Home Journals Articles Updates About
CN
image
收藏切换
Construction and application of bioinspired nanochannels based on two-dimensional materials
收藏切换
PDF
Jinlin Hao, Weijie Wang, Jiawei Zhao, Honglin Che, Lu Chen, Xin Sui*
Chinese Chemical Letters | 2022, 33(5) : 2291 - 2300
Less
收藏切换
Chinese Chemical Letters | 2022, 33(5): 2291-2300
• Review •
Construction and application of bioinspired nanochannels based on two-dimensional materials
Full
Jinlin Hao, Weijie Wang, Jiawei Zhao, Honglin Che, Lu Chen, Xin Sui*
Affiliations
  • College of Materials Science and Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
Published: 2022-05-15 doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2021.10.011
Outline
收藏切换

With the development of nanotechnology and materials science, bioinspired nanochannels appeared by mimicking the intelligent functions of biological ion channels. They have attracted a great deal of attention in recent years due to their controllable structure and tunable chemical properties. Inspired by the layered microstructure of nacre, 2D layered materials as excellent matrix material of nanochannel come into our field of vision. Bionic nanochannels based on 2D materials have the advantages of facile preparation, tunable channel size and length, easy expansion, and modification, etc. Therefore, the 2D layered nanofluid system based on bionic nanochannels from 2D layered materials has great potential in biomimetic microsensors, membrane separations, energy conversion, and so on. In this paper, we focus on the construction and application of bionic nanochannels based on 2D layer materials. First, a basic understanding of nanochannels based on 2D materials is briefly introduced, we also present the property of the 2D materials and construction strategies of bionic nanochannels. Subsequently, the application of these nanochannels in responsive channels and energy conversion is discussed. The unsolved challenges and prospects of 2D materials-based nanochannels are proposed in the end.

Bioinspired nanochannels  /  2D material  /  Layered structure  /  Energy conversion  /  Responsive nanochannels
Jinlin Hao, Weijie Wang, Jiawei Zhao, Honglin Che, Lu Chen, Xin Sui. Construction and application of bioinspired nanochannels based on two-dimensional materials[J]. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2022 , 33 (5) : 2291 -2300 . DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2021.10.011
Full Text
Less
1 Introduction
Less
Biological ion channels on the cell membrane of organisms can control the transportation of ions and molecules across the membrane to complete the communication with the outside of the cell to achieve inter-cell signal transmission, energy transfer, and maintain the normal physiological function [1-4]. For example, potassium ion channels on the membrane of nerve fibers in animals can convert various stimuli into electrical signals [5]; proton channels on the retina can convert solar energy into bioelectricity [6]; calcium ion channels on the membrane of the heart muscle can maintain biological potential [7]; electric eel contains a large number of electrocyte with ion-selective channels and is able to convert the salinity gradient energy inside and outside the cell into bioelectricity, generating action potential as high as 600 V for hunting or self-defense [8-10]. With the development of nanotechnology and materials science, bioinspired nanochannels appeared by mimicking these intelligent functions of biological ion channels [11-17]. Bioinspired nanochannels can reproduce the rectifying, gating, energy transfer, and stimuli-responsive functions in organisms [18-20]. Based on these bioinspired functions, researchers boost a lot of related applications such as biomimetic microsensors, biomedical analysis, membrane separations, seawater desalination, energy conversion [18, 21-26]. For bioinspired nanochannels, the surface chemistry and geometry of channels should be controlled to manipulate the ion transport performances. The length scale of these nanochannels needs to be down to 1–100 nm in one dimension [27, 28]. In addition, the transport of the nanochannels is mainly determined through the surface chemistry of the channel walls, leading to diverse unique phenomena of transport [29].
Over recent decades, numerous investigations have been allocated to the construction and application of bioinspired nanochannels. Guo et al. by using abiotic materials, synthesized a PET single-pore nanometer ion channel, obtaining maximum efficiency power of 26 pW within a salinity gradient energy [30]. Regarding the sensitive detection mechanism of CO2 in mice and the action mechanism of heme as a channel inhibitor, our group designed CO and CO2 responsive ion channels based on PET single pore membrane [31, 32]. Fundamental researches in these single-pores can substantially facilitate the development of nanoporous membrane smart systems. In recent years, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) [33], inorganic nanowires [34], organic nanofibers [35], etc. based on one-dimensional (1D) nanomaterials can assembly into macroscopic nanochannels membrane as nanofluid systems, gaining considerable attention [36-38]. Furthermore, various three-dimensional (3D) nanomaterials including hydrogels, inorganic mica flakes, and polymer films, etc. [39, 40] have been broadly applied for constructing bionic nanochannels. can simply type your text into this template or modify an already prepared manuscript based on the template formating.
Nacre microstructure is described as a "brick and mortar" layered arrangement, the interstitial space between opposite nanosheets could be processed as lamellar channels for the transport of charge and mass [41]. These layered structures can enhance the ion migration density, and can substantially diminish the ion migration resistance, and possesses the control feature of the surface charge on the nanometer scale. In addition, this natural structure plays an important role in its mechanical properties. This provides a source of biological inspiration for researchers to build biomimetic nanochannels with practical applications. Inspired by nacre-liked layered materials, two-dimensional (2D) layered nanomaterials have attracted our attention, such as graphene oxide (GO) [42, 43], MXene [44, 45], black phosphorus (BP) [46], MoS2 [47, 48], C3N4 [49], nano-clay [50, 51]. Bionic nanochannels based on 2D nanomaterials have significant advantages: (1) The preparation methods of 2D layered nanomaterials are facile. For example, it can be realized by vacuum filtration. Such as GO membranes, after pouring the prepared GO dispersion into a vacuum filter device, GO membranes with layered structure can be formed after simple vacuum filtration [52]. (2) The channel size and length of 2D layered nanochannels could be easily controlled by changing the conditions of the dispersion solution. (3) The basic components of 2D nanomaterials can be modified efficiently in their dispersions. For instance, an anion-selective GO film was prepared by modifying the GO dispersion to make it positively charged [53]. In this review, we introduced the latest progress in the construction of 2D materials-based bioinspired nanochannels, including various 2D nanomaterials like GO, BP, MXene, MoS2, nano-clay, C3N4, MOFs and preparation methods like vacuum filtration, evaporation, pressure-assisted pumping, wet-spinning assembly, chemical vapor deposition, electron irradiation. These nanochannels based on 2D materials can be used in responsive nanochannels, biomimetic sensing, separation and filtration, biomedical analysis, energy conversion, etc. In this paper, we mainly summarize the wide application of responsive nanochannel and energy conversion (Fig. 1). Finally, we present some of the challenges that need to be faced in the current research process and the outlook for the future development of this field.
2 Design and construction of nanochannels based on 2D materials
Less
2.1 The 2D layered materials for nanochannels
In recent years, 2D materials have been considerably developed for constructing nanochannel membranes. 2D materials are generally classified into the following categories: single-element 2D materials [54-57], transition metal sulfide [47, 48, 58, 59], layered silicate materials [50, 51], novel 2D materials [60-62] and other 2D materials [63]. 2D material was proposed with the Geim's group at the University of Manchester in 2004 for successful isolation of single-atom layers of graphite material-graphene [64]. Graphene, with single-atom layer thickness and high strength, whether in theoretical research or application fields, has aroused great interest, and it is also the earliest widely used 2D material utilized for constructing bionic nanochannels (Fig. 2a) [53]. Graphene and its derivatives, especially GO, have excellent modifiable sites such as hydroxyl and carboxyl. It can be modified with specific molecules to mimic receptor-based specific adsorption or selective transport of specific ions on the membranes of nerve cells. BP is another type of single-element 2D material, and its properties and structure are similar to graphite [65]. Furthermore, it can be peeled off. The stripped BP will be oxidized when exposed to air and water. BP is the most stable allotrope in phosphorus elements. It has become a new material for the preparation of layered nanochannels. Zhang et al. stripped BP and conducted controlled oxidation in water to produce charged phosphorus compounds. Then, they reconstructed the nanosheets as layered nanochannels for ion transport (Fig. 2b) [46]. Transition metal disulfide compounds are a major branch of 2D materials. These materials generally exhibit a sandwich structure of X-M-X, and the layers are connected by van der Waals forces, showing obvious anisotropy. Radenovic et al. utilized molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) to construct nanochannel and demonstrated more desirable water-transport performance in comparison to graphene because of the enriched hydrophilic surface sites [47]. TMDs can be prepared for atomically thin nanopore membranes. Ultrathin nanopore membranes are considered an approach to achieve rapid and cheap DNA sequencing. Compared with traditional silicon nitride nanopore with thickness of about tens nanometers, it performs better sensitivity [66]. Montmorillonite (MMT), a naturally occurring silicate mineral, is a kind of earth-like mineral composed of nanometer-thick negatively charged silicate sheets that are stacked together by electrostatic interaction between the layers [67, 68]. The average thickness of the wafer is less than 25 nm after stripping and dispersing, purification and modification, ultrafine grading, and special organic composite (Fig. 2c) [69]. It has very strong adsorption capacity and cation exchange performance, and low cost. Kaolin is another layered silicate substance, which is the most abundant in soil [70]. The difference between MMT and kaolin lies in the spatial structure [71]. Kaolin is an aqueous aluminosilicate with no cations or water molecules between the structural layers and strong hydrogen bonds (O-strengthen the bonds between the structural layers) (Fig. 2d) [72]. However, montmorillonite is a silicate clay mineral with a lamellar structure and lamellar crystallization. There are cations or water molecules between the structural layers. The strong oxygen ion chain strengthens the connection between the structural layers. They are the appropriate layered materials for nanochannels.
As new 2D material, the appearance of MXene attracted great attention [45, 61, 73-75]. MXene is a category of 2D inorganic compounds in materials science. These materials consist of transition metal carbides, nitrides, or carbonitrides several atomic layers thick. The hydrophilic surface of delaminated MXene nanosheets possesses plenty of the sites of Lewis acid Ti as well as hydroxyl groups that are able to behave as charged units, which considerably simplify the confined transport of ions and water. Zhang et al. utilized MXenes and their composites to explore the transmission of ions. The layered membranes have remarkable strength and marvelous stability (Fig. 2e) [73]. MXenes, with its unique structure and physical properties, are widely used in the field of energy conversion and storage. Actually, they also hold potential in biochannels such as biosensing by surface functionalizing with polymers or nanoparticles. They have large specific surface area and high conductivity, and can be used as immobilized substrates for proteins, enzymes and bioluminescent materials, improving the sensing sensitivity and reducing the detection limit [76, 77]. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) as 2D material are a new class of crystalline porous materials with periodic 2D structures formed by the self-assembly of bridged organic ligands and inorganic metal centers. MOFs possess various suitable features including large specific surface area, porosity, and polymetallic sites, so they are widely used in catalysis, molecular separation, slow release of drugs, energy conversion, and other fields [78, 79]. Zhai and coworkers illustrated a number of hybrid nanochannel membranes through the incorporation of MOFs/polymer composites with anodic aluminum oxide as hybrid nanochannel membranes, attaining outstanding energy conversion behavior. (Fig. 2f) [80]. In addition, other 2D materials such as carbon nitride (C3N4) and boron nitride (BN) have also been developed as appropriate 2D materials for constructing nanochannel membranes [49, 81].
2.2 Preparation of bioinspired nanochannels based on 2D materials
The preparation method of bionic nanochannels based on 2D nanomaterials is relatively facile compared with other materials [82]. The original materials can be reassembled into a layered structure through a strip-recombination strategy [83, 84], and the gaps between the reconstructed layered materials can be used as nanochannels for ion transmission [85]. Vacuum filtration is the most common technique for the synthesis of 2D nanochannels: (1) it is simple and economical; (2) the distance between the layers and the thickness of the membrane could be controlled. For instance, Huang et al. attempted to prepare GO layered bionic nanochannel system by simple vacuum filtration [52]. Subsequently, the bionic nanochannel system based on GO has been continuously developed and studied as it can be modified with more possibilities. Liu et al. prepared the MXene membrane by vacuum filtration. The prepared MXene dispersion was filtered through a vacuum onto a polycarbonate membrane [61]. The dispersed MXene nanosheets self-assembled into a lamellar membrane material that could be easily peeled off the polycarbonate membrane. By vacuum filtration, Zhang et al. prepared a free-standing heterostructure membrane based on BP and GO with good flexibility for ion transport. They placed BP dispersed in dimethyl methylamine on a vacuum filter, to develop the GO-intercalated BP membrane, the multilayer membrane was synthesized through sequential filtration of BP and GO dispersion. In addition, evaporation-assisted self-assembly and pressure-assisted filtration can also be used to prepare 2D biomimetic nanochannels. Lai and his coworkers compared these several preparation methods and found that the membrane material prepared by pressure-assisted filtration was the most orderly, while the membrane material prepared by evaporation-assisted self-assembly was the most chaotic (Fig. 3a) [85]. It is inevitable that the degree of structure order will affect the properties of the layered membrane. For instance, Yu et al. used MMT/CS composite self-assembly to prepare layered membrane through water evaporation induction [67]. However, the 2D materials obtained by this method were inferior to the 2D materials obtained by vacuum filtration in terms of mechanical properties. They proved this conclusion with MMT/CS composite membrane through mechanical property tests. The mechanical properties of the structurally ordered membranes obtained by vacuum filtration are better than those obtained by simple mixing of conventional components. The tensile modulus and ultimate tensile strength of the structured ordered films are 3–5 times and 2–3 times higher than those of the conventional films, respectively.
In recent years, new methods for preparing 2D nanochannels appear and give us more possibilities. Liu et al. suggested a wet-spinning assembly technique for continuous and rapid generation of GO films [86]. In the first step, the injection of GO dispersion was executed into a coagulation bath by using a spinning channel. Subsequently, the GO dispersion was transformed into wet films through coagulation, and concurrently on a PET film was supported. The generated GO film can be 15 centimeter-wide and 20 meter-long (Fig. 3b). Xiao and colleagues presented the creation of 2D ultrathin-free-standing polymeric carbon nitride membranes that could be utilized for processing of ions transportation due to the peculiar layered structures. The process of fabrication is accomplished via chemical vapor deposition (CVD) or vapor-deposition polymerization (VDP). The membrane of polymeric carbon nitride could be simply delaminated from the glass substrates without causing any damage through soaking with water, already exhibiting the porosity (Fig. 3c) [87]. The application of 2D nanomaterials for generating single pore nanochannels has also been reported. For instance, Feng et al. synthesized a monolayer of MoS2 single nanochannel for transport of ions by taking advantage of the techniques of electron microscopy drilling (Fig. 3d) [47]. This nanochannel possesses the enrichment of hydrophilic surface points, indicating more desirable water transport capacity compared with GO. Despite the fact that the practical application of single pore membranes is difficult, it lays a foundation for the establishment of the basic mechanism of ion transport.
2.3 Properties of nanochannels based on 2D materials
2D materials can be used for constructing single nanopore, porous nanochannels, and hybrid nanochannels. For a single nanopore, it can be obtained by etching the pore channels on a single layer of nanosheets. This ion transport is not affected by the interactions between channels It has the shortest ion transport path, the lowest membrane resistance (Fig. 4a) [47]. Nanotube with smooth inner walls can also be used as an ion transport channel, which can carry functional groups on the surface for selective ion transport. Bocquet et al. reported a boron nitride single nanotube (BNNT) nanofluid device, which consists of a single nanotube with a diameter of 15~40 nm and a micron-size length (Fig. 4b) [63]. The device was prepared by careful manipulation of embedding and sealed in a silicon nitride film under a scanning electron microscope.
For porous nanochannels, based on the unique lamellar stacked structure of 2D biomimetic nanochannel materials, the migration modes of ions are more abundant. The diffusion direction of ions from the 2D nanochannel material plane is usually vertically through the interlayer space (Fig. 4c) [48]. In recent years, 2D layered materials have been constantly explored in the field of vertically ion transport, such as nanochannels based on graphene, boron nitride, BP, MXene, transition metal disulfide compounds, silicate compounds. For example, Zhu et al. demonstrated that composite membranes made of 2D metal MoS2 are not only robust and stable but also that the high electron density of MoS2 can increase the surface affinity of cations, which shows good ion selectivity and high ions flux and promotes the transmembrane ion migration [48]. In addition, 2D layered materials can also enable ion transport horizontally (Fig. 4c) [62]. We can use a 2D cross-section parallel as an ion channel in the sandwich space for ion transport. Wang and his coworkers used vacuum filter MXene dispersible solution on anodic alumina membrane to produce a hybrid membrane with an ordered layered structure. Then, the hybrid membrane was embedded in PDMS elastomer to produce an ion channel material that is parallel to the sandwich space. For both directions, the ion transport characteristics are influenced by the features of the surface related to the reassembled 2D nanosheets. The narrow distance of the interlayer has about 1 nm wide, and the electrical double layer (EDL) has completely covered the lamellar fluidic channels correlated well with the charge of the surface, resulted in the transport of unipolar ions. In such circumstances, the counter-ions are the only charge carriers, because the co-ions are fully expelled from the 2D nanochannels. In comparison to the horizontal transport mode, the charge and mass transport in the vertical direction permits high-performance membrane-based functionalities, specifically when the thickness of membranes could be diminished to multiple nanometers. 2D materials can also be used for constructing hybrid membranes to achieve high ion transport properties and more functionality. In these membranes, the path of ion transport will be more diversified, they will combine 2D-based nanochannels and other materials.
3 Applications
Less
3.1 Responsive nanochannels based on 2D nanomaterials
The leading characteristic of biological ion channels for smart monitoring of the cellular surroundings is the responsive transport of ions under external stimuli which plays a pivotal role in various biological applications, including visual sense and neuronal excitations [88-90]. Inspired by the structure and function of biological ion channels, biomimetic responsive nanochannels based on 2D nanomaterials for ion transport have attracted a lot of attention in recent years [91, 92]. Bioinspired nanochannels can be used to create a variety of nano-devices that respond to external stimuli and control the opening or closing of ion channels. Such as light, pH, temperature, multiple stimuli simultaneously and specific ions or molecules.
Due to the limitation of carrier migration and heat diffusion in the 2D plane, 2D materials exhibit many unique features, and their adjustable bandgap is widely used in photoelectric devices, field-effect tubes, thermoelectric devices, and other related fields [93-95]. Directional migration of ions controlled by light has aroused great interest in the interdisciplinary direction. For example, MXenes, which organize a category of highly-developed materials for photothermal conversion with potent light absorption and efficacious photothermal conversion, were applied for efficient conversion of light into heat [96, 97]. Liu et al. exhibited a modern mechanism of nanofluidic regulation on the basis of the phenomena of heat-driven light-induced active ion transport via lamellar Mxene membranes [61]. Owing to the considerable light-induced heat impact, a temperature gradient emerges immediately after illumination is employed to an off-center position, inducing an actively temperature gradient-driven transport of ionic species. Xiao et al. explained a light-induced ion pump strategy on the basis of the commonly used membranes in which the nanotubes are created from the coating of cylindrical nanochannels with carbon nitride. The separation of holes and electrons in carbon nitride nanotube-based membranes (CNNM) under illumination leads to a transmembrane potential which is considered as the key of pumping phenomena, owing to the potent light absorption capability of carbon nitride-based semiconductors and photocatalysts (Fig. 5a) [49]. In molybdenum disulfide (MoS2)-based membranes, single nanopores have indicated record-high power efficiencies in alkaline circumstances. Through enhancing the charge of the surface within MoS2 membranes via light, Radenovic et al. doubled the osmotic power produced through a single nanopore at a neutral pH [98]. The single-layer transition-metal dichalcogenide has been found very interesting for optoelectronics functionalities due to the presence of a visible range direct bandgap. Further, light has been utilized to ameliorate directional ion migration by enhancing the intensity of light to induced surface charges. This mechanism is usually achieved by modifying photo-responsive molecules. Guo et al. generated a photo-responsive nanofluidic diode on the basis of chemically modified GO membranes [99]. The process of modification was completely straightforward and simple. The solution of ethanol relevant to photoactive molecules, spiropyran, was dropped on the upper surface of a fragment of the GO membrane. Next, the moieties of spiropyran were permeated into the GO membrane and adsorbed on the upper surface layers of the GO membrane, through interactions of π-π. Upon the irradiation of UV, the conversion of spiropyran to the cationic merocyanine was carried out, enhancing the membrane the ion-selectivity (Fig. 5b). Kim et al. used layer-by-layer assembly strategy to assemble GO membranes from GO and amine functionalized GO. The GO multilayered membrane owned pH tunable thickness, roughness, and charge density as the electric charge effect [100].
In addition, thermal-responsive molecules have been also widely used in building responsive nanochannels. Poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (pNIPAM) and poly(sulfobetaine), typical temperature responsive polymers, often can be modified onto nanochannels as a functional molecule [101-104]. Kung et al. grafed poly(sulfobetaine) onto GO sheets to construct a thermally responsive membrane [105]. It showed an upper-critical solution temperature (UCST) type response in organic electrolytes as the transformation of the morphology of polymer chains. Due to the changing of temperature, the polymer chains will coil or uncoil to promote or hinder the transport of ions. Besides introduce temperature-responsive molecules, Wu et al. explored a nonlinear thermal responsive nanodevice through incorporating GO nanosheets and cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) assembled membrane with considerable space charge and enlarged nanochannels [106]. Owing to the bubble nucleation, the hybrid membrane exhibits a nonlinear thermal dependence relationship at greater temperatures. Fu et al. explored the thermal response principle of 2D material ReS2 [107]. The ReS2 nanosheet demonstrated out-of-plane bending with enhancing temperature. The intrinsic ripples in ReS2 tend to aggregate quickly with enhancing temperature because of the thermal fluctuations. The weak interlayer coupling of ReS2 is further weakened, resulting in interlayer sliding.
Nanochannels on the basis of 2D materials have been broadly employed in molecular recognition and sieving [108, 109]. Nair and colleagues utilized GO membrane to obtain meticulous and ultrafast molecular sieving [110]. According to their achievements, the tiny species were able to permeate with almost the same speed, whilst larger ions and organic molecules illustrate no detectable permeation (Fig. 6a). Mi et al. scrutinized the transmission path of ions and molecules in the GO membrane and the adjustability of the size of nanochannels [111]. GO membranes demonstrate the next generation of ultrathin, high-flux, and energy-efficient membranes for meticulous ionic and molecular sieving (Fig. 6b). In addition to molecular sieving by channel size, GO membranes can be modified with specific polypeptides for the recognition and transporting of specific ions (Fig. 6c) [112].
3.2 Nanochannels based on 2D materials for energy conversion
The development and utilization of sustainable clean energy is still an urgent issue in recent years. Energy conversion membrane has become increasingly important for the development of new sources of energy. In nature, some organisms are considerably skillful in converting clean energy in the environment into bioelectricity. As an example, electrical eels are able to generate strong electric shocks by using a number of membrane-protein regulated ion transport. Inspired by this, nanofluidics based on 2D materials have been created for the conversion of energy [113].
3.2.1 Salinity gradient energy conversion
There is a significant quantity of Marine energy available in nature and salinity gradient energy has considerable potential in reducing the global energy crisis. Salinity gradient energy is a type of green, sustainable clean energy. Pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) and traditional reverse electrodialysis (RED) methods are available for the extraction of energy from the salinity gradients in junction of seawater and river water [114-116]. It has been proved by theory and experiment that the reverse electrodialysis method has stronger energy conversion ability [117, 118]. As the key component of RED technology, the ion exchange membrane (IEM) determines the efficiency and ability of the device in energy conversion [119-122]. IEM is embedded in the junction of two solutions with different salinity, and ions can only be transferred through the channels inside the membrane (Fig. 7a) [114]. Due to the asymmetric transmission of ions, the ion concentration gradient is generated to form an electric field, and this energy is the output to the external circuit through the electrode wire, and then converted into electrical energy. The IEM needs to have the specificity of ion transport and a certain mechanical strength at the same time. 2D materials with these properties attract our attention. More and more energy conversion membranes based on 2D materials have been developed for catching salinity gradient energy.
GO membranes have been extensively investigated on salinity gradient power production for decades [123]. By taking advantage of reconstructed GO membranes, Sun et al. illustrated a novel approach for salinity gradient power production [124]. The ions diffused from the high concentration source side to the low-concentration drain side driven by the difference in chemical potential. GO nanosheets could be rendered positively charged by the preassembly chemical modification procedure. Whilst negatively charged membranes are able to harvest energy from the flow of unipolar cations, positively charged GO membranes harvests that by using the flow of anions. For example, Ji et al. modified 1-aminopropyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide onto GO membrane to obtain a positively charged reconstructed membrane. In this way, efficient osmotic energy conversion is achieved by containing the opposite charged GO pairs (Fig. 7b) [53]. In addition, GO membrane also can be applied as a composite membrane in the way blending or assemble. Zhang et al. constructed a heterostructure membrane with GO and BP [46]. BP membrane can be oxidated in water to generate more charges. Due to the synergistic effect of GO and BP, the composite membrane achieved high power density of the salinity gradient power generation performance (Fig. 7c).
Salinity gradient energy conversion equipment is located at the junction of sea and river, and the efficiency of energy conversion will also be affected due to the changeable climate in nature. The researchers further explored the influence of external conditions on salinity gradient energy conversion in order to achieve energy conversion devices that are more suitable for practical applications. Temperature changes occur all the time. Inspired by biological thermionic channels, Wu et al. developed MMT/polymer composite cationic nanochannels modified with octa-alkyldimethylammonium bromide (DODAB) application in salinity gradient energy conversion [69]. DODAB molecules have different structural shapes at different temperatures to switch on and off ion channels at different temperatures. The output power doubled when the temperature was raised from 30 ℃ to 60 ℃. Polyacrylic acid can generate high-density negative charges in the nanochannels, which promote these MMT-based nanochannels have high cationic selectivity (Fig. 8a).
In recent years, as a new 2D nanomaterial, MXene has attracted extensive attention due to its rich surface functional groups and electrical conductivity properties. Hong et al. used LiF and HCl to etch Ti3AlC2 to obtain MXene nanosheets, then, the orderly accumulation of layers of nanosheets can be realized by vacuum-assisted filtration [45]. Accordingly, the MXene membrane has outstanding performance in the permeability energy conversion ability [61]. Ding et al. modified MXene nanosheets with functional groups to make their surfaces positively charged, and then prepared anionic selective MXene membranes [44]. The original negatively charged MXene nanosheets could be self-assembled into cationic selective membrane materials. A larger power density can be obtained by alternately arranging the two layers. This intelligent response applied to biomimetic nanochannels has brought broad prospects for improving the conversion and utilization of salinity gradient energy. In order to break through the bottleneck of 2D material properties (inherent surface properties, layer spacing, etc.), it can be doped with other functional materials in the 2D material. For example, Zhang et al. prepared a high-strength composite membrane by pumping the solution of high-strength Kevlar fiber and MXene solution [73]. In addition, the layer spacing was expanded by doping the fiber in the layered nanosheets, and the ion transport performance of the nanochannel was improved obviously (Fig. 8b).
As we all know, the thickness of salinity gradient energy conversion membranes has a great influence on their performance. The thickness of these membranes prepared by vacuum filtration is usually in the micron scale. Xiao et al. prepared an ultra-thin C3N4 membrane by vapor deposition method for salinity gradient energy conversion [49]. The membrane was packed tightly between layers and the thickness was only about 500 nm, which showed excellent cationic selectivity.
3.2.2 Electrokinetic energy conversion
Besides salinity gradient energy conversion, the energy conversion of the electrokinetic effect is also realized based on the interaction of double electric layers in nanochannels, which is the conversion process of mechanical energy to electric energy [125]. The difference between them is the driving force, one is salinity gradient, the other is pressure. The electrokinetic effect refers to that when the external pressure drives the electrolyte solution through the nanochannels with a net charge, the charge separation of cation and cation occurs in the double electric layer, and the asymmetric transport of cation and cation occurs in these channels, and then dynamic current and voltage will be produced [71, 125].
A large number of studies have shown that the energy conversion efficiency related to the electrodynamic effect is relatively low, which restricts the advancement of electrodynamic energy conversion nanodevices. The research on the structure optimization, surface chemical modification, and cross-section migration of nanodevices is the main direction to improve the electric energy conversion efficiency [126].
2D material-based nanochannels have been developed for electrokinetic energy conversion in recent years. Lei and coworkers explained a new power production instrument on the basis of the transport of ions by BN nanosheets conduits [127]. A considerable quantity of nanofluidic channels could be provided via BN membranes. These channels are widely implemented for the conversion of hydraulic pressure into streaming ionic current. The current created on the instrument is estimated around 12.1 nA with a pressure difference of 5 kPa. The excellent output power density of electrokinetic energy conversion instruments is critically required. Cao et al. reported a vertically oriented MXene membrane with high ion selectivity and ultrafast penetration, providing a flowing current of 8.17 A/m2 driven by the hydraulic pressure. A power density close to 25 W/m2 can be obtained (Fig. 9a) [74]. Through theoretical analysis, the authors found that the mechanism of ultra-fast ion transport is mainly due to the obvious short migration path, the low energy loss during ion transport, and the large ion channel entrances on the membrane surface. These new understandings will bring light to the development of electric energy conversion devices. As we know, the introduction of asymmetric structures is very important for ion transmission and their positive effect on electrokinetic energy conversion is irrefutable. Guo et al. fabricated an asymmetric proton transport instrument comprising sequentially stacked positively and negatively charged GO multilayers [128]. Three various driving forces, namely the transmembrane concentration gradient, external electric field, and the hydraulic pressure difference were applied to study this proton transport instrument. There could be a preferable transmission direction for asymmetric membranes, the preferred direction for transport of a proton is distinct under various driving forces in the considered asymmetric GO multilayers (Fig. 9b). Furthermore, 2D/1D nanofluidic heterojunction membrane comprising self-assembled 2D GO multi-layers and a polydopamine (PDOPA)-coated 1D nanopore array was constructed [129]. Besides, ionic solutions are dragged to drive through the 2D/1D hybrid membranes, and produce synchronous streaming currents in a similar direction within the hydraulic flow, under hydraulic pressure difference (Fig. 9c). There indeed exists a preferable direction for the transmission of ions.
3.2.3 Photovoltaic energy conversion
Living organisms can convert solar energy into their own usable energy. The conversion and utilization of solar energy are mainly through some of the protons from low concentration to high concentration and then generating electrochemical potential. Bacteriophodopsin, a protein that absorbs light and carries protons across the cell membrane, utilizes light to drive protons to move across the cell membrane, moving protons against the charge gradient to the outside of the cell to carry more positive charges, creating a charge gradient that can be used to drive cell activity. Bionic nanochannels have been used for photovoltaic energy conversion like bacteriophodopsin [130, 131]. Moreover, 2D materials perform an essential task in the aforementioned field.
BN is a class of tremendous photocatalysts and semiconductors with remarkable light absorption capability. Xiao et al. reported a novel strategy on the basis of the carbon nitride nanotube-based membranes which possess the capability of driving ions thermodynamically uphill against an up to 5000-fold concentration gradient through illumination [49]. The separation of holes and electrons in the membranes by illumination leads to a transmembrane potential which is considered to be the infrastructure for the pumping phenomena. The system can generate a stable open-circuit voltage of 550 mV and a current density of 2.4 µA/cm2 when collecting solar energy (Fig. 10a). Guo et al. prepared a layered GO membrane capable of generating ion migration under asymmetric light [132]. Under this asymmetrical illumination, ions can migrate over a wide concentration range at much faster rates than simple diffusion, creating a concentration gradient (Fig. 10b). They described that the irradiation of light diminishes the local electric potentials on the GOM according to the mechanism of carrier diffusion. By implementing illumination to an off-center position, an electric potential difference is formed that is able to drive the transport of ionic species.
As clean and sustainable energy, light energy has great potential in solid nanoradiation systems, and the conversion efficiency of photoelectric energy also needs to be further improved.
4 Conclusion
Less
Inspired by biological ion channels and the layered macrostructure of nacre, bioinspired nanochannels based on 2D materials have received considerable attention and illustrated the remarkable potential for nanodevice research and applications. This review summarizes the recent research progress in the construction and application of biologically nanochannels based on 2D materials.
Of the construction of bioinspired nanochannels based on 2D materials, we introduced the layered materials of these nanochannels, the construction strategies, and the property of nanochannels based on 2D materials. The layered materials of bioinspired nanochannels based on 2D materials including mono-elemental 2D materials (graphene, BP), excessive metallic chalcogenides (MoS2, ReS2), layered silicate materials (MMT, kaolin), and other new 2D materials (MXene, C3N4) are listed. These 2D materials can be used for constructing nanochannels by various facile methods including vacuum filtration, pressure-assisted filtration, Wet-spinning assembly, CVD, transmission electron microscopy drilling techniques, and so forth. Depending on the specific application of nanochannels, different materials and methods are required and definitely, the characteristics of the nanochannels obtained by different preparation methods are also distinct. Further, various directions such as single nanopore and nanotube, vertical and horizontal layered nanochannels can be achieved from 2D materials, which can provide more possibilities for the application of bioinspired nanochannels.
A wide spectrum of applications can be designed for nanochannels according to their physical or chemical properties that can be altered by external stimulus. Since 2D materials have layer-dependent properties and abundant optical band gaps, they have unique optical properties and can be applied in light-responsive devices and photovoltaic energy conversion. Besides, they have been widely used in salinity gradient energy conversion and electrokinetic energy conversion based on the interaction of double electric layers in nanochannels. 2D nanochannel material is a hot topic in the research of nanofluidic devices. Besides these applications, it has great potential in thermoelectric conversion and magnetoelectric conversion. The optical, electrical, and mechanical properties of 2D nanochannels could be combined with nanofluid devices to provide new possibilities for the efficient conversion and utilization of new energy in the future. In addition, there is still a need to improve the stability of membranes based on materials and the efficiency of energy conversion. The high performance of ion channels in living organisms provides inspiration for the preparation of efficient ion transport membrane, such as the introduction of asymmetric structures. However, asymmetric ion transport in 2D nanofluid systems have not been widely developed. Attention should be paid to the construction of asymmetric biochannels based on 2D materials, such as introducing asymmetric factors like charge, dimension, material and others. Besides, the preparation of high-quality and large surface area 2D nanochannel materials is also a challenge.
Declaration of competing interest
Less
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
Less
The work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 22005162), the Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province (No. ZR2020QE093), the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (No. 2019M652319) and the Special Financial Aid to Post-doctor Research Fellow (No. 2020T130330).
References
Less
[1]
M.S.P. Sansom, Curr. Biol. 5 (1995) 373–375.
[2]
K. Sato, M. Pellegrino, T. Nakagawa, et al., Nature 452 (2008) 1002–1006.
[3]
A. Taruno, V. Vingtdeux, M. Ohmoto, et al., Nature 495 (2013) 223–226.
[4]
J. Saam, E. Tajkhorshid, S. Hayashi, K. Schulten, Biophys. J. 83 (2002) 3097–3112.
[5]
Z. Zhang, X.D. Huang, Y.C. Qian, et al., Adv. Mater. 32 (2020) 3300–3305.
[6]
P.A. Pappone, M.D. Cahalan, J. Neurosci. 7 (1987) 3300–3305.
[7]
O.F. Mohammed, D. Pines, J. Dreyer, E. Pines, E.T.J. Nibbering, Science 310 (2005) 83–86.
[8]
N. Sperelakis, Y. Katsube, H. Yokoshiki, H. Sada, K. Sumii, Molecular, Mol. Cell. Biochem. 164 (1996) 85–98.
[9]
K.C. Catania, Brain Behav. Evol. 86 (2015) 38–47.
[10]
K.C. Catania, Nat. Commun. 6 (2015) 1231–1234.
[11]
K. Catania, Science 346 (2014) 1231–1234.
[12]
X. Hou, L. Jiang, ACS Nano 3 (2009) 3339–3342.
[13]
C.R. Martin, Z.S. Siwy, Science 317 (2007) 331–332.
[14]
L.P. Wen, X.Q. Zhang, Y. Tian, L. Jiang, Sci. China Mater. 61 (2018) 1027–1032.
[15]
L.P. Wen, Y. Tian, J. Ma, J. Zhai, L. Jiang, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 14 (2012) 4027–4042.
[16]
K.Y. Chun, Y.J. Son, C.S. Han, ACS Nano 10 (2016) 4550–4558.
[17]
M. Ali, B. Yameen, R. Neumann, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130 (2008) 16351–16357.
[18]
X. Hou, Adv. Mater. 28 (2016) 7049–7064.
[19]
J. Xu, D.A. Lavan, Nat. Nanotechnol. 3 (2008) 666–670.
[20]
M.H. Zhang, X. Hou, J.T. Wang, et al., Adv. Mater. 24 (2012) 2424–2428.
[21]
G.F. Schneider, Q. Xu, S. Hage, et al., Nat. Commun. 4 (2013) 2619.
[22]
X. Hou, Y.H. Hu, A. Grinthal, M. Khan, J. Aizenberg, Nature 519 (2015) 70–73.
[23]
M. Heiranian, A.B. Farimani, N.R. Aluru, Nat. Commun. 6 (2015) 8616.
[24]
J.R. Burns, A. Seifert, N. Fertig, S. Howorka, Nat. Nanotechnol. 11 (2016) 152–156.
[25]
B. Su, Y. Tian, L. Jiang, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 138 (2016) 1727–1748.
[26]
Y.L. Tan, C.X. Yang, W.W. Qian, C. Teng, J. Alloy. Compd. 826 (2020) 154133.
[27]
R.B. Schoch, J.Y. Han, P. Renaud, Rev. Mod. Phys. 80 (2008) 839–883.
[28]
W. Sparreboom, A. van den Berg, J.C.T. Eijkel, Nat. Nanotechnol. 4 (2009) 713–720.
[29]
M. Wang, Y.Q. Hou, L.J. Yu, X. Hou, Nano. Lett. 20 (2020) 6937–6946.
[30]
W. Guo, L.X. Cao, J.C. Xia, et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 20 (2010) 1339–1344.
[31]
Y.L. Xu, X. Sui, S. Guan, J. Zhai, L.C. Gao, Adv. Mater. 27 (2015) 1851–1855.
[32]
Y.L. Xu, X. Sui, J.Q. Jiang, J. Zhai, L.C. Gao, Adv. Mater. 28 (2016) 10780–10785.
[33]
C.Y. Lee, W. Choi, J.H. Han, M.S. Strano, Science 329 (2010) 1320–1324.
[34]
H.W. Liang, X. Cao, W.J. Zhang, et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 21 (2011) 3851–3858.
[35]
J. Wu, N. Wang, L. Wang, et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 4 (2012) 3207–3212.
[36]
J.W. Liu, H.W. Liang, S.H. Yu, Chem. Rev. 112 (2012) 4770–4799.
[37]
F. Mirri, A.W.K. Ma, T.T. Hsu, et al., ACS Nano 6 (2012) 9737–9744.
[38]
R.P. Zhang, J. Liu, H.G. Guo, X.L. Tong, Mater. Lett. 139 (2015) 55–58.
[39]
J.L. Hao, T. Yang, X.L. He, H.Y. Tang, X. Sui, Giant 5 (2021) 100049.
[40]
H. Ma, S. Wang, B. Yu, et al., Sci. China Mater. 64 (2020) 1320–1342.
[41]
G.M. Luz, J.F. Mano, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A: Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 367 (2009) 1587–1605.
[42]
G.W. Gokel, S. Negin, Accounts Chem. Res. 46 (2013) 2824–2833.
[43]
S. Hong, C. Constans, M.V.S. Martins, et al., Nano. Lett. 17 (2017) 728–732.
[44]
L. Ding, D. Xiao, Z. Lu, et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 59 (2020) 8720–8726.
[45]
S. Hong, F.W. Ming, Y. Shi, et al., ACS Nano 13 (2019) 8917–8925.
[46]
Z. Zhang, P.P. Zhang, S. Yang, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 117 (2020) 13959–13966.
[47]
J.D. Feng, M. Graf, K. Liu, et al., Nature 536 (2016) 197–200.
[48]
C.C. Zhu, P. Liu, B. Niu, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 143 (2021) 1932–1940.
[49]
K. Xiao, L. Chen, R.T. Chen, et al., Nat. Commun. 10 (2019) 8117.
[50]
M.L. Liu, M. Huang, L.Y. Tian, et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 10 (2018) 44915–44923.
[51]
J.J. Shao, K. Raidongia, A.R. Koltonow, J.X. Huang, Nat. Commun. 6 (2015) 7602.
[52]
K. Raidongia, J.X. Huang, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 134 (2012) 16528–16531.
[53]
J.Z. Ji, Q. Kang, Y. Zhou, et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 27 (2017) 1603623.
[54]
L.K. Li, Y.J. Yu, G.J. Ye, et al., Nat. Nanotechnol. 9 (2014) 372–377.
[55]
H. Liu, A.T. Neal, Z. Zhu, et al., ACS Nano 8 (2014) 4033–4041.
[56]
A.J. Mannix, X.F. Zhou, B. Kiraly, et al., Science 350 (2015) 1513–1516.
[57]
B.J. Feng, J. Zhang, Q. Zhong, et al., Nat. Chem. 8 (2016) 564–569.
[58]
S. Kumar, N. Kaur, V. Bhullar, A. Mahajan, Phys. E 128 (2021) 114589.
[59]
W. Li, Y. Yang, J.K. Weber, G. Zhang, R. Zhou, ACS Nano 10 (2016) 1829–1835.
[60]
J.C. Lao, R.J. Lv, J. Gao, et al., ACS Nano 12 (2018) 12464–12471.
[61]
P. Liu, T. Zhou, Y. Teng, et al., CCS Chem. 3 (2021) 1325–1335.
[62]
Y.Q. Wang, H.C. Zhang, Y. Kang, et al., ACS Nano 13 (2019) 11793–11799.
[63]
A. Siria, P. Poncharal, A.L. Biance, et al., Nature 494 (2013) 455–458.
[64]
K.S. Novoselov, A.K. Geim, S.V. Morozov, et al., Science 306 (2004) 666–669.
[65]
S. Yang, K. Zhang, A.G. Ricciardulli, et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 57 (2018) 4677–4681.
[66]
K. Liu, J.D. Feng, A. Kis, A. Radenovic, ACS Nano 8 (2014) 2504–2511.
[67]
H.B. Yao, Z.H. Tan, H.Y. Fang, S.H. Yu, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 49 (2010) 10127–10131.
[68]
Y.F. Lu, Y. Yang, A. Sellinger, et al., Nature 410 (2001) 913–917.
[69]
C.R. Wu, T.L. Xiao, J.D. Tang, et al., Nano Energy 76 (2020) 105113.
[70]
S.K. Hubadillah, M.H.D. Othman, T. Matsuura, et al., Ceram. Int. 44 (2018) 4538–4560.
[71]
Z.S. Altschuler, H. Kramer, E.J. Dwornik, Science 141 (1963) 148–152.
[72]
H.F. Cheng, Y. Zhou, Y.P. Feng, et al., Adv. Mater. 29 (2017) 1700177.
[73]
Z. Zhang, S. Yang, P.P. Zhang, et al., Nat. Commun. 10 (2019) 2920.
[74]
R.J. Qu, X.H. Zeng, L.X. Lin, et al., ACS Nano 14 (2020) 16654–16662.
[75]
P. Liu, W. Ding, J. Liu, et al., J. Alloy. Compd. 829 (2020) 154634.
[76]
F. Wang, C.H. Yang, M. Duan, Y. Tang, J.F. Zhu, Biosens. Bioelectron. 74 (2015) 1022–1028.
[77]
L.Y. Zhou, X. Zhang, L. Ma, J. Gao, Y.J. Jiang, Biochem. Eng. J. 128 (2017) 243–249.
[78]
O. Shekhah, J. Liu, R.A. Fischer, C. Woll, Chem. Soc. Rev. 40 (2011) 1081–1106.
[79]
M.L. Ding, R.W. Flaig, H.L. Jiang, O.M. Yaghi, Chem. Soc. Rev. 48 (2019) 2783–2828.
[80]
R.R. Li, J.Q. Jiang, Q.Q. Liu, Z.Q. Xie, J. Zhai, Nano Energy 53 (2018) 643–649.
[81]
A. Pendse, S. Cetindag, P. Rehak, et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 31 (2021) 2009586.
[82]
S.F. Wang, L.X. Yang, G.W. He, et al., Chem. Soc. Rev. 49 (2020) 1071–1089.
[83]
M. Xu, S.S. Yang, Z.Y. Gu, Chem. Eur. J. 24 (2018) 15131–15142.
[84]
B.B. Zhu, Q.C. Chen, S.Y. Jiang, et al., InfoMat 3 (2021) 271–292.
[85]
C.H. Tsou, Q.F. An, S.C. Lo, et al., J. Membr. Sci. 477 (2015) 93–100.
[86]
Z. Liu, Z. Li, Z. Xu, et al., Chem. Mat., 26 (2014) 6786–6795.
[87]
K. Xiao, P. Giusto, L.P. Wen, L. Jiang, M. Antonietti, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 57 (2018) 10123–10126.
[88]
Y. Sun, S. Chen, X.Y. Chen, et al., Nat. Commun. 10 (2019) 1323.
[89]
M. Tagliazucchi, O. Azzaroni, I. Szleifer, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 132 (2010) 12404–12411.
[90]
X. Hou, W. Guo, F. Xia, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131 (2009) 7800–7805.
[91]
W. Jia, B.H. Wu, S.T. Sun, P.Y. Wu, Nano Res. 13 (2020) 2973–2978.
[92]
H.W. Liu, J.J. Zhu, L. Hao, et al., J. Membr. Sci. 587 (2019) 117163.
[93]
K.S. Novoselov, A. Mishchenko, A. Carvalho, A.H. Castro Neto, Science 353 (2016) aac9439.
[94]
G.G. Naumis, S. Barraza-Lopez, M. Oliva-Leyva, H. Terrones, Rep. Prog. Phys. 80 (2017) 1–62.
[95]
S.L. Yu, X.Q. Wu, Y.P. Wang, X. Guo, L.M. Tong, Adv. Mater. 29 (2017) 1606128.
[96]
H.J. Zhang, G. Yang, X.Q. Zuo, et al., J. Mater. Chem. A 4 (2016) 12913–12920.
[97]
K. Hantanasirisakul, Y. Gogotsi, Adv. Mater. 30 (2018) 1804779.
[98]
M. Graf, M. Lihter, D. Unuchek, et al., Joule 3 (2019) 1549–1564.
[99]
L.L. Wang, Y.P. Feng, Y. Zhou, et al., Chem. Sci. 8 (2017) 4381–4386.
[100]
E. Ahn, H. Gaiji, T. Kim, et al., J. Membr. Sci. 585 (2019) 191–198.
[101]
C. Zhang, W. Chen, Y. Hong, X. Wang, Langmuir 37 (2021) 4632–4638.
[102]
D. Crespy, R.N. Rossi, Polym. Int. 56 (2007) 1461–1468.
[103]
J.T. Sun, Z.Q. Yu, C.Y. Hong, C.Y. Pan, Macromol. Rapid Commun. 33 (2012) 811–818.
[104]
Y. Kotsuchibashi, Polym. J. 52 (2020) 681–689.
[105]
J.M. Shen, K. Han, E.J. Martin, et al., J. Mater. Chem. A 2 (2014) 18204–18207.
[106]
D. Wu, W.W. Xin, X.Y. Kong, et al., Mater. Horiz. 7 (2020) 2702–2709.
[107]
Q. Zhang, W.J. Wang, J.Q. Zhang, X.H. Zhu, L. Fu, Adv. Mater. 30 (2018) 1704587.
[108]
S.F. Wang, L.X. Yang, G.W. He, et al., Chem. Soc. Rev. 49 (2020) 1071–1089.
[109]
X.L. Wu, X.L. Cui, W.J. Wu, et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 58 (2019) 18524–18529.
[110]
R.K. Joshi, P. Carbone, F.C. Wang, et al., Science 343 (2014) 752–754.
[111]
B.X. Mi, Science 343 (2014) 740–742.
[112]
S. Kim, J. Nham, Y.S. Jeong, et al., Chem. Mat. 27 (2015) 1255–1261.
[113]
K. Xiao, L. Jiang, M. Antonietti, Joule 3 (2019) 2364–2380.
[114]
B.E. Logan, M. Elimelech, Nature 488 (2012) 313–319.
[115]
S. Loeb, Science 189 (1975) 654–655.
[116]
R.E. Pattle, Nature 174 (1954) 660-660.
[117]
D.A. Vermaas, J. Veerman, N.Y. Yip, et al., ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 1 (2013) 1295–1302.
[118]
N.Y. Yip, D.A. Vermaas, K. Nijmeijer, M. Elimelech, Environ. Sci. Technol. 48 (2014) 4925–4936.
[119]
P. Dlugolecki, K. Nymeijer, S. Metz, M. Wessling, J. Membr. Sci. 319 (2008) 214–222.
[120]
G.Z. Ramon, B.J. Feinberg, E.M.V. Hoek, Energy Environ. Sci. 4 (2011) 4423–4434.
[121]
Y.L. Xu, Y.J. Song, F. Xu, Nano Energy 79 (2021) 105468.
[122]
Z. Zhang, L.P. Wen, L. Jiang, Nat. Rev. Mater. 18 (2021) 1–18.
[123]
X. Tong, X. Wang, S. Liu, et al., Carbon N Y 138 (2018) 410–418.
[124]
P.Z. Sun, F. Zheng, M. Zhu, et al., Sci. Rep. 4 (2014) 5528.
[125]
F.H.J. van der Heyden, D.J. Bonthuis, D. Stein, C. Meyer, C. Dekker, Nano Lett. 6 (2006) 2232–2237.
[126]
J. Zhang, K. Zhan, S.L. Wang, X. Hou, Soft Matter 16 (2020) 2915–2927.
[127]
S. Qin, D. Liu, G. Wang, et al., J. Mater. Chem. 139 (2017) 6314–6320.
[128]
X.P. Zhang, Q. Wen, L.L. Wang, et al., ACS Nano 13 (2019) 4238–4245.
[129]
D.Y. Ji, Q. Wen, L.X. Cao, et al., Adv. Mater. Technol. 4 (2019) 1800742.
[130]
L.P. Wen, X. Hou, Y. Tian, et al., Adv. Mater. 22 (2010) 1021–1024.
[131]
L.P. Wen, X. Hou, Y. Tian, J. Zhai, L. Jiang, Adv. Funct. Mater. 20 (2010) 2636–2642.
[132]
J.L. Yang, X.Y. Hu, X. Kong, et al., Nat. Commun. 10 (2019) 1171.
Appendix
Less
Year 2022 volume 33 Issue 5
PDF
72
39
Cite this Article
BibTeX
Article Info
doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2021.10.011
  • Receive Date：2021-07-11
  • Online Date：2025-12-19
  • Published：2022-05-15
Article Data
Affiliations
History
  • Received：2021-07-11
  • Revised：2021-09-09
  • Accepted：2021-10-08
Affiliations
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
References
Share
https://castjournals.cast.org.cn/joweb/ccl/EN/10.1016/j.cclet.2021.10.011
Share to
QR

Scan QR to access full text

Cite this article
BibTeX
Citations
表12种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family		 属数
Number of
genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)		 属
Genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
关闭全屏
  • BibTeX
  • EndNote
  • RefWorks
  • TxT
Links
Articles
Latest Articles
Most Read
Collections
Updates
Events
News
Multimedia
About
About Us
Contact
No. 86 Xueyuan South Road, Haidian District, Beijing
100081
010-62199257
qkjq@cast.org.cn

Copyright © 2025 China Association for Science and Technology. All rights reserved. For all open access content, the relevant licensing terms apply.
Sponsored by the Office of the Leading Group for Cybersecurity and Informatization of CAST, and supported by Science and Technology Review Publishing House