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Variations in organic carbon loading of surface sediments from the shelf to the slope of the Chukchi Sea, Arctic Ocean
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Zhongqiao LI1, Xinyi WANG2, Haiyan JIN1, 3, Zhongqiang JI1, Youcheng BAI1, Jianfang CHEN1, 3, *
Acta Oceanologica Sinica | 2017, 36(8) : 131 - 136
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Acta Oceanologica Sinica | 2017, 36(8): 131-136
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Variations in organic carbon loading of surface sediments from the shelf to the slope of the Chukchi Sea, Arctic Ocean
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Zhongqiao LI1, Xinyi WANG2, Haiyan JIN1, 3, Zhongqiang JI1, Youcheng BAI1, Jianfang CHEN1, 3, *
Affiliations
  • 1 Laboratory of Marine Ecosystem and Biogeochemistry, Second Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Hangzhou 310012, China
  • 2 Laboratory of Marine Chemistry and Environment, Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan 316021, China
  • 3 State Key Laboratory of Satellite Ocean Environment Dynamics, Second Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Hangzhou 310012, China
Published: 2017-08-01 doi: 10.1007/s13131-017-1026-y
Outline
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The content of organic carbon (OC) normalized to the specific surface area (SSA) of sediment is widely used to trace variations in OC loading (OC/SSA). This study presents observations of OC/SSA of surface sediments collected in the Chukchi Sea, a typical Arctic marginal sea. Shelf sediments exhibit much higher OC/SSA values than slope sediments in the study area. Compared with OC/SSA values reported from the East Siberian Shelf and Mackenzie River, the slope sediments possess lower OC loading. This abrupt decrease in OC/SSA is mostly related to the lower primary production on slope as well as possible oxidization processes. The results of linear regression analysis between OC and SSA indicate a sedimentary source rock for the OC in the Chukchi Sea sediments. Moreover, shelf sediments with low SSA possess a larger rock OC fraction than slope sediments do. The dataset of the present study enables a more thorough understanding of regional OC cycling in the Chukchi Sea.

Chukchi Sea  /  Arctic  /  surface sediments  /  organic carbon loading  /  carbon cycle
Zhongqiao LI, Xinyi WANG, Haiyan JIN, Zhongqiang JI, Youcheng BAI, Jianfang CHEN. Variations in organic carbon loading of surface sediments from the shelf to the slope of the Chukchi Sea, Arctic Ocean[J]. Acta Oceanologica Sinica, 2017 , 36 (8) : 131 -136 . DOI: 10.1007/s13131-017-1026-y
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1 Introduction
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The Arctic Ocean possesses the largest continental shelf in the world and plays a key role in the global organic carbon (OC) cycle (Chen et al., 2015; Stein and Macdonald, 2004). Under the impact of global warming effect, the Arctic Ocean and surrounding areas are showing greater sensitivity to changes than the other regions (Chen et al., 2015). Global warming will lead to the thawing of permafrost and enhanced the export of soil OC and minerals into aquatic systems. During the transportation and burial of terrestrial OC, a certain fraction of the carbon is converted into CO2; thus, permafrost thawing is a source of atmospheric CO2. In addition to affecting the terrestrial environment, warming will also reduce the sea ice extent and keep the water warm (Chen et al., 2015), thus leading to higher oceanic productivity. The oceanic productivity in the Arctic stems mainly from large diatoms (>20 μm; Li et al., 2007), which are more easily transported to the sea bed and are buried in larger numbers than smaller species (Walsh and McRoy, 1986); consequently, a higher burial flux of fresh OC is expected in the euphotic Arctic Ocean.
On geological timescales, the atmospheric CO2 level is to some extent controlled by the burial efficiency of OC in the marine environment (Lasaga et al., 1985), which is largely dependent on the OC loading (OC/SSA) of sediments (Blair and Aller, 2012; Hedges and Keil, 1995; Keil et al., 1997). Therefore, tracing the fate of this OC is critical in predicting the feedback of the Arctic Ocean to global warming (Chen et al., 2004, 2015). The OC content and specific surface area (SSA) of the sediments are two of the most widely applied indexes for studying variations in OC loading in sediments (Bergamaschi et al., 1997; Galy et al., 2008; Goñi et al., 2013; Vonk et al., 2015). Bergamaschi et al. (1997) investigated the OC content and SSA of Peru Margin sediments and reported a strong positive correlation between these indexes. Vonk et al. (2015) analyzed the river channel, estuarine and shelf sediments collected from the Mackenzie River system in the North America, revealing that the SSA of surface sediments in these realms shows an increasing trend in the offshore direction.
The Chukchi Sea is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean, bounded on the west by the De Long Strait, off Wrangel Island, and in the east by Point Barrow, Alaska, beyond which lies the Beaufort Sea (Polyak et al., 2007). The Bering Strait forms the southernmost limit of the Chukchi Sea, and connects it to the Bering Sea and the Southwest Pacific Ocean. The Chukchi Sea has an area of ~5.95×105 km2 and is only navigable for about four months per year (Weingartner et al., 2005). The sea plays a key role in organic carbon cycling in the Arctic Ocean, especially during the melting season when it receives massive amounts of terrestrial OC and marine OC. The OC loading of sediments has a strong influence on flux estimates and predetermines the response of the Arctic Ocean to global warming.
To accurately determine the OC loading of sediments in the Chukchi Sea, surface sedimentary samples were collected and their OC content and SSA were analyzed. Spatial variations in OC loading are discussed in detail, and the results of previous studies around the Arctic Ocean are compiled to obtain a full map of OC loading in this area. This work will contribute to a better understanding and prediction of the regional carbon cycle and the amounts of CO2 emitted from the sediments to the water column in the Chukchi Sea.
2 Materials and methodology
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2.1 Sample collection and preparation
Surface sediments were collected during the cruise of the sixth Chinese National Arctic Research Expedition in summer of 2014. A total 23 samples were analyzed in this study, covering the areas from the shelf to the slope, at water depths of 33 m to 3 763 m (Fig. 1). Of these samples, 13 were collected from the continental shelf (<150 m) and the remainder from the shelf break and plateau (150–3 763 m). Sediments were obtained using an iron box-type sampler. The surface sediments (0–2 cm) were subsampled, placed in plastic bags, and stored in a refrigerator at –20°C. In the laboratory, ~10 g of each sample was freeze-dried. Half of this amount was ground using an agate mortar and pestle and sieved to 80 mesh (187.5 μm) prior to OC analysis to ensure sample homogeneity. The portions of samples that remained unground were used for specific surface area analysis.
2.2 OC loading (OC/SSA) analysis
OC/SSA ((mg C)/m2) is the ratio of OC content ((mg C)/(g dw)) to SSA (m2/(g dw), dw is dry weight). OC content was measured using an elemental analyzer (CHNOS Vario EL III). The dried and homogenized sediments were placed into glass tubes, after which inorganic carbon was removed by adding hydrochloric acid (HCl, 10% v/v) and incubating at room temperature for 24 h. The extra acid was discarded after centrifugation, following which the sediments were dried and homogenized again. About 10 mg dried sediment was weighed and placed in a tin cup. The OC content was calculated from the mass of sediment and the area of the CO2 peak. The accuracy of OC measurements was assessed by analyzing two marginal sea sediment standards (Chinese National Standard Material, GBW07309 and GBW07333). Analyses in triplicate indicated that the external precision (one relative standard deviation, RSD) was better than 3%.
SSA was determined by nitrogen adsorption using a surface area and porosity analyzer (Micromeritics Tristar 3020). Samples were combusted at 350°C for 12 h to remove the organic matter and water prior to analysis. Subsequently, ~1 g sample was degassed at 50°C and 10–5 Pa for 18 h. Adsorption-desorption isotherms were obtained by subjecting samples to various partial pressures of N2 at 77 K. The specific surface area was calculated following the Brunauer Emmet Teller (BET) method. The accuracy of SSA measurements was assessed by analyzing Chinese National Standard Materials (GBW130276 and GBW130279). Analyses in triplicate indicated that the standard deviation of these measurements was less than 0.20 m2/g.
2.3 Statistical analysis
Pearson’s correlation analysis was performed using SPSS 20.0 software (IBM, USA) in this study. The sampling map was made using the Ocean Data View software, and other figures were produced using OriginPro 8.0 software, respectively.
3 Results
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The values of the measured indexes for the surface sediments in the Chukchi Sea are listed in Table 1. The OC contents for all the samples were 3.76–6.51 (mg C)/(g dw) (average (9.30±0.98) (mg C)/(g dw)). SSA for these sediments was 4.01–39.65 m2/(g dw), (average (21.15±11.14) m2/(g dw)). As the hydrodynamic conditions differ greatly between the shelf and the deep slope/plateau areas, the samples were divided into two categories on the basis of 150 m isobaths: one group of sediments samples was recovered from the shallow shelf region with water depth is less than 150 m; the other was obtained from the slope areas. The shelf sediments exhibited OC values of 3.76–17.19 (mg C)/(g dw) (average (10.32±3.98) (mg C)/(g dw)) and 4.01–26.53 m2/g (average (13.35±7.97) m2/g). The calculated OC normalized to specific surface area (OC/SSA) was 0.48–2.60 (mg C)/m2 (average (0.97±0.53) (mg C)/m2) for these sediments. A positive correlation between the OC content and SSA was observed for the shelf sediments (r=0.85, p<0.01, n=13). The sediments from the slope area displayed a comparable OC content (4.53–17.51 (mg C)/(g dw), average (7.97±3.56) mg/(g dw)) but SSA values two to three times larger (24.32 to 39.65 m2/g, average (31.35±4.5) m2/g). In contrast to the shallow water sediments, there was a weaker linear relationship between OC and SA in the deep-water sediments. The difference in the SSA of sediments also resulted in differences in the OC/SSA values, which were 0.13–0.59 (mg C)/m2, average (0.26±0.12) (mg C)/m2 (Fig. 2).
SSA reflects both the physical properties of the sediment (grain size) and the adsorption capacity of the organic matter. As shown in Fig. 3, when considering the SSA for all the sediments studied herein, a positive correlation between SSA and water depth in all the Chukchi Sea sediments can be observed (r=0.55, p<0.01, n=23). This increasing trend of SSA mainly reflects hydrodynamic sorting of the sediments: finer sediment particles with a high specific surface area are more easily carried to the deep ocean than are coarse particles.
4 Discussion
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4.1 Spatial variations in OC loading for the Chukchi Sea surface sediments
OC/SSA has been widely used to trace variations in the OC loading of sediments in various aquatic systems, such as the river basins (Galy et al., 2008; Vonk et al., 2015), estuaries, and shelf regions (Blair and Aller, 2012; Goñi et al., 2000, 2005, 2013; Vonk et al., 2015). The OC/SSA values of shelf sediments in the Chukchi Sea are comparable to those of Mackenzie River sediments (Fig. 3; Goñi et al., 2013; Vonk et al., 2015; this study). However, for sampling locations in the slope area of the Chukchi Sea, the OC/SSA values of sediments are lower than those of shelf sediments (Fig. 3). The variations in OC/SSA in the Chukchi Sea sediments indicate decreasing OC loading from the inner shelf to the outer shelf and slope, despite the increasing sediments SSA values. This result suggests that the OC loading varies during sediment transport. Similar results were reported in the Canadian Archipelago by Goñi et al. (2013).
Many factors influence the OC loading of deep marine sediments, such as local productivity, vertical fluxes in OC to the benthos, and exposure to effective oxidants (Blair and Aller, 2012; Hedges and Keil, 1995). The abrupt decrease in OC/SSA from the shelf to the slope in the Chukchi Sea, as detected in the present study, is likely to be controlled by multiple factors.
First, the spatial variations in the upper-layer primary production may be responsible for the shift in OC loading in the Chukchi Sea. As indicated by the level of integrated chlorophyll a in surface total suspended material, the high primary production occurs farther south in the nutrient-rich areas of the northern Bering Sea and southern Chukchi Sea (average 470 (g C)/(m2·a); Grebmeier et al., 2006), in comparison, the deep Chukchi Sea shows a much lower primary production than the nutrient-replete waters (Hill and Cota, 2005). This finding was further verified by the mass and particulate OC fluxes in the Canadian Basin, which is located nearby the Chukchi Sea (Hwang et al., 2008, 2015). Therefore, it is likely that the relatively low vertical flux of OC to the sediments is responsible for the low OC loading in the slope areas of the Chukchi Sea.
Second, the changes in OC/SSA may also be related to the OC loss due to in situ oxidation reactions at the sediment-water interface. For example, Goñi et al. (2013) investigated the OC/SSA variations in the sediments along the North American Arctic margin (Fig. 1), and found that OC/SSA was negatively correlated with the thickness of Mn oxyhydroxides at each coring sites. In the present study, the thickness of sediments was 2 cm, representing approximately 13 to 5 000 years of sedimentation in the Chukchi Sea assuming a sedimentation rate of 1.45–0.004 mm/a (Lin et al., 2016). In general, a lower sedimentation rate will result in a prolonged exposure duration of sediment to the aquatic environment, and thus enhanced oxidation of OC. Therefore, the OC loading in the sediments will gradually decrease as the sedimentation rate decreases from the shallow to deep water.
In addition, oxidation during the lateral transport of sediments may affect OC/SSA. Recently, the importance of OC lateral transport in the deep ocean was emphasized (Keil et al., 2004), especially in areas of the Arctic Ocean covered by the ice (Fahl and Nöthig, 2007; Hwang et al., 2008; Hwang et al., 2015). Fahl and Nöthig (2007) pointed out that the lateral input accounted for 42%–64% of the total flux to the sea bed on the Lomonosov Ridge. Hwang et al. (2008, 2015) used radiocarbon isotope data of trap sediments collected from the Canadian Basin to trace the lateral transport of particulate OC, and concluded that lateral particle supply was a predominant feature of the particle-flux processes in this basin. Unfortunately, no data for trap sediments in the Chukchi Sea have been reported to verify the occurrence of this process. To compensate for this limitation, the SSA and grain size of sediments can be used to trace the sediment transport mechanism: the ocean current from the Bering Strait moved fine (high SA) sediments to the slope of the Chukchi Sea (Wang et al., 2015). In addition, dissolved oxygen in the Chukchi Sea was at normal levels without the occurrence of hypoxic events (Wang et al., 2015). These two facts might suggest suitable environmental conditions for OC oxidization by the effective oxidants during lateral transport, consequently resulting in low OC loading in the deep stations. However, it should be noted that for an improved quantitative evaluation of the relative significance of all the listed mechanisms, further investigations focusing on suspended matter and core sediments should be carried out in the future.
4.2 Possible contribution of rock organic carbon and compilation of literature studies
Figure 4 displays the correlation between OC and SSA in the Arctic sediments, as reported in the present and previous studies. The correlation between OC and SSA in the Chukchi Sea surface sediments is different to that reported in previous studies in other regions (Bergamaschi et al., 1997; Hedges and Keil, 1995). The OC axis intercept for sediment from water depths of <150 m and >150 m is approximately 4.0 mg/(g dw) and 1.0 mg/(g dw), respectively (Fig. 4). Regression analysis of OC and SSA in North American Arctic sediments shows a comparable intercept with that of station above 150 m in the Chukchi Sea; however, there was no strong correlation between OC and SSA in the Mackenzie River sediments.
The three OC-SSA regression lines for all the samples in the Arctic Ocean to zero SSA indicated that a fraction of OC remained independent of SSA (Fig. 4), i.e., some of the OC in the sediment did not originate from adsorption. A positive intercept on the OC axis was also observed for Peru Margin and Washington coast sediments (Bergamaschi et al., 1997; Keil et al., 1994), and was ascribed to OC from plant tissues and sedimentary rock. Plant tissue is a significant contributor to the OC in the coarser fraction of Washington coastal sediments (Keil et al., 1994). Sedimentary rock OC is a dominant source of OC in rivers and marginal seas, such in the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin (Galy et al., 2008), and the Yellow River system (Tao et al., 2015). Vonk et al. (2012) analyzed the organic carbon isotope composition of West Siberian sediments, and found that nearly half of the sedimentary rock OC returned to the atmosphere during the sediment transport. For the Chukchi Sea sediments, the intercepts may represent the contribution from rock organic carbon rather than the plant tissues, because plant debris only accumulates in inshore regions of the Siberian margin, whereas mineral-bound OC is transported to offshore regions (Tesi et al., 2016).
Based on the intercept on the OC axis and the OC content, it is possible to perform a simple calculation of the amount of rock carbon as a percentage of total OC (Table 1). Rock OC constituted an average of 53.2%±23.4% of total OC in shelf sediments, decreasing to only 13.6%±5.3% in slope sediments. The higher fraction of rock-derived OC in the shelf area indicated a high input of terrestrial OC. However, a previous study based on the stable carbon isotopes concluded that most OC was derived from the marine production (Stein and Macdonald, 2004). This discrepancy in results might reflect the isotopically depleted nature of phytoplankton in the polar oceans (Goericke and Fry, 1994; Rau et al., 1989).
5 Conclusions
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The OC content and SSA values of the Chukchi Sea surface sediments provide novel insights into the fate of sedimentary OC exported from terrestrial permafrost and marine production. Hydrodynamic sorting is the dominant control on the spatial distribution of the SSA of the sediments. In contrast, the OC content in these sediments is likely affected by multiple factors, such as primary production in the upper ocean, oxidation of OC during transport and in situ oxidation of OC in the sediments. The intercepts of regression analysis between OC and SSA revealed that rock organic carbon constitutes a high percentage of total OC, especially in shelf stations. The outcomes of this study will improve our knowledge of the regional carbon cycle in the Chukchi Sea.
Acknowledgements
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The authors acknowledged all the members of marine biogeochemistry group in the Second Institute of Oceanography, especially Zhuang Yanpei, Zhang Yang and Lu Yong for their help in the sample collection, and the R/V Xuelong icebreaker during the sixth Chinese National Arctic Research Expedition.
Funding
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  • The National Natural Science Foundation of China under contract Nos 41606211, 41276198, 41406217 and 41306200; the China Polar Environment Comprehensive Investigation and Assessment Programs under contract Nos Chinare-03-04 and Chinare-04-03; the National Science Foundation for Post-doctoral Scientists of China under contract No. 2016M591968; the Scientific Research Fund of Second Institute of Oceanography, SOA under contract No. JG1502.
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Year 2017 volume 36 Issue 8
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doi: 10.1007/s13131-017-1026-y
  • Receive Date：2016-03-30
  • Online Date：2026-04-16
  • Published：2017-08-01
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  • Received：2016-03-30
  • Accepted：2016-08-08
Funding
The National Natural Science Foundation of China under contract Nos 41606211, 41276198, 41406217 and 41306200; the China Polar Environment Comprehensive Investigation and Assessment Programs under contract Nos Chinare-03-04 and Chinare-04-03; the National Science Foundation for Post-doctoral Scientists of China under contract No. 2016M591968; the Scientific Research Fund of Second Institute of Oceanography, SOA under contract No. JG1502.
Affiliations
    1 Laboratory of Marine Ecosystem and Biogeochemistry, Second Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Hangzhou 310012, China
    2 Laboratory of Marine Chemistry and Environment, Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan 316021, China
    3 State Key Laboratory of Satellite Ocean Environment Dynamics, Second Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Hangzhou 310012, China

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表12种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family		 属数
Number of
genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)		 属
Genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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