Home Journals Articles Updates About
CN
image
收藏切换
Two-dimensional g-C3N4 nanosheets-based photo-catalysts for typical sustainable processes
收藏切换
PDF
Xiaodong Zhaoa, Qian Liub, Xiaolei Li*, a, Huiming Jia, Zhurui Shen*, b
Chinese Chemical Letters | 2023, 34(11) : 108306
Less
收藏切换
Chinese Chemical Letters | 2023, 34(11): 108306
• Review •
Two-dimensional g-C3N4 nanosheets-based photo-catalysts for typical sustainable processes
Full
Xiaodong Zhaoa, Qian Liub, Xiaolei Li*, a, Huiming Jia, Zhurui Shen*, b
Affiliations
  • aKey Laboratory of Advanced Ceramics and Machining Technology, Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
  • bSchool of Materials Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
Published: 2023-11-15 doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108306
Outline
收藏切换

Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) has been widely studied as a visible light responsive photocatalyst in recent years, due to its facile synthesis, low cost, high stability, and appropriate bandgap/band positions. In this review, we firstly introduce and compare various exfoliation approaches of bulk g-C3N4 into ultrathin g-C3N4 nanosheets. Then, many modification strategies of g-C3N4 nanosheets are also reviewed, including heterojunction construction, doping, defect control, and structure design. Thereafter, the charge transfer mechanism in g-C3N4 nanosheets based heterojunctions is present, e.g., Z-scheme, S-scheme and other forms. Besides, the photocatalytic applications of g-C3N4 nanosheets based photocatalysts are summarized including environmental remediation, energy generation and storage, organic synthesis, and disinfection. This review ends with a summary and some perspectives on the challenges and new directions in exploring g-C3N4 nanosheets-based photocatalysts.

Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) nanosheets  /  Exfoliation approaches  /  Hetero-junction  /  Z-scheme mechanism  /  Photo-catalytic applications
Xiaodong Zhao, Qian Liu, Xiaolei Li, Huiming Ji, Zhurui Shen. Two-dimensional g-C3N4 nanosheets-based photo-catalysts for typical sustainable processes[J]. Chinese Chemical Letters, 2023 , 34 (11) : 108306 - . DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108306
Full Text
Less
1 Introduction
Less
All the time severe environment pollution and latent source crisis have drawn increasingly attention towards solar energy utilization by reason of the merits including environmentally friendly and inexhaustible supply. As a consequence, semiconductor photo-catalysts are considered to be a potential strategies for pollutant elimination and clean energy acquisition. Research on semiconductor photo-catalysis was initiated in 1972 with the application towards photo-chemical hydrogen generation by TiO2 electrodes [1], however, the large bandwidth leaded to low spectral utilization rate, numerous approaches have been applied to absorb added solar irradiation, improving the photo-catalytic ability subsequently [2-6]. Besides, many other semiconductors such as ZnO, WO3, SnO2 [7-16] have also been identified as potential photo-catalysts. However, the low sunlight absorption as well as poor separation ability of photo-generated charges still block the development of photo-catalytic materials towards higher catalytic activity [17-19], a huge number of research articles, including coupling with heterogeneous semiconductors, element doping, and defect controlling, has been published on the modification of photo-catalysts for better performance [20-27].
Recently, graphite-like carbon nitride (g-C3N4) has drawn plenty of study on account of simple preparation, low price, high tolerance against temperature, acid or alkali solutions, and narrow band-gap with appropriate band position (ca. −1.3 eV and ca. +1.4 eV) [28-30], which can be widely used in water splitting, CO2 reduction, dye-stuff decomposition, disinfection and so on [31-39]. The history of g-C3N4 for photo-catalysis can be traced back to 2009 [40], Wang et al. firstly utilized this tri-s-triazines material for photo-catalytic water splitting. The g-C3N4 nanosheets was synthesized by Niu et al. for the first time in 2012 [41], the bulk g-C3N4 was thinned to 2 nm thick via thermal treatment, the photo-catalytic activities have been remarkably improved due to increased specific area, the enhanced charge transport ability and the improved lifetime of photo-induced charges compared with bulk g-C3N4. Nevertheless, the original g-C3N4 is limited in photo-catalytic reaction because of the disadvantages including poor sunlight spectral utilization and quick annihilation rate of photo-generated charges [42-46], in recent years, many attempts, such as construction of hetero-junctions, doping, dye sensitization, and structure design, have been made in towards modification of g-C3N4 nanosheets [47-58]. Among those methods, hetero-structures construction towards g-C3N4 enhanced the photo-catalytic capacity due to the effective separation performance as well as fast migrate ability of photo-induced charges. Meanwhile, the carries transfer mechanism in hetero-junctions has been studied by theoretical calculation and characterization for the deeply understanding about the improvement of photo-catalytic performance [59-64].
This review concentrates on numerous research towards the exfoliation methods, modification strategies, mechanistic understanding and adhibition of g-C3N4 nanosheets-based nanocomposites. Primarily, the main preparation approaches of ultra-thin g-C3N4 nanosheets are presented and compared. Secondly, several methods for elevating the performance of g-C3N4 nanosheets, such as construction of hetero-junctions, elements doping, defect controlling, and building nanostructures, are discussed. Next, the type-II system, Z-scheme as well as S-scheme mechanism were presented, demonstrating the charge migrate process in g-C3N4 nanosheets-based hetero-junctions. Another section of this review summarizes the photo-catalytic adhibition of g-C3N4 nanocomposites applying to pollution decomposition, hydrogen production, nitrogen fixation, disinfection and so on. Finally, this paper gives some conclusions and further perspectives about above mentioned researches, in turn, promoting more effective application towards this photo-catalytic material.
2 Exfoliation of g-C3N4 into 2D nanosheets
Less
g-C3N4 is a layered material which consists of the multilayer two-dimensional conjugated structures formed via tri-s-triazines cells [65], the acting force between different layers is weaker than the interlayer binding force [66,67]. Since two-dimensional nanosheets have many excellent advantages, including huge specific area, ultrahigh electron mobility, as well as plentiful surface reactive sites [68-70], it is highly rational to thinning bulk layered g-C3N4 to attain less layers nanosheets for much superior photo-catalytic performance.
The thinning for multilayer matter was applied in clay materials, which could spontaneously swell and delaminate with the destroy of interlayer interaction in water [71,72]. In 2004, K. Novoselov and co-workers [73] attained graphene with many intriguing properties by the mechanical exfoliation towards graphite, since then, great efforts have been made to exfoliate layered materials into nanosheets [74-78]. Because of the similarities between graphite and g-C3N4, the exfoliation of the latter into nanosheets has been widely studied [79-84], the synthetic approaches which have been established included the temperature, ultrasonic and chemical exfoliation.
2.1 Thermal oxidation exfoliation
Niu et al. prepared thinned g-C3N4 nanosheets for the first time [41]. Based on the knowledge the force between layers including van der Waals' force as well as the hydrogen bond are not strong enough to withstand thermal energy, leading to the separation between different layers [85], as a consequence, a decrease of thickness to the desired nanoscale happened, the g-C3N4 nanosheets with the approximate 2 nm thick (6~7 layers) was obtained after thermal exfoliation from bulk materials in air at high temperature (Fig. 1a). The as-prepared nanosheets exhibited huge specific area (306 m2/g), enhanced charge mobility, and prolonged life-span for photo-excited charges, the photo-catalytic activities have been remarkably enhanced as a consequence. The preparation of nanosheets via temperature treatment depended on many factors, such as etching time, temperature, precursor masses, and atmosphere [86-90]. Graphene-like g-C3N4 nanosheets with promoting photo-catalytic capacity was synthesized by Dong and his researchers [91] via a thermal exfoliation approach under different temperatures from 450 ℃ to 550 ℃, with the elevation of temperature, the thickness of resultant nanosheets gradually decreased, the surface area increased at the meantime. Until now, the thermal oxidation strategy for g-C3N4 nanosheets with improved photo-catalytic ability has been widely applied because of its low-cost and easy operation [92-99].
2.2 Ultrasonic exfoliation
Liquid exfoliation of layered materials via ultrasonic process is considered to be a effective way for preparing two-dimensional nanosheets [75]. Synthesizing ultra-thin g-C3N4 nanosheets through ultrasonic treatment route from bulk material in solvent is environmentally friendly and can result in a relatively high product yield compared to thermal oxidation etching approach [79]. During the exfoliation process, solvent molecules would intercalate into layered materials, resulting in enlarging of lamellar spacing as well as damage of van der Waals force among different layers, at the meantime, the ultrasonic-produced bubbles would gradually oscillate and crack, leading to the liquid jets which could shear the layered materials into ultra-thin nanosheets. It is known that the similar surface energy between the bulk g-C3N4 as well as reagent molecules would bring efficient exfoliation for high-yield g-C3N4 nanosheets [74], besides, the polarity solvent could be more effective for intercalation and swelling due to the presence of dangling hydrogens among multilayer g-C3N4 material. Zhang and co-workers [100] firstly delaminated bulk g-C3N4 in water to form nanosheets with an approximate 2.5 nm thick, layered g-C3N4 was swelled and exfoliated after the intercalation of water molecules under ultrasonic conditions (Fig. 1b). To date, ultrasonic exfoliation became a commonly strategy for preparing g-C3N4 nanosheets in water and other reagents, such as propanol, ethanol, N, N-dimethylformamide [101-106]. Zhao et al. [107] synthesized ultra-thin g-C3N4 nanosheets possessing 1 nm thick through ultrasonic exfoliation combined with thermal oxidation of bulk g-C3N4 with comparatively high yield (~24%). The resultant nanosheets showed significantly improved photo-catalytic ability for hydrogen evolution.
2.3 Chemical exfoliation
Since the exfoliation efficiency of both thermal oxidation exfoliation and ultrasonic exfoliation is unsatisfactory, the chemical exfoliation method with high product field has been applied to synthesize ultra-thin g-C3N4 nanosheets [81,108-113]. The bulk g-C3N4 could be exfoliated via redox reactions and intercalation process via chemical exfoliation, ions such as H+, Li+, and Br− could be effectively intercalated between the layers of bulk materials at the liquid environment under the assistance of strand nitrogens as acceptor sites, swelling the crystal, increasing the interlamellar distance, decreasing the sheets attraction, as well as bringing down the barrier potential of desquamation in a consequence, leading to the high-yield g-C3N4 nanosheets with a micrometers wide but few-layer thick [76]. The product yield and the thickness can be influenced by ionic species, amount of oxidant and exfoliation time. Xu and other researchers [114] firstly synthesized the unilamellar g-C3N4 nanosheets with the high product field up to 60% by chemical exfoliation method via the addition of H2SO4, the average thickness of as-synthesized nanosheets is approximately 0.4 nm thick, that is similar to theoretical value for unilamellar nanosheets (0.325 nm). The photo-catalytic performance of g-C3N4 nanosheets remarkably improved on account of increasing surface area and charge mobility. Porous g-C3N4 nanosheets with 1 nm thick have been prepared by Shi et al. [115] using phosphoric acid. Besides the intercalation effect of H+ (Fig. 2a), the interaction between OH− and terminal or bridged –NH(2) group of the triazine units in bulk material would also decrease the interlayer force and accelerate the thinning process (Fig. 2b). Mono-layered g-C3N4 has been obtained using KOH with a large transverse dimension with micron-grade but only 0.4 nm thick by Li and co-workers [116].
In summary, thermal oxidation exfoliation is a simple and effective approach to get a thinner nanosheet, but it should be pointed out that hazardous gas will release and abundant interface defects are generated due to the destroy of hydrogen bridge of conjugated rings as well as the polymeric chain via oxidation process at high temperature, besides, the break of tri-s-triazines cells framework could also lead to an extremely low product yield. The ultrasonic exfoliation strategy has many advantages comparing with thermal oxidation method, including a relatively high product yield, environment friendly, and the reservation of crystal texture as well as stoichiometric proportion of original g-C3N4. However, that is still limited by time-consuming and the destroying of the lateral size towards g-C3N4 via long-time ultrasonication, which will lead to low aspect ratio and decreased photo-catalytic activities of resultant g-C3N4 nanosheets. Chemical exfoliation strategy can simultaneously reserve the chemical stoichiometric ratio and lateral size of the original bulk g-C3N4 in comparison with thermal exfoliation and ultrasonic exfoliation, besides, it also possesses other considerable superiorities, such as functionalization on the nanosheet surface, high exfoliation efficiency, as well as the probability of exfoliation into monolayer structure [72]. However, some functional groups such as amino and carboxyl will partially remain in g-C3N4 through chemical delamination processing, resulting in an extra amphoteric behavior of the nanosheets.
3 Modification of g-C3N4 nanosheets
Less
Pristine g-C3N4 still suffer from unsatisfactory photo-catalytic efficiency due to the poor visible-irradiation absorption range, ready annihilation of photo-induced charges, and relatively low surface area. Many attempts have been made to deal with those problems, including construction of hetero-junctions, elements doping, defects controlling, and building nanostructures.
3.1 Hetero-junction construction
Constructing hetero-junction via g-C3N4 and other semiconductors could be regarded as a splendid method for dealing with the above problems, the annihilation of photo-induced electron-hole charges could be partly avoided in the resultant by the strong interaction in the interfaces of hetero-junctions, so far, many species of g-C3N4 based hetero-structures have been deeply researched [108,117-125].
3.1.1 g-C3N4/inorganic semiconductor hetero-structure
Zhang and other researchers [126] constructed a BiOCl/g-C3N4 hybrid via the two-step calcination-hydrothermal method and applied it as a photo-catalyst towards the decomposition of Rhodamine B as well as hydrogen generation. Their experimental results revealed that the photo-catalytic performance of as-prepared composite was improved by the successfully formation of hetero-junctions. Wang and co-workers [127] constructed a ultra-thin g-C3N4/Bi2WO6 nuclear-hull structure, which showed the best photo-catalytic degradation activity towards phenol as closely 5.7-fold high as which of original g-C3N4, in addition, 1.9-fold compare to Bi2WO6 nanosheet via visible light irradiation, at the meantime, phenol degradation performance under full spectrum by using g-C3N4/Bi2WO6 photo-catalyst possessed 3.3 times than which of pure g-C3N4, in addition, 1.5-fold towards Bi2WO6 nanostructure by reason of the enlarged irradiation absorption range as well as separation for photo-induced charges via forming hetero-structure. CoWO4/g-C3N4 hetero-structures were attained by Wang et al. [128], the improved photo-catalytic activity for H2 generation could be attributed to fast photoinduced charge separation rate and transport ability benefiting from the band offset structure (Fig. 3a). Apart from TiO2 and Bi2WO6, other inorganic semiconductor materials including ZnO [129], NiS [130], CdS [131], Cu2O [132] and Mn0.2Cd0.8S [133] also have been reported for the improved photo-catalytic behaviors of pure g-C3N4 nanosheets.
3.1.2 g-C3N4/organic macromolecular material hetero-structure
Some organic macromolecular material such as porphyrin and metal organic frameworks also can be used to form heterostructures with g-C3N4 nanosheets. Because of some advantages of high specific area and tunable pore size, the macromolecular materials can exhibit excellent solar harvesting performance, besides, the conjugated π bond could lead to a stable combination between organic materials and g-C3N4 through the generation of π-π bond, which accordingly resulted in stable structure and outstanding photo-catalytic activity. UiO-66 coupled with g-C3N4 nanosheets has been constructed by Mardiroosi et al. [134], the enhanced photo-catalytic degradation capacity putted down to formation of hetero-junction via UiO-66 and g-C3N4, nevertheless, electrons could effectively transfer to g-C3N4 under the force of built-in potential produced through hetero-junction structure, giving rise to a enhanced response towards light range and the decreasing of annihilation for electron/hole pairs (Fig. 3b). Xu et al. [135] utilized another metal-organic framework BIF-20 to constructed hetero-structure with g-C3N4 nanosheets, leading to a significantly enhanced CO2 photo-reduction rate. Other organic macromolecular materials including tetraphenylporphyrin [136], ZIF-8 [64], and Ni-MOF [137] also been widely studied for the elevation of photo-catalytic activity towards g-C3N4 nanosheets.
3.1.3 g-C3N4/metal hetero-structure
Recently, forming a hetero-junction between metal nano-particles and g-C3N4 nanosheets has been studied as an effective method to improve the photo-catalytic performance of g-C3N4 [101,138-141]. On account of the surface plasmon resonance effect, the metal nano-particles could be the high-efficiency electron acceptors [142], thus accelerating the separation rate of photo-generated charges in g-C3N4 nanosheets, in the meantime, increasing the light absorption. Wang [143] synthesized a g-C3N4/Pt(111) hero-structure with improved photo-reaction activity of CO oxidation. Zhang and co-workers [144] enhanced the photo-catalytic hydrogen evolution ability of g-C3N4 nanosheets facing visible-light irradiation via decorating Ag, Au and Pt, compared with original g-C3N4, the hydrogen evolution ability of the optimal resultant could exhibit about a 14-fold increase, because of the effective separation of the photo-induced charge pairs as well as the co-catalytic action of noble metal nanoparticles (Fig. 3c).
3.1.4 g-C3N4/carbon material hetero-structure
Carbon quantum dots, reduced graphene oxide and multiwall carbon nanotube brought many notices because of the extraordinary chemical as well as physical characters [145-148], in recent years, it have been deeply studied and subsequently proved that decorating g-C3N4 nanosheets with carbon quantum dots would accelerate the migration for photo-induced charges effectively by π-π bond force generated via CQDs and g-C3N4 nanosheets, which could inhibit photo-induced carries annihilation partly via the formation of intermolecular forces [149]. A C3N4/rGO/C3N5 sandwich heterojunction was synthesized via a post-annealing process by Liu et al. [150], the as-prepared hybrid photo-catalyst exhibited much superior H2 evolution activity compared with pure g-C3N4 nanosheets because of high interfacial carries separation migration ability.
What is more, the materials mentioned above also been synergistically utilized to form ternary or quaternary structure for enhancing the photo-catalytic behavior of g-C3N4 nanosheets [119,151-154]. Deng et al. [95] constructed ternary Ag/N-GQDs/g-C3N4 hybrids, such as-synthesized ternary structure exhibited 92.8% as well as 31.3% degradation of tetracycline through simulated sunlight and near-infrared illumination, respectively, providing a novel strategy towards effective photo-catalytic reaction under full-spectrum illumination. Shi et al. [155] synthesized the ternary Ag3PO4/Co3(PO4)2/g-C3N4 hetero-junction with enhanced photo-catalytic degradation efficiency, the as-prepared hybrid photo-catalyst could reach a superb removal of tetracycline (88%) after 120 min facing visible irradiation.
With such construction of hetero-junctions, the specific area enlarged, at the same time, the band position changed, leading to a higher solar harvesting efficiency and separation rate of photo-induced charges, which can effectively elevate the photo-catalytic behavior of g-C3N4 nanosheets.
3.2 Homo-junction construction
Apart from forming hetero-structure, using g-C3N4 itself for constructing the g-C3N4/g-C3N4 homo-junction also attracted attentions in recent years. A novel g-C3N4 nanosheets recombined with C3N4 QDs nanocomposites was synthesized by Xu et al. [156], the resultant exhibited more stable and excellent behavior in comparison with unitary g-C3N4 nanosheets towards the detection of PDGF-BB. Qiao with co-workers [157] obtained the g-C3N4/g-C3N4 Z-scheme homo-junction with improved rhodamine degradation rate, which was about 15.4-fold compared with which of bulk g-C3N4. The increasing photo-catalytic capacity could put down to huge exposed specific area, efficient separation and excellent redox abilities of the photo-induced charges with a formation for the homo-junction.
3.3 Doping
Another method to improve photo-catalytic behavior of g-C3N4 nanosheets is doping, typically, metal with nonmetal element doping for g-C3N4 have been studied for the reason of partly adjusting crystallographic, electronic as well as band positions to enhance photo-catalytic capacity via broadening irradiation response range, improving photo-generated charges migration, and lengthening life-span of photo-induced carriers. Doping with nonmetal species including B, N, Cl and so on has been widely reported [158-161]. Jiang and other researchers [47] fabricated N doped g-C3N4 nanosheets with a midgap state created by N doping, as a consequence, the as-synthesized g-C3N4 nanosheets showed higher photo-catalytic capacity towards tetracycline degradation than original g-C3N4 due to the easy generation and transport of electrons via the midgap state. A K, P, O, S-doped C3N4 has been constructed via Deng et al. [162], such co-doping of above elements towards g-C3N4 broadened the light absorption, besides quickened the migration for photoinduced carries, leading to the superior photo-catalytic behavior for antibiotics destroying in natural water facing visible light irradiation. Yang et al. [163] constructed O-doped g-C3N4 composites, leading to the elevated CB edge as well as the detachment and movement rate of photoinduced charges, the as-prepared samples showed highly improved photo-catalytic hydrogen evolution ability, which was approximated 5.2-fold compared with which of original g-C3N4 facing ultraviolet-visible light. The nanostructure for g-C3N4 catalyst doped with metal elements like Ni, Co, Na, K, Sr and Fe [164-166] also been widely studied for achieving superior photo-catalytic performance of g-C3N4. An Al-doped g-C3N4 hybrid photo-catalyst was constructed by Choi and co-workers [167]. The introduction of Al atom doping sites could effectively modify the band structure of pure g-C3N4 with a midgap state, leading to the increased photo generated charges of the as-prepared photo-catalyst.
3.4 Defect control
Since some researchers have proved that defects are efficient captures for electrons [168,169], defect controlling could be an effective way for dealing with the ready recombination of photo-induced charges of g-C3N4 nanosheets. Dong and co-workers [170] demonstrated that photo-excited charges would separate more efficiently in carbon vacancy-modified g-C3N4 (Ns-g-C3N4) than in pure one due to the capture ability of vacancy, at the same time, the carbon vacancy-induced defect states in the band gap extended the response spectrum for g-C3N4 to the whole visible area, leading to the efficient photo-reduction towards NO under visible light. Li and co-workers [171] studied a high-temperature polymerization strategy to obtain N vacancy-modified g-C3N4 with improved photo-catalytic hydrogen evolution activity, the band structures were modified due to the variation of C/N ratio, favoring the separation speed of photo-excited charges with the light response range.
With doping or defect control, a midgap could be introduced into bandgap of g-C3N4 nanosheet, which would be an effective electron capture center, leading to the decreased recombination rate of photo-induced charges. Besides, the bandgap of g-C3N4 nanosheet would narrow after manufacturing defects, consequently, the light absorption range would broaden, resulting in the better photo-catalytic performance (Fig. 4).
3.5 Structure design
Moreover, structure design of g-C3N4 nanosheet has been researched for improving those photo-catalytic performance via enlarged surface area and shortened migration distance of photo-induced charge carriers. Constructing of porous structure and ultra-thin structure were two mainly strategies in this area [34,172-174]. Li et al. [175] prepared holey g-C3N4 nanosheet (hCNNS) photo-catalysts with a ultra-thin thickness and high pore volume via a two-step calcination, leading to a large surface area, the as-synthesized hCNNS possessed more surface reactive sites, strengthened photoredox ability, shortened the migration distance of photo-induced charges, and widened the irradiation response range, as a consequence, the visible-light-driven photo-catalytic hydrogen generation speed was significantly elevated in contrast with original g-C3N4. Liu and co-workers [176] constructed mesoporous g-C3N4 nanosheets via hydrothermal treatment, it was found that the mesoporous nanostructure achieved a significantly enhanced hydrogen producing speed of 136.9 µmol/h, which was 15 times higher than pristine g-C3N4. Ultrathin g-C3N4 nanosheets were attained via rapid high-temperature treatment by Zhang et al. [96], numerous active sites for photocatalytic repercussion with enhanced solar harvesting performance were obtained through the remarkable enlarged specific region, besides, stronger driving force was acquired through the enlarged bandgap structure because of quantum confinement effect in thinner g-C3N4 nanosheets, realizing a 25.5-folds improved visible-light photo-catalytic H2-producing behavior compared with pure g-C3N4.
As a summary, since pristine g-C3N4 has the disadvantages such as poor irradiation absorption range, ready annihilation of photo-induced charges, and relatively low surface area, many modification approaches have been studied. The construction of hetero-structure and homo-structure effectively promoted charges separation via the matched energy level, doping and defect control of g-C3N4 nanosheet could narrow the pristine bandgap as well as introduce a midgap, extending the light utilization range as a consequence, the structure design could increase specific surface area of g-C3N4 nanosheet to provide more active sites for the photo-catalytic reaction. However, there are still some questions such as the more suitable band match for hetero-junctions, the optimum concentration of doping as well as defects, and the less damage of original triazine ring during structure design, which should be further studied in the future.
4 Mechanism of g-C3N4-based hetero-structures
Less
Among the strategies which were introduced above for the improvement towards the photo-catalytic performance of g-C3N4 nanosheet, a construction for hetero-structure could be the most general one due to many merits, including effective separation of photo-induced charge carries, high harvesting of solar light, and the relative low cost. As a consequence, the photo-generated charge transfer mechanism of hetero-junctions has been widely studied over the years.
4.1 Type-II hetero-structure
The traditional type-II hetero-junction is formed by g-C3N4 and other semiconductors. The difference of band positions between the multiple semiconductors leading to the generation of band bending in the hetero-junction. When exposed to light, the photo-generated electrons would migrate from the higher CB level to the lower one because of the formation of built-in electric field generated from the band bending, while the photo-induced holes migrate in the opposite direction. Specially, the wavelength of light irradiation at which the photo-reaction could occur corresponds to a narrower band gap of those semiconductors. Therefore, the formation of type II hetero-junction would extend the light response range and improve the photo-excited charge separation, which could in turn enhance the photo-catalytic performance [177].
Yi and co-workers [178] synthesized Nb2O5/g-C3N4 nanosheets hybrid, the g-C3N4 nanosheets have more negative CB band positions than those of Nb2O5, as a consequence, the photo-induced electrons could migrate from g-C3N4 to Nb2O5 (Fig. 5a). Since the CB level of Nb2O5 is higher than the H+/H2 potential, the photo-generated electrons in Nb2O5 could split water to produce H2 directly. Similarly, Majumdar et al. [179] constructed Bi4NbO8Cl/g-C3N4 hetero-structure, according to calculation results, the CB and VB band positions of Bi4NbO8Cl are about −0.54 and 2.07 eV, while those of g-C3N4 are about −1.20 and 1.84 eV, respectively, because of the formation of type-II hetero-junction, the photo-excited electrons in the CB of g-C3N4 could inject into that of Bi4NbO8Cl, while opposite transfer occurring in the photo-induced holes in the VB of Bi4NbO8Cl, the effective separation of photo-induced charges could improve the activity of photo-catalytic degradation of oxytetracycline significantly as a consequence. Other type-II hetero-junction hybrid photo-catalysts such as NiS/g-C3N4 [130], Bi2WO6/g-C3N4 [180], BiOCl/g-C3N4 [104] and g-C3N4 nanosheet/ZnIn2S4 nanoleaf [48] have also been reported as efficient photo-catalysts for pollution degradation, water splitting and organic synthesis on account of the effective separation of photo-excited carriers and enlarged light response range.
4.2 Z-scheme hetero-structure
The type-II hetero-junctions provided effective charge separation, however, the lower CB level and the higher VB level of which limited the redox ability of as-prepared photo-catalysts, leading to a weakened performance for photo-catalytic reaction. In such case, a new type of charge transfer mechanism has been studied, which was called Z-scheme hetero-structure, simultaneously achieve effective separation of photo-excited charges as well as strong redox ability. The Z-scheme hetero-structure could mainly be divided into two types: Ionic-state and all-solid-state, the latter can be further divided into semiconductor-conductor-semiconductor (SCS) Z-scheme hetero-junctions and semiconductor-semiconductor (SS) Z-scheme hetero-junctions.
In the SCS Z-scheme hetero-junctions, appropriate conductors such as noble metal particles, graphene and many other conductive materials can be inserted between semiconductors to provide the pathway for electron migration to improve the efficiency of charge transport and separation [181,182]. The electrons generated in the CB of one semiconductor, migrated to noble metal particles which has high work function, and subsequently recombined with holes induced in the other semiconductor (Fig. 5b), simultaneously, the remaining photo-generated electrons in higher CB and holes in lower VB of two semiconductors could be applied to the photo-catalytic reduction and oxidation reactions, respectively.
Wu and co-workers [183] employed many approaches to study Z-scheme mechanism towards BaTiO3/Au/g-C3N4 hybrid composites. The radical scavengers experiment indicated O2− radicals as an active species in photo-catalytic degradation, VB XPS and Mott-Schottky plots experiments calculated the band positions of both BaTiO3 and g-C3N4, considering that the CB level of BaTiO3 was less-negative comparing with H+/H2 potential, photo-induced electrons prefer to accumulate in g-C3N4 rather than BaTiO3, as a consequence, the photo-excited charges transfer pathway followed Z-scheme, the H2 evolution and photo-degradation performance of Rhodamine B improved due to high separation rate of the photo-excited charges. Other SCS Z-scheme system such as Ag/AgVO3/carbon-rich g-C3N4 [184], W18O19/Au/g-C3N4 [185] and ZnO/Au/g-C3N4 [186] have also been widely constructed for the improving photo-catalytic performance in water splitting, pollution mitigation, and CO2 reduction of g-C3N4 nanosheets.
However, high-cost and shielding effect limited the widely adhibition of noble metals such conductor-assistant Z-scheme hetero-structure [63], different from SCS Z-scheme system, the photo-excited charges could directly transfer between two semiconductors in the SS Z-scheme photo-catalyst. In this manner, the photo-catalytic efficiency can be further increased because of the shortened migration distance of the photo-excited charges (Fig. 5c) [187-194]. A TiO2/g-C3N4 composite which followed Z-scheme mechanism was fabricated by Liu et al. [195]. Mott-Schottky plots were tested to calculate the band positions of both TiO2 and g-C3N4, electron spin resonance experiment indicated O2− radicals as an active species, on account of the less-negative CB level towards TiO2 compared of O2−/O2 potential, the as-prepared composite showed decreased photo-excited charges recombination rate and prolonged lifetime via the formation of Z-scheme hetero-junction, leading to the enhanced photo-catalytic degradation performance. Zhang and co-workers [196] employed many approaches to study Z-scheme mechanism towards V2O5/P-g-C3N4 hybrid composites. Both trapping agent and electron spin resonance testing indicated h+ and O2− radicals as an active species in photo-catalytic degradation, considering that the CB level of V2O5 was less-negative comparing with O2−/O2 potential, the O2− radicals were generated by the photo-excited electrons in g-C3N4 rather than V2O5, the photo-degradation performance of methyl orange improved due to high separation rate of the photo-excited charges.
4.3 S-scheme hetero-structure
Another hetero-structure which is called step-scheme (S-scheme) hetero-structure has also been discussed by Fu et al. via the ultra-thin WO3/g-C3N4 hetero-junction photo-catalysts [61] to remedy the drawbacks of type-II hetero-junction as well as further improve photo-catalytic performance. Under irradiation, the photo-induced electrons in WO3 and the holes in g-C3N4 were recombined under the effect of internal electric field between two semiconductors (Fig. 6), remaining holes in WO3 and electrons in g-C3N4 to achieve photo-catalytic oxidation and reduction reactions, respectively. This S-scheme charge carrier transfer mechanism ensures the as-constructed WO3/g-C3N4 hybrid composites with enhanced electron–hole pair separation ability and elevated redox capacity, leading to the fast photo-catalytic water splitting rate. As a result, the H2 evolution rate of as-prepared composite was improved, which was 1.7-fold compared with pristine g-C3N4.
5 Applications of g-C3N4-based photo-catalysts
Less
The g-C3N4-based photo-catalysts possess a large surface area, which can contribute high light harvesting and numerous active sites to accelerate the photo-catalytic reaction, and an appropriate band structure for light absorption and photo-catalytic redox reaction, besides, the good accessibility and high stability against temperature, acid or alkali solutions also make the g-C3N4 nanosheets-based photo-catalysts become the extensive applications such as pollution degradation, energy generation, nitrogen fixation. Herein, some remarkable applications will be listed as follows.
5.1 Photo-degradation of environmental pollutants
Semiconductor photo-catalysis is an excellent material to solve the environment questions. On account of the appropriate band structure and good stability, the g-C3N4 nanosheets has widespread application towards the photo-catalytic reaction of numerous water pollutants, such as organic dye-stuffs [108,129,134,197-201], aromatic compounds [202,203], antibiotic [47,95,120,204], heavy metal [60]. The removal of air contaminants such as NO [34,170,173] and CO [143] has also been investigated.
5.1.1 Water pollutants
Amorphous Cu-doped FeOOH nanoclusters/ultra-thin g-C3N4 nanosheets hybrid photo-catalyst was synthesized by Zhang et al. [94], when exposed to visible light, the resultant could decolorize ~98.7% MB within 40 min, the highly enhanced photo-catalytic ability (more than 8.1 times) in comparison with original g-C3N4 nanosheets endowed the resultant photo-catalyst with prospective industrialization applicability. He et al. [149] obtained graphene–carbon quantum dots/g-C3N4 nanosheets composite via the hydrothermal way, the MO removal ratio of the as-prepared photo-catalyst was up to 91.1% under 4 h-visible light irradiation, which achieved approximately 7.6-fold improvement of original g-C3N4 (Figs. 7a and b). Dong and co-workers [168] utilized hydrochloric acid to gain ultra-thin g-C3N4 nanosheet for elevated photo-catalytic degradation rate of RhB. As a result, the RhB could be decomposed completely after 75 min-exposure of the visible light. Yang et al. [200] constructed Nb2O5/g-C3N4 photo-catalyst via the one-step heating approach, realizing a better photo-catalytic performance, 95% of RhB, 15% of MO and 87% of MB were degraded after one hour facing visible irradiation by as-prepared materials, respectively. Zhang and co-workers [204] prepared NaNbO3/g-C3N4 composites to deal with the ofloxacin degradation, the as-prepared samples exhibited increased photo-catalytic ability under simulated sunlight, 99.5% of ofloxacin was removed within 30 min by the optimum sample. The effective removal of highly toxic Cr5+ to Cr3+ using visible irradiation as driving force was successfully achieved via g-C3N4 nanosheets-based photo-catalysts such as g-C3N4/C/Fe2O3 [205] and ternary Au/g-C3N4/W18O49 hybrid composite [60], which could reduce more than 80% of Cr(VI) within 30 min (Figs. 7c and d). The photo-degradation of aromatic compounds such as phenol has been studied by Wang et al. [127], the results illustrated the constructed g-C3N4/Bi2WO6 core-shell structure possessed superior photo-catalytic phenol degradation activity towards simulated sunlight as well as visible light due to the strong oxide ability and decreased recombination of photo-generated charges.
5.1.2 Gas pollutants
Wang et al. [143] prepared the g-C3N4/Pt (111) nanostructure for the effective photo-catalytic oxidation of CO. Huang et al. [173] fabricated porous g-C3N4 nanosheets, on account of the merits such as huge surface area as well as excellent charge carriers separation ability, ultra-thin g-C3N4 has efficient application in visible-light-driven photo-catalytic NO mitigation, achieving a 5.5-fold increasing in comparison with original g-C3N4. Dong [166] prepared Sr-modified g-C3N4 nanosheets for the elevated photo-catalytic NO reduction capacity. A redshift of absorption edge occurred after doping, resulting in the extended light adsorption (Fig. 8a), at the meantime, the intercalation of Sr enlarged the bond length of g-C3N4, resulting in the weakened Coulomb interaction for gas molecules with easy activation of O2 molecules on the catalyst surface. The composites have increased NO removal rate compared with original g-C3N4 nanosheets (Fig. 8b). Moreover, Jiang and co-workers [39] also studied the photo-oxidation behavior of NO to nitrate via N-doped TiO2/g-C3N4 hetero-structure, the removal ratio of resultant photo-catalyst towards ppb-level NO could reach 46.1% within 30 min under visible light illumination.
5.2 Energy generation
5.2.1 CO2 reduction
The hydrocarbon fuel has many merits including renewable and clean, according to the ability for the coverting of CO2 into CH4, the applications of CO2 reduction of photo-catalysts have been widely studied.
A C-In2O3/g-C3N4 composite was fabricated by Xu et al. [206] via the solvent method for the photo-reduction towards CO2, the CO and CH4 evolution rate of 153.42 µmol g−1 h−1 and 110.31 µmol g−1 h−1 were achieved under ultraviolet light irradiation, Especially, the large surface area towards irradiation as well as decreased recombination of photo-excited charges endowed the resultant with significantly enhanced photo-catalytic performance (Figs. 8c and d). Liu and co-workers [136] obtained cobalt meso-tetra-phenylporphyrin/g-C3N4 hetero-structure, the high specific surface area and porous structure with suitable hole size favored CO2 adsorption, at the meantime, the promoted separation ability of photo-induced electrons and holes increased electron utilization efficiency, leading to the superior CO2 catalytic conversion performance. Nie et al. [194] fabricated the g-C3N4/ZnO composite with a 4.1 times CH3OH production rate compared to pristine g-C3N4. The PL measurement was carried out to certify the existence of ·OH in photo-catalytic reaction. Xia and co-researchers [52] constructed g-C3N4 nanosheets with a thickness ~3 nm via thermal exfoliation approach under the NH3 atmosphere, the obtained nanosheets exhibited remarkably enhanced photo-catalytic CO2 reduction performance. Other g-C3N4 nanosheets-based photo-catalysts such as BIF-20@g-C3N4 [135], g-C3N4/WO3 [207], and g-C3N4/CdS [208] also be constructed for the effective CO2 photo-catalytic reduction.
5.2.2 Water splitting
Apart from hydrocarbon fuel, hydrogen energy has also been regarded as a potential and promising fuel for the substitution of traditional fossil energy due to the renewability and high energy storage [209]. Photo-catalytic decomposition of water by photo-catalysts could be a effective method for generating hydrogen. Numerous photo-catalysts have been studied to achieve the photo-catalytic hydrogen generation, nonetheless, low solar energy utilization ratio and poor redox capacity due to improper band structure limited the practical applications of those photo-catalysts. Considering the g-C3N4 nanosheets-based materials with suitable band position and large surface, the hydrogen evolution of which has been discussed as a consequence [158,163,210,211].
He et al. [130] constructed the g-C3N4/NiS hybrid hetero-structure with an excellent photo-catalytic H2 evolution ability of 29.68 µmol/h under visible light illumination, which could be comparable to some samples using Pt as cocatalyst. The CdS/g-C3N4 nanocomposite was prepared [131] for the effective photo-catalytic H2 production performance (2120 µmol g−1 h−1) due to the enhanced charges separation and transfer rate by the formation of hetero-junction (Fig. 9). In addition to high H2 generation rate, the recyclability and durability also made as-prepared photo-catalysts eligible for widespread practical application. A ternary CdS/RGO/g-C3N4 composite was constructed by Jo et al. [182], the resultant showed enhanced photo-catalytic hydrogen generation performance compared with CdS/g-C3N4 photo-catalysts, proving the RGO as an efficient electron mediator. PL emission spectra and transient photo-current measurements were applied to further demonstrate the charge separation and migration, the as-prepared composite showed decreased photo-excited charges recombination rate and prolonged lifetime via the formation of Z-scheme hetero-junction, leading to the increased photo-catalytic hydrogen generation ability. Tahir et al. [212] fabricated g-C3N4/TiH1.92 photo-catalyst with a highly effective H2 evolution ability of 75.55 µmol/h in visible light region. What is more, Zhang et al. [144] utilized noble metals (Ag, Au and Pt) to decorate g-C3N4/TiO2 nanocomposite for the further improving of photo-catalytic H2-production activity to 519.73 µmol g−1 h−1. Other g-C3N4 nanosheets-based hetero-structures such as SnS2/g-C3N4 nanosheet [213], NiCo2O4/g-C3N4 [214], ruthenium phosphide/g-C3N4 [117], WS2/g-C3N4 [133], g-C3N4/rGO/PDIP [152], FeSe2/g-C3N4 [215] also have been reported as efficient photo-catalysts for the photo-catalytic hydrogen evolution.
Besides constructing g-C3N4-based hetero-structures, controlling of morphology and defects could also been widely applied in photo-catalytic H2-production of g-C3N4 to achieve much better performance [171,176,216]. Zhang et al. [96] fabricated ultra-thin g-C3N4 nanosheets with abundant mesopores and macropores structure, leading to excellent increased (25.5 times) light-driven photo-catalytic H2 generation ability. Defects rich g-C3N4 nanosheets was constructed [172], the resultant exhibited significantly improved photo-catalytic H2 evolution rate of 761.8 ± 4.3 µmol g−1 h−1 under simulated sunlight illumination.
5.3 Other applications
Furthermore, g-C3N4 nanosheets hybrids were also applied in photo-catalytic disinfection [154], N2 fixation [169], organic synthesis [217], and so on. Li et al. [218] synthesized Ag2WO4/g-C3N4 photo-catalyst with significantly enhanced photo-catalytic disinfection performance, as a result, Escherichia coli cells have been distorted and destroyed totally by as-prepared hybrid photo-catalyst within 90 min. Cao and co-workers [169] fabricated ultra-thin sulfur-doping g-C3N4 (SCNNSs) possessing carbon vacancies, due to the superior N2 molecules adsorption and activation ability, as well as the effective photo-generated charge carries separation, the N2 fixation rate could reach 5.99 mmol L−1 h−1 gcat−1 after 4-h simulated sunlight illumination via the obtained SCNNSs.
Apart from photo-catalytic field, g-C3N4 nanosheets based composites also utilized to perform as lithium-ion batteries [219], photoelectrochemical devices [220], supercapacitor [221], fluorescence sensor [222,223], and bio-imaging and bio-sensor [156,224] and so on. With many advantages, such as low cost, good temperature and chemical stability, tunable electronic structure, appropriate band position, and acceptable redox potential, various application possibilities of g-C3N4 nanosheets-based photo-catalysts will be explored in the near future.
6 Summary and perspective
Less
This review summarizes the exfoliation methods, modification strategies, photo-catalytic mechanism and applications of g-C3N4 nanosheets, numerous progresses have been achieved in the fabrication and functionalization of g-C3N4 nanosheets for efficient water splitting, pollution mitigation, CO2 photo-reduction, and so on in the past three years. To conclude, the g-C3N4 nanosheets can be attained via three approaches: thermal oxidation, ultrasonic, and chemical exfoliation. In order to deal with poor light absorption range, high recombination rate of photo-induced charges, and low surface area of g-C3N4, many modification strategies such as construction of hetero-junctions, elements doping, defect control, and structure design have been widely studied and reported, the synthesis of those g-C3N4-based photo-catalysts improved the production ability and separation rate of photo-induced charges via the formation of type-II hetero-junctions, Z-scheme and S-scheme hetero-junctions, in addition, the redox ability can be further enhanced in the Z-scheme and S-scheme system, leading to a better photo-catalytic performance in environmental pollution degradation, energy production, nitrogen fixation, disinfection and so on.
In spite of the great achievements of g-C3N4 nanosheets over the years, there are still many challenges for this material in photo-catalysis. Firstly, although many exfoliation ways have been studied for attaining ultra-thin g-C3N4 nanosheets, the decrease of lateral size, relative low product yield, and secondary pollution still exist. We could boost pressure during the thermal exfoliation process, cutting down the reaction temperature and time, leading to the less destroy of lateral size. We could also combine those exfoliation methods to elevate the product yield. Secondly, since the reports focus more on the improvement of photo-catalytic efficiency, actual mechanisms toward photo-catalytic reaction especially the water splitting and CO2 reduction are still up in the air yet until now, we could use the theoretical computational simulations to analyze the photo-induced charge carrier transfer pathway and dynamics to further study the mechanism. Besides, the potential applications of g-C3N4 nanosheets could further extend. In view of the facile synthesis, low price, non-toxicity, high stability against temperature and chemicals, and appropriate band gap and band position, the g-C3N4-based photo-catalysis could be widely applied in the near future.
Declaration of competing interest
Less
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
Less
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support by the Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 21872102 and 22172080).
References
Less
[1]
A. Fujishima, K. Honda, Nature 238 (1972) 37–38.
[2]
Z. Wang, C.Y. Yang, T.Q. Lin, et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 23 (2013) 5444–5450.
[3]
B. Liu, H.M. Chen, C. Liu, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135 (2013) 9995–9998.
[4]
J.C. Yu, J. Yu, W. Ho, Z. Jiang, L. Zhang, Chem. Mater. 14 (2002) 3808–3816.
[5]
J.G. Yu, J.X. Low, W. Xiao, P. Zhou, M. Jaroniec, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136 (2014) 8839–8842.
[6]
R. Asahi, T. Morikawa, T. Ohwaki, K. Aoki, Y. Taga, Science 293 (2001) 269–271.
[7]
C. Han, Z. Chen, N. Zhang, J.C. Colmenares, Y.J. Xu, Adv. Funct. Mater. 25 (2015) 221–229.
[8]
H. Shuai, J. Wang, X.G. Wang, G.X. Du, Materials 14 (2021) 6474.
[9]
A. Tanaka, K. Hashimoto, H. Kominami, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136 (2014) 586–589.
[10]
X.Y. Xiong, Y.R. Jin, H.W. Wang, et al., Mater. Chem. Phys. 281 (2022) 125824.
[11]
Z. Liu, D.D. Sun, P. Guo, J.O. Leckle, Nano Lett. 7 (2007) 1081–1085.
[12]
I. Fatimah, G. Purwiandono, H. Hidayat, et al., Nanomaterials 11 (2021) 3012.
[13]
Y.X. Guo, H.W. Huang, Y. He, et al., Nanoscale 7 (2015) 11702–11711.
[14]
Z.Q. Zheng, F. Han, B. Xing, X.B. Han, B.X. Li, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 624 (2022) 460–470.
[15]
S. Kohtani, M. Koshiko, A. Kudo, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 46 (2003) 573–586.
[16]
D. Philo, S.Q. Luo, C. He, et al., Adv. Funct. Mater. 32 (2022) 2206811.
[17]
Z.G. Yi, J.H. Ye, N. Kikugawa, et al., Nat. Mater. 9 (2010) 559–564.
[18]
Z.G. Zou, J.H. Ye, K. Sayama, H. Arakawa, Nature 414 (2001) 625–627.
[19]
D.M. Schultz, T.P. Yoon, Science 343 (2014) 1239176.
[20]
N. Torkian, A. Bahrami, A. Hosseini-Abari, et al., Environ. Res. 207 (2022) 112157.
[21]
T. Cheng, Q. Ma, H. Gao, et al., Mater. Today Chem. 23 (2022) 100750.
[22]
Y.Q. Yang, L.C. Yin, Y. Gong, et al., Adv. Mater. 30 (2018) 1704479.
[23]
G. Yang, P. Qiu, J.Y. Xiong, X.T. Zhu, G. Cheng, Chin. Chem. Lett. 33 (2022) 3709–3712.
[24]
L.Z. Liu, T.P. Hu, K. Dai, J.F. Zhang, C.H. Liang, Chin. J. Catal. 42 (2021) 46–55.
[25]
H. Yang, Z.L. Jin, D.D. Liu, K. Fan, G.R. Wang, J. Phys. Chem. C 122 (2018) 10430–10441.
[26]
J. Liu, J. Ke, Y. Li, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 236 (2018) 396–403.
[27]
Y.L. Wu, Y.Y. Xu, Y. Zhang, et al., Chin. Chem. Lett. 33 (2022) 2741–2746.
[28]
F. Goettmann, A. Fischer, M. Antonietti, A. Thomas, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 45 (2006) 4467–4471.
[29]
W.J. Ong, L.L. Tan, Y.H. Ng, S.T. Yong, S.P. Chai, Chem. Rev. 116 (2016) 7159–7329.
[30]
S.C. Yan, Z.S. Li, Z.G. Zou, Langmuir 25 (2009) 10397–10401.
[31]
Q.J. Xiang, J.G. Yu, M. Jaroniec, J. Phys. Chem. C 115 (2011) 7355–7363.
[32]
S.W. Cao, J.G. Yu, J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 5 (2014) 2101–2107.
[33]
X.F. Li, J.F. Zhang, Y. Huo, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 280 (2021) 119452.
[34]
D.Y. Han, J. Liu, H. Cai, et al., Appl. Surf. Sci. 464 (2019) 577–585.
[35]
X.B. Li, B.B. Kang, F. Dong, et al., Nano Energy 81 (2021) 105671.
[36]
D.H. Kim, K.J. Yong, Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 282 (2021) 119538.
[37]
H.R. Sun, F. Guo, J.J. Pan, et al., Chem. Eng. J. 406 (2021) 126844.
[38]
L. Ge, F. Zuo, J.K. Liu, et al., J. Phys. Chem. C 116 (2012) 13708–13714.
[39]
G.M. Jiang, J.W. Cao, M. Chen, X.M. Zhang, F. Dong, Appl. Surf. Sci. 458 (2018) 77–85.
[40]
X.C. Wang, K. Maeda, A. Thomas, et al., Nat. Mater. 8 (2009) 76–80.
[41]
P. Niu, L.L. Zhang, G. Liu, H.M. Cheng, Adv. Funct. Mater. 22 (2012) 4763–4770.
[42]
M. Tahir, C.B. Cao, N. Mahmood, et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 6 (2014) 1258–1265.
[43]
X.J. Bai, L. Wang, R.L. Zong, Y.F. Zhu, J. Phys. Chem. C 117 (2013) 9952–9961.
[44]
K. Gu, X.T. Pan, W.W. Wang, et al., Small 14 (2018) 1801812.
[45]
X.C. Wang, K. Maeda, X.F. Chen, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131 (2009) 1680–1681.
[46]
X.F. Wu, J.S. Cheng, X.F. Li, Y.H. Li, K.L. Lv, Appl. Surf. Sci. 465 (2019) 1037–1046.
[47]
L.B. Jiang, X.Z. Yuan, G.M. Zeng, et al., J. Colloid Interface Sci. 536 (2019) 17–29.
[48]
B. Lin, H. Li, H. An, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 220 (2018) 542–552.
[49]
A. Kumar, G. Sharma, A. Kumari, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 284 (2021) 119808.
[50]
Q.H. Liang, X.J. Liu, J.J. Wang, et al., J. Hazard. Mater. 401 (2021) 123355.
[51]
P.Y. Kuang, Y.Z. Su, G.F. Chen, et al., Appl. Surf. Sci. 358 (2015) 296–303.
[52]
P.F. Xia, B.C. Zhu, J.G. Yu, S.W. Cao, M. Jaroniec, J. Mater. Chem. A 5 (2017) 3230–3238.
[53]
M.Q. Qiu, Z.X. Liu, S.Q. Wang, B.W. Hu, Environ. Res. 196 (2021) 110349.
[54]
K. Takanabe, K. Kamata, X.C. Wang, et al., Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 12 (2010) 13020–13025.
[55]
X. Li, H.P. Jiang, C.C. Ma, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 283 (2021) 119638.
[56]
W.Y. Lei, Y. Mi, R.J. Feng, et al., Nano Energy 50 (2018) 552–561.
[57]
D. Huang, X.B. Sun, Y.D. Liu, et al., Chin. Chem. Lett. 32 (2021) 2787–2791.
[58]
H.R. Sun, L.J. Wang, F. Guo, et al., J. Alloy Compd. 900 (2022) 163410.
[59]
P. Zhou, J. Yu, M. Jaroniec, Adv. Mater. 26 (2014) 4920–4935.
[60]
L. Shi, Z. Li, K. Marcus, et al., Chem. Commun. 54 (2018) 3747–3750.
[61]
J.W. Fu, Q.L. Xu, J.X. Low, C.J. Jiang, J.G. Yu, Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 243 (2019) 556–565.
[62]
J.Q. Yan, H. Wu, H. Chen, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 191 (2016) 130–137.
[63]
Q.L. Xu, L.Y. Zhang, J.G. Yu, et al., Mater. Today 21 (2018) 1042–1063.
[64]
X. Liu, J. Zhang, Y.M. Dong, et al., New J. Chem. 42 (2018) 12180–12187.
[65]
T. Komatsu, T. Nakamura, J. Mater. Chem. 11 (2001) 474–478.
[66]
A. Thomas, A. Fischer, F. Goettmann, et al., J. Mater. Chem. 18 (2008) 4893–4908.
[67]
Y.S. Jun, W.H. Hong, M. Antonietti, A. Thomas, Adv. Mater. 21 (2009) 4270–4274.
[68]
A.K. Geim, Science 324 (2009) 1530–1534.
[69]
X.L. Li, G.Y. Zhang, X.D. Bai, et al., Nat. Nanotechnol. 3 (2008) 538–542.
[70]
R.Z. Ma, T. Sasaki, Adv. Mater. 22 (2010) 5082–5104.
[71]
G.F. Walker, Nature 187 (1960) 312–313.
[72]
X.P. Dong, F.X. Cheng, J. Mater. Chem. A 3 (2015) 23642–23652.
[73]
K.S. Novoselov, A.K. Geim, S.V. Morozov, et al., Science 306 (2004) 666–669.
[74]
Y. Hernandez, V. Nicolosi, M. Lotya, et al., Nat. Nanotechnol. 3 (2008) 563–568.
[75]
J.N. Coleman, M. Lotya, A. O'Neill, et al., Science 331 (2011) 568–571.
[76]
V. Nicolosi, M. Chhowalla, M.G. Kanatzidis, M.S. Strano, J.N. Coleman, Science 340 (2013) 1226419.
[77]
Q.W. Yan, W. Dai, J.Y. Gao, et al., ACS Nano 15 (2021) 6489–6498.
[78]
G. Chakraborty, I.H. Park, R. Medishetty, J.J. Vittal, Chem. Rev. 121 (2021) 3751–3891.
[79]
S.B. Yang, Y.J. Gong, J.S. Zhang, et al., Adv. Mater. 25 (2013) 2452–2456.
[80]
Y.J. Yuan, Z.K. Shen, S.T. Wu, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 246 (2019) 120–128.
[81]
Y. Yin, J.C. Han, X.H. Zhang, et al., RSC Adv. 4 (2014) 32690–32697.
[82]
H.P. Liu, S.L. Ma, L. Shao, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 261 (2020) 118201.
[83]
C.Z. Wu, S.Y. Xue, Z.J. Qin, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 282 (2021) 119557.
[84]
Y.Z. Zhang, Z.X. Huang, C.L. Dong, et al., Chem. Eng. J. 431 (2022) 134101.
[85]
B.V. Lotsch, M. Döblinger, J. Sehnert, et al., Chemistry 13 (2007) 4969–4980.
[86]
L.S. Jiang, J. Li, K. Wang, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 260 (2020) 118181.
[87]
L. Acharya, S.P. Pattnaik, A. Behera, R. Acharya, K. Parida, Inorg. Chem. 60 (2021) 5021–5033.
[88]
Z.W. Zhao, Y.J. Sun, Q. Luo, et al., Sci. Rep. 5 (2015) 14643.
[89]
W.W. Liu, R.F. Peng, X.P. Ye, J.F. Guo, L.B. Luo, Appl. Surf. Sci. 560 (2021) 150013.
[90]
Q.H. Liang, Z. Li, Z.H. Huang, F.Y. Kang, Q.H. Yang, Adv. Funct. Mater. 25 (2015) 6885–6892.
[91]
F. Dong, Y.H. Li, Z.Y. Wang, W.K. Ho, Appl. Surf. Sci. 358 (2015) 393–403.
[92]
M.L. Zhang, Y. Yang, X.Q. An, et al., J. Hazard. Mater. 424 (2022) 127424.
[93]
A. Beyhaqi, S.M.T. Azimi, Z.H. Chen, C. Hu, Q.Y. Zeng, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 46 (2021) 20547–20559.
[94]
S.W. Zhang, H.H. Gao, Y.S. Huang, et al., Environ. Sci. : Nano 5 (2018) 1179–1190.
[95]
Y.C. Deng, L. Tang, C.Y. Feng, et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 (2017) 42816–42828.
[96]
Y.Z. Zhang, S.C. Zong, C. Cheng, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 233 (2018) 80–87.
[97]
Y.S. Chen, B. Yang, W.Y. Xie, et al., J. Mater. Res. Technol. 13 (2021) 301–310.
[98]
X.L. Liu, Y.H. Guo, P. Wang, et al., Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 46 (2021) 3595–3604.
[99]
J. Pan, H.X. Wang, L.A. Xu, et al., Solid State Sci. 129 (2022) 106915.
[100]
X.D. Zhang, X. Xie, H. Wang, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135 (2012) 18–21.
[101]
T.M.O. Le, T.H. Lam, T.N. Pham, et al., Polymers (Basel) 10 (2018) 633.
[102]
Y.P. Liu, S.J. Shen, Z.G. Li, et al., Mater. Charact. 174 (2021) 111031.
[103]
H. Mei, H.W. Shu, M.Y. Lv, W. Liu, X.D. Wang, Microchim. Acta 187 (2020) 159.
[104]
Q. Wang, W. Wang, L.L. Zhong, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 220 (2018) 290–302.
[105]
X.F. Zhang, W.J. Du, Q. Li, C.P. Lv, RSC Adv. 12 (2022) 20618–20627.
[106]
M.I. Chebanenko, A.A. Lobinsky, V.N. Nevedomskiy, V.I. Popcov, Dalton Trans. 49 (2020) 12088–12097.
[107]
D.M. Zhao, J. Chen, C.L. Dong, et al., J. Catal. 352 (2017) 491–497.
[108]
X.J. Wang, C. Liu, X.L. Li, et al., Appl. Surf. Sci. 394 (2017) 340–350.
[109]
X. Li, Q. Wu, M. Hussain, et al., RSC Adv. 12 (2022) 15378–15384.
[110]
H.T. Shin, D.U. Lee, S. Chaudhari, et al., J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. E 132 (2022) 104126.
[111]
T.D. Munusamy, S.Y. Chin, M. Tarek, M.M.R. Khan, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 46 (2021) 30988–30999.
[112]
T.V. de Medeiros, A.O. Porto, H.A. Bicalho, et al., J. Mater. Chem. C 9 (2021) 7622–7631.
[113]
M.J. Bojdys, N. Severin, J.P. Rabe, et al., Macromol. Rapid Commun. 34 (2013) 850–854.
[114]
J. Xu, L.W. Zhang, R. Shi, Y.F. Zhu, J. Mater. Chem. A 1 (2013) 14766–14772.
[115]
L. Shi, K. Chang, H.B. Zhang, et al., Small 12 (2016) 4431–4439.
[116]
G.N. Li, L. Li, H.Y. Yuan, et al., J. Colloid Interface Sci. 495 (2017) 19–26.
[117]
J.F. Wang, J. Chen, P.F. Wang, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 239 (2018) 578–585.
[118]
R.P. Wang, Y. Wang, S.H. Mao, et al., J. Inorg. Organomet. Polym. 31 (2021) 32–42.
[119]
A. Mishra, A. Mehta, S. Kainth, S. Basu, J. Mater. Sci. 53 (2018) 13126–13142.
[120]
C. Liang, C.G. Niu, H. Guo, et al., Catal. Sci. Technol. 8 (2018) 1161–1175.
[121]
Y.Y. Fan, H.M. Chen, D.F. Cui, Z. Fan, C.Y. Xue, Energy Technol. 9 (2021) 2000973.
[122]
K.H. Chen, X.W. Wang, Q.Y. Li, et al., Chem. Eng. J. 418 (2021) 129476.
[123]
J.P. Wang, Y. Yu, J.Y. Cui, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 301 (2022) 120814.
[124]
J.Z. Jiang, Z.G. Xiong, H.T. Wang, et al., J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 118 (2022) 15–24.
[125]
D.V. Thuan, T.L. Nguyen, H.H.P. Thi, et al., Opt. Mater. 123 (2022) 111885.
[126]
R.Y. Zhang, S.Y. Niu, J.M. Xiang, et al., Sep. Purif. Technol. 261 (2021) 118258.
[127]
Y.Y. Wang, W.J. Jiang, W.J. Luo, X.J. Chen, Y.F. Zhu, Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 237 (2018) 633–640.
[128]
H.Y. Wang, R.R. Niu, J.H. Liu, et al., Nano Res. 15 (2022) 6987–6998.
[129]
H. Jung, T.T. Pham, E.W. Shin, Appl. Surf. Sci. 458 (2018) 369–381.
[130]
K.L. He, J. Xie, M.L. Li, X. Li, Appl. Surf. Sci. 430 (2018) 208–217.
[131]
J. Wang, R.H. Pan, Q. Hao, et al., Appl. Surf. Sci. 599 (2022) 153875.
[132]
B.L. Dai, Y.Y. Li, J.M. Xu, et al., Appl. Surf. Sci. 592 (2022) 153309.
[133]
Z.W. Zhao, K. Dai, J.F. Zhang, G. Dawson, Adv. Sustain. Syst. 7 (2022) 2100498.
[134]
A. Mardiroosi, A.R. Mahjoub, H. Fakhri, R. Boukerroub, J. Mol. Struct. 1246 (2021) 131244.
[135]
G.L. Xu, H.B. Zhang, J. Wei, et al., ACS Nano 12 (2018) 5333–5340.
[136]
J.B. Liu, H.J. Shi, Q. Shen, C.Y. Guo, C.H. Zhao, Green Chem. 19 (2017) 5900–5910.
[137]
A. Rajan, B. Neppolian, Appl. Mater. Today 28 (2022) 101524.
[138]
Y. Di, X.C. Wang, A. Thomas, M. Antonietti, ChemCatChem 2 (2010) 834–838.
[139]
Z.H. Chen, F. Guo, H.R. Sun, Y.X. Shi, W.L. Shi, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 607 (2021) 1391–1401.
[140]
T.Y. Ren, Y.P. Dang, Y. Xiao, et al., Inorg. Chem. Commun. 123 (2021) 108367.
[141]
J.W. Zhou, F.F. Duo, C.Y. Jia, et al., Environ. Eng. Sci. 38 (2021) 1098–1107.
[142]
T. Tong, B.C. Zhu, C.J. Jiang, B. Cheng, J.G. Yu, Appl. Surf. Sci. 433 (2018) 1175–1183.
[143]
S.J. Wang, Y.X. Feng, M.A. Yu, Q. Wan, S. Lin, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 (2017) 33267–33273.
[144]
X.L. Zhang, X.X. Zhang, J.D. Li, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 237 (2018) 50–58.
[145]
W. Liu, Y.Y. Li, F.Y. Liu, et al., Water Res. 151 (2019) 8–19.
[146]
Z.Y. Shi, L. Rao, P.F. Wang, L.X. Zhang, Chemosphere 308 (2022) 136257.
[147]
Z.Y. Shi, L. Rao, P.F. Wang, L.X. Zhang, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 29 (2022) 83981–83992.
[148]
M. Karimi-Nazarabad, E.K. Goharshadi, R. Mehrkhah, M. Davardoostmanesh, Sep. Purif. Technol. 279 (2021) 119788.
[149]
H.J. He, L.H. Huang, Z.J. Zhong, S.Z. Tan, Appl. Surf. Sci. 441 (2018) 285–294.
[150]
D. Liu, J. Yao, S.T. Chen, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 318 (2022) 121822.
[151]
F.G. Hu, S.P. Sun, H.L. Xu, et al., J. Phys. Chem. Solids 156 (2021) 110181.
[152]
X.J. Chen, J. Wang, Y.Q. Chai, Z.J. Zhang, Y.F. Zhu, Adv. Mater. 33 (2021) 2007479.
[153]
P. Sarkar, S.R.D. De, S. Neogi, Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 307 (2022) 121165.
[154]
J.E. Du, S.L. Ma, N. Zhang, et al., Colloid. Surf. A 654 (2022) 130094.
[155]
W.L. Shi, C. Liu, M.Y. Li, et al., J. Hazard. Mater. 389 (2020) 121907.
[156]
H.F. Xu, S.J. Liang, X. Zhu, et al., Biosens. Bioelectron. 92 (2017) 695–701.
[157]
Q. Qiao, W.Q. Huang, Y.Y. Li, et al., J. Mater. Sci. 53 (2018) 15882–15894.
[158]
W.N. Xing, G. Chen, C.M. Li, et al., Nanoscale 10 (2018) 5239–5245.
[159]
Y.Y. Liu, Y. Zhang, L. Shi, Colloid Surf. A 641 (2022) 128577.
[160]
M.Y. Cao, K. Wang, I. Tudela, X.F. Fan, Appl. Surf. Sci. 536 (2021) 147784.
[161]
Y. Ding, S. Maitra, C.H. Wang, et al., J. Energy Chem. 70 (2022) 236–247.
[162]
L. Deng, J.J. Sun, J. Sun, et al., Appl. Surf. Sci. 597 (2022) 153586.
[163]
B. Yang, X.L. Li, Q. Zhang, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 314 (2022) 121521.
[164]
S. Mao, C. Liu, Y. Wu, M.Z. Xia, F.Y. Wang, Chemosphere 291 (2022) 133039.
[165]
J.C. Wang, Y.X. Huo, F.D. Feng, et al., Appl. Surf. Sci. 537 (2021) 148014.
[166]
X.A. Dong, J.Y. Li, Q. Xing, Y. Zhou, H.W. Huang, Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 232 (2018) 69–76.
[167]
C.H. Choi, L.H. Lin, S.J. Gim, et al., ACS Catal. 8 (2018) 4241–4256.
[168]
C.C. Dong, Z.Y. Ma, R.T. Qie, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 217 (2017) 629–636.
[169]
S.H. Cao, B. Fan, Y.C. Feng, et al., Chem. Eng. J. 353 (2018) 147–156.
[170]
G.H. Dong, D.L. Jacobs, L. Zang, C.Y. Wang, Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 218 (2017) 515–524.
[171]
Q.C. Li, Y.W. Tong, Y.B. Zeng, X.K. Gu, M.Y. Ding, Chem. Eng. J. 450 (2022) 138010.
[172]
F.P. Meng, W.J. Tian, Z.H. Tian, et al., Sci. Total Environ. 851 (2022) 158360.
[173]
H.W. Huang, K. Xiao, N. Tian, et al., J. Mater. Chem. A 5 (2017) 17452–17463.
[174]
Z.Q. Jiang, Y.R. Shen, Y.J. You, Molecules 27 (2022) 6054.
[175]
T.T. Li, S.L. Wang, L. Li, et al., J. Colloid Interface Sci. 628 (2022) 214–221.
[176]
Q. Liu, X.L. Wang, Q. Yang, Z.G. Zhang, X.M. Fang, Appl. Surf. Sci. 450 (2018) 46–56.
[177]
S.W. Cao, J.X. Low, J.G. Yu, M. Jaroniec, Adv. Mater. 27 (2015) 2150–2176.
[178]
J.J. Yi, T. Fei, L. Li, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 281 (2021) 119475.
[179]
A. Majumdar, U. Ghosh, A. Pal, et al., J. Colloid Interface Sci. 584 (2021) 320–331.
[180]
C. Murugan, K. Ranjithkumar, A. Pandikumar, et al., J. Colloid Interface Sci. 602 (2021) 437–451.
[181]
H.J. Li, Y. Zhou, W.G. Tu, J.H. Ye, Z.G. Zou, Adv. Funct. Mater. 25 (2015) 998–1013.
[182]
W.K. Jo, N.C.S. Selvam, Chem. Eng. J. 317 (2017) 913–924.
[183]
M.Q. Wu, T. Ding, Y.T. Wang, et al., Catal. Today 355 (2020) 311–318.
[184]
Z.X. Liu, Y.D. Liu, X.B. Sun, et al., Chem. Eng. J. 433 (2022) 133604.
[185]
I. Hong, Y.A. Chen, Y.J. Hsu, K.J. Yong, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 13 (2021) 52670–52680.
[186]
P. Wen, Y.H. Sun, H. Li, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 263 (2020) 118180.
[187]
J.G. Yu, S.H. Wang, J.X. Low, W. Xiao, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 15 (2013) 16883–16890.
[188]
G.X. Li, Y.D. Cai, X.D. Wang, et al., Chem. Phys. 559 (2022) 111558.
[189]
H. Zhang, J. He, P. Wu, W. Jiang, J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 10 (2022) 107804.
[190]
T. Feng, J.Y. Jin, Y.R. Cao, et al., Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 47 (2022) 5999–6010.
[191]
N.K. Ding, B. Chen, L. Zhou, et al., Chin. Chem. Lett. 33 (2022) 3797–3801.
[192]
M.X. Zhang, H.X. Du, J. Ji, et al., Molecules 26 (2021) 2062.
[193]
K. Wang, G.K. Zhang, J. Li, Y. Li, X.Y. Wu, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 (2017) 43704–43715.
[194]
N. Nie, L.Y. Zhang, J.W. Fu, B. Cheng, J.G. Yu, Appl. Surf. Sci. 441 (2018) 12–22.
[195]
X.W. Liu, J. Chen, L.F. Yang, et al., J. Phys. Chem. Solids 160 (2021) 110339.
[196]
X.F. Zhang, X.B. Jia, P.Z. Duan, et al., Colloid Surf. A 608 (2021) 125580.
[197]
Q. Ye, M. Yang, W. Li, et al., Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 29 (2022) 58762–58772.
[198]
P. Ke, D.L. Zeng, J.W. Cui, X. Li, Y. Chen, Catalysts 12 (2022) 247.
[199]
X.L. Zhu, C.L. Duan, W.Z. Wang, G.X. Xin, J.L. Song, Mater. Lett. 317 (2022) 132045.
[200]
X.D. Yang, J. Duan, X. Zhang, et al., Chin. Chem. Lett. 33 (2022) 3792–3796.
[201]
D.T. Dung, N.V. Hiep, M.B. Nguyen, V.D. Thao, N.N. Huy, Korean J. Chem. Eng. 38 (2021) 2034–2046.
[202]
M. Li, Q.H. Li, M.W. Xu, et al., Carbon 184 (2021) 479–491.
[203]
A. Hagghi, N. Dalali, M.M. Abolghasemi, et al., Sep. Sci. Technol. 56 (2021) 2398–2406.
[204]
D.D. Zhang, J.J. Qi, H.D. Ji, et al., Chem. Eng. J. 400 (2020) 125918.
[205]
L.M. Zhao, L.J. Guo, Y.L. Tang, J.F. Zhou, B. Shi, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 60 (2021) 13594–13603.
[206]
M.Y. Xu, X.X. Zhao, H.P. Jiang, S.T. Chen, P.W. Huo, J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 9 (2021) 106469.
[207]
Z.L. Tang, C.J. Wang, W.J. He, et al., Chin. Chem. Lett. 33 (2022) 939–942.
[208]
X.X. Zhao, M. Gao, Q. Liu, et al., Sustain. Energy Fuels 6 (2022) 3768–3777.
[209]
Z.W. Zhao, Y.J. Sun, F. Dong, Nanoscale 7 (2015) 15–37.
[210]
Z.L. Jin, Y.B. Li, X.Q. Hao, Acta Phys. Chim. Sin. 37 (2021) 1912033.
[211]
Y.X. Wang, F.T. He, L. Chen, et al., Chin. Chem. Lett. 31 (2020) 2668–2672.
[212]
W. Tahir, T.Y. Cheang, J.H. Li, et al., Catal. Sci. Technol. 12 (2022) 2023–2029.
[213]
W. Zhao, Y.J. Li, P.S. Zhao, et al., Chem. Eng. J. 405 (2021) 126555.
[214]
C. Cheng, L.H. Mao, J.W. Shi, et al., J. Mater. Chem. A 9 (2021) 12299–12306.
[215]
J. Jia, W.J. Sun, Q.Q. Zhang, et al., Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 261 (2020) 118249.
[216]
X.X. He, H.Y. Shang, C. Wang, et al., Chin. Chem. Lett. 32 (2021) 3377–3381.
[217]
I. Camussi, B. Mannucci, A. Speltini, et al., ACS Sustain. Chem. Eng. 7 (2019) 8176–8182.
[218]
Y. Li, Y.N. Li, S.L. Ma, et al., J. Hazard. Mater. 338 (2017) 33–46.
[219]
Q.D. Le, P.N. Ngoc, H.T. Huu, et al., Chem. Phys. Lett. 796 (2022) 139550.
[220]
Z.P. Li, W.X. Dong, X.Y. Du, G.M. Wen, X.J. Fan, Microchem. J. 152 (2020) 104259.
[221]
E. Dhandapani, S. Prabhu, N. Duraisamy, R. Ramesh, J. Energy Storage 44 (2021) 103360.
[222]
F. Goudarzy, J. Zolgharnein, J.B. Ghasemi, Inorg. Chem. Commun. 141 (2022) 109512.
[223]
K. Radhakrishnan, S. Sivanesan, P. Panneerselvam, J. Photochem. Photobiol. A 389 (2020) 112204.
[224]
X.J. Liu, Q.E. Wang, J. Chen, X. Chen, W.S. Yang, Talanta 221 (2021) 121379.
Appendix
Less
Year 2023 volume 34 Issue 11
PDF
68
38
Cite this Article
BibTeX
Article Info
doi: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108306
  • Receive Date：2022-10-29
  • Online Date：2025-11-21
  • Published：2023-11-15
Article Data
Affiliations
History
  • Received：2022-10-29
  • Revised：2023-02-06
  • Accepted：2023-03-05
Affiliations
    aKey Laboratory of Advanced Ceramics and Machining Technology, Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
    bSchool of Materials Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
References
Share
https://castjournals.cast.org.cn/joweb/ccl/EN/10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108306
Share to
QR

Scan QR to access full text

Cite this article
BibTeX
Citations
表12种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family		 属数
Number of
genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)		 属
Genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
关闭全屏
  • BibTeX
  • EndNote
  • RefWorks
  • TxT
Links
Articles
Latest Articles
Most Read
Collections
Updates
Events
News
Multimedia
About
About Us
Contact
No. 86 Xueyuan South Road, Haidian District, Beijing
100081
010-62199257
qkjq@cast.org.cn

Copyright © 2025 China Association for Science and Technology. All rights reserved. For all open access content, the relevant licensing terms apply.
Sponsored by the Office of the Leading Group for Cybersecurity and Informatization of CAST, and supported by Science and Technology Review Publishing House