mitigate the risk of potential hazardous situations to prevent systematic vehicle failure. This standard was initially published in 2011 and underwent revision in 2018 [64], wherein aspects of cybersecurity were included to a limited extent.
ISO/SAE 21434 [67] outlines the cybersecurity standard for road vehicles, initiated as a joint venture between ISO and SAE in 2016. Grounded in SAE J2735 [68], ISO/SAE 21434 establishes a process and sets minimum criteria for cybersecurity engineering across all stages of the product lifecycle to avert cyberattacks on vehicles. Compliance with this standard ensures a uniform cybersecurity development process throughout the vehicle development lifecycle across the entire automotive industry. However, as noted in an analysis by Macher et al.[69], ISO/SAE 21434 doesn’t provide solutions for specific execution details or best practices, nor does it offer a “silver bullet”. It also doesn’t cover cybersecurity for autonomous vehicles or non-vehicle entities like RSUs.
ISO 39001 [70], published in 2012, serves as a management system standard for Road Traffic Safety (RTS). Aimed at improving traffic safety, this standard is geared towards organizations striving to enhance traffic safety. Those organizations in compliance with ISO 39001 can earn certification of compliance.
D. Wi-Fi Protocols
There are several Wi-Fi-based protocols that can be used for V2X communication, including IEEE 802.11p and ITS-G5. IEEE 802.11p, also known as WAVE, is a standard developed specifically for vehicular communication. ITS-G5, developed by the ETSI, is another Wi-Fi-based protocol designed for use in ITS. Both IEEE 802.11p and ITS-G5 operate in the ${5.9}\mathrm{{GHz}}$ frequency band and can support communication between vehicles as well as between vehicles and roadside infrastructure. Fi-based protocols have the advantage of being widely used and relatively low-cost, but they may not offer the same level of reliability and security as dedicated V2X communication technologies like DSRC or C-V2X.
E. Internet of Things
IoT is a rapidly growing technology that is increasingly being integrated into V2X communication systems. It refers to the network of physical objects, vehicles, and devices that are connected to the internet and able to communicate with each other, as shown in Fig. 16. It can enable vehicles and other devices to share data and information with each other in real-time, enhancing the overall efficiency and safety of the transportation system. For example, IoT sensors can be used to monitor traffic conditions, weather patterns, and other factors that can affect traffic flow, and this information can be shared with connected vehicles to optimize routing and reduce congestion. It can also enable V2X communication systems to gather and analyze huge amounts of information, allowing for more precise predictions and better decision-making. IoT is very useful in V2X communication because it enables the vehicle to connect to the internet. It is the most trending technology for industrial applications to control and monitor processes. Charging stations for EVs can be connected to the internet through IoT.
A year-wise analysis of V2X communication protocols and their applications is given in Table XIII. A comparison of different Communication protocols, advantages, and disadvantages is given in Table XIV.
V. Opportunities and Challenges of V2X Communication
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In this section, we discuss the challenges and opportunities for V2X communication.
A. Opportunities for ${V2X}$ Communication
1) Improved safety: It can deliver real-time data to vehicles about potential hazards, accidents, and traffic congestion, enabling drivers to make informed decisions and avoid accidents.
2) Increased Efficiency: It can help optimize traffic flow, reduce congestion, and improve fuel efficiency, leading to reduced travel times and fuel consumption.
3) Enhanced mobility: It can improve the accessibility and efficiency of public transportation, making it more attractive to users.
4) Reduced Environmental Impact: It can help reduce emissions by enabling more efficient routing and reducing congestion.
5) New Business Opportunities: V2X technology presents new opportunities for service providers and technology companies to develop and offer innovative services and applications.
B. Challenges for ${V2X}$ Communication
1) Standardization: In the context of V2X topologies, standardization is crucial to ensure the compatibility and interoperability of different V2X systems and components and to enable seamless communication among vehicles, infrastructure, and other devices. Standardization also helps to reduce costs and risks related to the development, deployment, and operation of the systems, and to facilitate the adoption and diffusion of these topologies [35].
There are several organizations and bodies involved in the standardization of this technology, including the ISO, SAE, ETSI, and IEEE, among others. These organizations develop and publish standards, guidelines, and technical specifications for various aspects of this technology, such as communication protocols, network architecture, security, and testing and certification procedures.
2) Security: Security is a crucial aspect of V2X technology since it involves communication between vehicles and the infrastructure, and any vulnerability in the communication network can result in potential threats to the safety of the passengers and the vehicles. The security challenges of V2X technology includes the need for secure communication channels, authentication and authorization of the devices, secure storage of sensitive data, and protection against cyberattacks. To report these security, challenges, various security mechanisms, such as encryption, digital signatures, and secure booting, have been projected and implemented in V2X systems.
3) Cost: One of the major challenges in the deployment of this technology is the cost associated with it. The development and installation of V2X infrastructure involve a significant investment, including the cost of sensors, communication equipment, and other hardware and software components. Additionally, the cost of maintaining and upgrading the infrastructure over time is also a consideration. This can be a barrier to adoption, particularly for smaller municipalities or organizations that may not have the resources to invest in such technology. However, as the technology becomes more widespread and economies of scale are achieved, the cost is expected to decrease, making V2X more accessible to a wider range of users.
4) Reliability: Reliability is an important challenge for this technology. The communication system must be highly reliable to ensure that safety-critical messages are delivered in a timely manner. This is especially important for applications such as collision avoidance and emergency warning systems. The system must be designed to minimize the risk of message loss, delays, and interference. Numerous variables, such as the caliber of the communication link, the environment, and the dependability of the communication equipment, affect the reliability of the V2X system. The use of redundant communication channels and error correction codes can help improve reliability. Additionally, regular maintenance and testing of The V2X equipment can help ensure that the system is operating reliably.
5) Integration: V2X technology needs to be integrated with other technologies, such as autonomous driving and smart cities, to realize its full potential. Therefore, there is a need for collaboration between different industries and sectors to achieve this integration.
VI. CONCLUSION
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V2X topologies and communication protocols with definitions, advantages, and disadvantages, along with the worldwide status of the projects on V2X topologies and V2X communications, are discussed in this paper. Further, comparisons of different communication protocols and power flows between different topologies are discussed. At last, the challenges and opportunities of V2X communications are discussed. By integrating both the technologies, EV can be upgraded with safety and communication.
These topologies have the potential to brighten the transportation industry by providing the facility so that vehicles and infrastructure can communicate with each other, leading to improved road safety, transportation efficiency, and sustainability. 3GPP, DSRC, C-V2X, Wi-Fi, and IoT are the prominent technologies that enable V2X communication, each with its own advantages and disadvantages.
As for future trends, this communication technology is likely to continue evolving and improving in the coming years. The development of $5\mathrm{G}$ networks and the introduction of cellular V2X technology are expected to enhance this communication performance and enable new applications. Additionally, the incorporation of artificial intelligence and machine learning techniques can enable intelligent decision-making and optimization in V2X networks.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
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The authors thank the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, for financial assistance provided under Grant number: EEQ/2021/000294.
Funding
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  • Science and Engineering Research Board, Department of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, India(EEQ/2021/000294)
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Article Info
doi: 10.24295/CPSSTPEA.2023.00042
  • Receive Date：2023-05-14
  • Online Date：2025-07-05
  • Published：2024-03-10
Article Data
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History
  • Received：2023-05-14
  • Revised：2023-08-17
  • Accepted：2023-09-20
Funding
Science and Engineering Research Board, Department of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, India(EEQ/2021/000294)
Affiliations
    National Institute of Technology Goa Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Goa 403401 India

Corresponding:

Suresh Mikkili.
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表12种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family		 属数
Number of
genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)		 属
Genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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