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The September 16, 2015 Mw 8.3 Illapel, Chile Earthquake: characteristics of tsunami wave from near-field to far-field
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Zhiyuan REN1, Ye YUAN1, *, Peitao WANG1, Tingting FAN1, Juncheng WANG1, Jingming HOU1
Acta Oceanologica Sinica | 2017, 36(5) : 73 - 82
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Acta Oceanologica Sinica | 2017, 36(5): 73-82
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The September 16, 2015 Mw 8.3 Illapel, Chile Earthquake: characteristics of tsunami wave from near-field to far-field
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Zhiyuan REN1, Ye YUAN1, *, Peitao WANG1, Tingting FAN1, Juncheng WANG1, Jingming HOU1
Affiliations
  • 1 National Marine Environmental Forecasting Center, Beijing 100081, China
Published: 2017-02-01 doi: 10.1007/s13131-017-1005-3
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On September 16, 2015, an earthquake with magnitude of Mw 8.3 occurred 46 km offshore from Illapel, Chile, generating a 4.4-m local tsunami measured at Coquimbo. In this study, the characteristics of tsunami are presented by a combination of analysis of observations and numerical simulation based on sources of USGS and NOAA. The records of 16 DART buoys in deep water, ten tidal gauges along coasts of near-field, and ten coastal gauges in the far-field are studied by applying Fourier analyses. The numerical simulation based on nonlinear shallow water equations and nested grids is carried out to provide overall tsunami propagation scenarios, and the results match well with the observations in deep water and but not well in coasts closed to the epicenter. Due to the short distance to the epicenter and the shelf resonance of southern Peru and Chile, the maximum amplitude ranged from 0.1 m to 2 m, except for Coquimbo. In deep water, the maximum amplitude of buoys decayed from 9.8 cm to 0.8 cm, suggesting a centimeter-scale Pacific-wide tsunami, while the governing period was 13–17 min and 32 min. Whereas in the far-field coastal region, the tsunami wave amplified to be around 0.2 m to 0.8 m, mostly as a result of run-up effect and resonance from coast reflection. Although the tsunami was relatively moderate in deep water, it still produced non-negligible tsunami hazards in local region and the coasts of far-field.

2015 Illapel earthquake  /  tsunami observation  /  numerical modeling  /  far-field  /  near-field
Zhiyuan REN, Ye YUAN, Peitao WANG, Tingting FAN, Juncheng WANG, Jingming HOU. The September 16, 2015 Mw 8.3 Illapel, Chile Earthquake: characteristics of tsunami wave from near-field to far-field[J]. Acta Oceanologica Sinica, 2017 , 36 (5) : 73 -82 . DOI: 10.1007/s13131-017-1005-3
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1 Introduction
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On September 16, 2015, an interplate thrust earthquake of Mw 8.3 occurred along subduction zone of Chile, 46 km offshore from Illaple (USGS: 31.6°S, 71.7°W, 22:54:33 UTC). This earthquake event is regarded as the third great earthquake in six years along Chile coast, as the convergent motion of Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate with a rate of 65–74 mm/a (Kendrick et al., 2001; Demets et al., 2010). As reported by news, a wave of 4.5 m high was observed near the coast of Coquimbo, as well as flooding and inundation in Tongoy and Concón. At least 500 buildings were destroyed in the coast of Tongoy.
The rapid global Centroid-Moment Tensor (gCMT) solution provides the fault parameters with strike (5°), dip (22°), rake (106°), focal depth (17.8 km), and seismic moment M0 is 2.86×1021 Nm (Mw 8.2). The initial USGS finite fault solution has provided slightly larger moment of 3.2×1021 Nm (Mw 8.3), with a centroid depth of 25 km, strike (4°), and dip (19°). Ye et al. (2016) applied the W-phase inversion method to estimate that the fault parameters ranged from 3.7×1021 Nm (dip 16°) to 2.7×1021 Nm (dip 22°). One source model proposed by Heidarzadeh et al. (2016) suggested that the large-slip area was 80 km×100 km with an average slip of 5.0 m. The seismic moment of their source reached 4.42×1021 Nm (Mw 8.4).
After this tsunami event, NOAA provided the real-time assessment of the 2015 Chile tsunami based on the Short-term Inundation Forecasting for Tsunamis system. The energy of tsunami source based on the inversion of DART measurements was estimated to be 7.9×1013 J (Tang et al., 2016). The post-tsunami field survey found that the maximum runup of 13.6 m was recorded in La Cebada (30.97°S, 71.65°W) (Contreras-López et al., 2016). Numerical simulation carried out by Aránguiz et al. (2016) shown that tsunami runup was larger than those of the 2014 Pisagua event, with shorter arrival time.
On April 1, 2014, one similar tsunami generated by the earthquake of Mw 8.2 near Iquique (Chile, 19.610°S, 70.776°W) caused a death toll of at least 7 and 200 injured. The deep-water characteristics of the tsunami were analyzed based on the observations of DART buoys and numerical simulation (Heidarzadeh et al., 2015). They found that it was centimeter-scale tsunami in deep sea, with governing period of 15 min and 21 min. An et al. (2014) attempted to derive the slip distribution by the inversion of the measurements of three DART buoys, while considerable mismatch of up to 10 min in arrival time and 1.0 m in amplitude existed. The local inundation and runup were studied based on field data and numerical modeling (Catalán et al., 2015). In this context, the DART records will be analyzed to describe the characteristics of tsunami wave in deep water. Energy decay mechanism of three recent trans-Pacific tsunamis in open ocean was studied by using DART records (Rabinovich et al., 2013). Watada et al. (2014) explained arrival time delays and initial phase reversal were relevant with simulation in the far-field.
In this study, the near-field and deep-water tsunami wave characteristics are investigated based on the analysis of measurements and numerical results, including the arrival time, maximum amplitude distribution, and wave period. A comparison between sources of USGS and NOAA from tsunami modeling perspective is described and discussed. The Pacific-wide distribution of maximum amplitude and decay law of maximum amplitude from near-field to far-field are presented.
2 Data and methodology
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2.1 Tsunami source
The USGS solution is used in this study, which gives a focal depth of 25 km, strike angle of 4°, and dip angle of 19°. The events of the geometric size of the September 16, 2015 earthquake are typically about 230 km×100 km (length×width). The rake angle is used as 90°. The slip dislocation is calculated to be 4.64 m. All fault parameters are used to compute the seafloor deformation by Okada model (Okada, 1985), as shown in Fig. 1a. The seafloor deformation ranges from –0.6 m to 1.9 m, with the uplift near the trench axis and subsidence farther in shore. The finite fault model of USGS is made up of 384 unit faults, but the pre-simulation has shown it is not as well as single fault. Here a single fault with uniform slip is adapted for simulation.
The nearest DART 32402 was applied for inversion by Tang et al. (2016), using the measured data of first quarter-, half-, and full-wave, respectively. Five faults were used for inversion, with length of 100 km, width of 50 km. This study will take the inversion results of full-wave. Figure 1b has shown the linear superposition of the seafloor deformation triggered by the five faults. The seafloor deformation ranges from –1.8 m to 2.6 m, which is more concentrated, while source of USGS affects larger area.
2.2 Observed data preparation
The data used in the study includes 16 records of DART buoys provided by the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and measurements of 26 tidal gauges along coast of South America, as well as ten gauges distributed far-field. The water depth of selected DART buoys is in the range of 3 235–5 848 m, which can display unbiased the characteristics of tsunami propagating in deep water. The distance from the epicenter to the selected buoys ranges from 584 km to 15 868 km.
The original time series of DART data of surface elevation has different sampling intervals of 15 s, 1 min, and 15 min. The buoys can be automatically switched from 15-min model to 15-s model for a few minutes until the termination of the tsunami event (Rabinovich et al., 2013). The interpolation method has been performed to make sure the measured data possesses 1 min sampling interval, and to remove the gaps of time series. Then the band-pass Butterworth filter with cut period of 120 min and 5 min is employed to obtain the tsunami wave. The above processing steps are also applied to time series of tidal gauges to investigate the tsunami wave near coast. The first 3 h of tsunami wave data is extracted for Fourier analysis to study the distribution of power spectrum. As shown in Fig. 2, the yellow circles refer to the DART buoys, while the black dots and red triangles represent the gauges in near-field and far-field.
2.3 Numerical modeling
Tsunami in the open sea is a kind of shallow water wave, the numerical model GeoClaw is adopted in the study, which is based on the nonlinear shallow water equations and adaptive refined mesh technique (LeVeque et al., 2011). The adaptive refined mesh could help to ensure calculation efficiency, which also can be used for coupled grids. The accuracy of this tsunami model has been verified by simulations of several realistic tsunami events (Ren et al., 2013; Arcos and LeVeque, 2015). It also has been applied in tsunami warning method (Ren et al., 2014), or coupled with Boussinesq model (Ren et al., 2015). The basin-wide tsunami simulation is performed within the range of 60°N–60°S, 120°E–65°W. The bathymetry data with 4-min resolution sampled from ETOPO1 is used, and the grid resolution is also 4-min. One nested grid (10°–45°S, 90°–65°W) with 1-min grid and bathymetry data is coupled with the first level grid for tsunami hazard investigation on near-field, which is shown in the red box as shown in Fig. 2. The bathymetry data of 30 s has been used in the region near coastal gauges. The Manning coefficient is 0.024, and the Courant number is set to be 0.75. The simulation results are compared with observations and analyzed in terms of period, arrival time and wave amplitude distribution.
3 Impact of the tsunami wave in the near-field
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3.1 Wave amplitude distribution
Figure 3 illustrates the maximum wave amplitude distribution along Chile coast. Figures 3a and b are the simulated maximum wave amplitude distribution in coastal water using source of USGS and NOAA respectively, as well as locations of tidal gauges, while the Fig. 3c shows the comparisons of maximum amplitude at tidal gauges between observation and simulation. In the study of Tang et al. (2016), the modeled the time series of tsunami wave at Coquimbo, Valparaiso matched well with observed data. But the numerical results of this study in regions of 25°–30°S cannot reach measured value, due to insufficient topography data. From Peru coast to South Chile, the tsunami waves exhibit considerable variability, with local maximum amplitude reaching up to 4.4 m, and falling down to 0.1 m. The main effect concentrated in the range of several hundred kilometers near the epicenter. The orientation of tsunami energy beam was towards the Pacific Ocean, and produced tsunami wave more than 0.2 m within a large area. The maximum amplitude along coast was 4.4 m at Coquimbo, and three neighboring gauges (Caldera, Pichidangui, and Valparaiso) received tsunami wave more than 1 m. The distance from the epicenter is 187, 511, 62, 159 km, respectively. It indicates the most hazardous zone is not the closest area to the epicenter, which may be influenced by the complexity of slip distribution, source geometry, and local topography. As stated by Contreras-López et al. (2016), the bay or semi-closed basin in the coastal region can amplify the tsunami wave. The amplitude of other gauges ranged from 0.1 to 0.9 m.
3.2 Waveforms properties and tsunami propagation scenarios
As shown in Fig. 4, simulated tsunami waves from sources of USGS and NOAA at tidal gauges along the Chile coast are compared with observations, the companion boxes present the power spectras of the corresponding sea level fluctuation. Generally, the numerical results match well with the measured data in most locates, in terms of the leading wave and two or three following tail waves. At Arica, Iquique, Patache, and Constitucion, USGS source can produce better numerical results than NOAA source, while the situation is opposite for Antofagasta and Ancud. Due to the affecting of the complex topography near coast and reflecting wave, the period had shown variability for relatively remote stations. The wave period ranged from 43 min to 64 min for most gauge stations, except for Mataranl (85 min), Quiriquina (102 min) and Ancud (102 min). At many tidal gauge stations, the maximum amplitude did not appear in the leading wave (Arica, Pisagua, Patache, Antofagasta, etc.), which indicated the resonance of tsunami wave due to the reflection of wave from the coasts.
The scenarios of tsunami propagation triggered by USGS source in near-field from 0.5 h to 4.0 h are plotted in Fig. 5, and time interval is 0.5 h. The tsunami firstly formed in central Chile, then spread towards the Pacific Ocean. The land boundary had reflection effect and produced secondary tsunami wave. The leading wave arrived in Peru in around 2 h.
4 Tsunami wave in the far-field
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4.1 Characteristics of trans-Pacific tsunami in deep water
To better understand the tsunami waveforms and their properties in deep-sea water, the comparisons of time histories of surface elevation between DART buoys’ measurements and numerical results from near-field to far-field are presented in Fig. 6, as well as the respective spectras. Generally, the numerical results match well with the measured data at most buoys in terms of the arrival time and maximum amplitude, and NOAA source will reproduce better results than source of USGS for most buoys. The observed tsunami arrival times were delayed by 6–21 min compared with the simulated results for both tsunami sources, with delay time approximately proportional to the discance from the epicenter, which were also reported (Okal, 2011; Rabinovich et al., 2013; Heidarzadeh et al., 2015). The phase reversal of tsunami from the April 1, 2014 Mw 8.2 Iquique, Chile Earthquake was 1-17 min and related to the distance from source (Heidarzadeh et al., 2015).
The parameters of stations and the characteristics of the tsunami waveforms are summarized in Table 1. We do not use the normalized wave height derived by Green’s law, as shown in the study of Heidarzadeh et al. (2015). Because the water depth of DART buoys we used here is all deeper than 3 200 m, and it will not make too much differences.
The distance from the epicenter versus travel time and maximum amplitude are plotted in Fig. 7, to explore the decay law of the amplitude and the propagation distance. It was almost the linear relationship between the propagation distance and the tsunami travel time, indicated that the tsunami wave did not represent much nonlinearity due to the deep water depth. The wave speed was approximate to 769 km/h, which average water depth for the tsunami propagation in the Pacific was around 4 659 m. The numerical model reproduces similar maximum amplitude with the observations. The decay law of the maximum amplitude seems like exponential function, and one fitting curve y=362.59x–0.574 has been added in the figure with black line. It is interesting to find that this decay law is identical with the tsunami observations from the April 1, 2014 Mw 8.2 Iquique, Chile Earthquake. The max amplitude was 23 cm at start (DART 32401), but was reduced to around 0.5–1.0 cm in deep water after propagation for a distance of 8 000 km.
In the near-field, the period of the nearest buoys (DART 32402) was 13, 21, 32, and 64 min, while the most dominant period is 32 min. It was also around 30 min for DART 32412 and 43413. For the middle-field, the spectra was relatively with two major peaks around 17 min and 32 min or 64 min. It turn out that the tsunami wave with different frequency began to separate after some distance of propagation due to dispersion effect. The periods of DART buoys in the far-field performed more complexity, the periods were 13–17 min, 28–34 min, 64 min, even 85 min for the farthest buoys. According to Table 1 and Fig. 6, the dominant period for the tsunami wave in deep water was 13–17 min, and 32 min.
To estimate the dimensions of tsunami source from the governing period (Heidarzadeh and Satake, 2013), the following equation is used:
$\text{λ}= T\sqrt {gh}, $
where λ is wavelength in meters, g is the gravitational acceleration, T is the period of the tsunami wave in seconds, and h is wave depth near the tsunami source in meters. The average depth near the source area is around 4 500 m, the period 15 min and 32 min are applied in Eq. (1) to obtain 202 km and 95 km for the length and width, respectively. It is agree with initial estimation of USGS.
The tsunami propagation scenarios based on USGS source in the Pacific Ocean are described in Fig. 8, the time interval is 2 h. After generating from Chile, the tsunami spread into the Pacific Ocean. It underwent refraction and diffraction near the Tahiti Island in 9 h. Although this tsunami affected the most part of the Pacific Ocean, it had less impact in 23 h, which only generated tsunami wave of 1 cm. Figure 9 presents the contours of maximum amplitude distribution and arrival time, which indicates this relatively moderate tsunami event caused fluctuation of sea water in the region of the Pacific Ocean.
4.2 Characteristics of tsunami wave at coastal regions of far-field
To evaluate the tsunami’s impacts on the coasts in the far-field, measurements from ten tidal gauges in California (Los Angeles, Santa Barbara, Crescent City, and Port San Luis), Hawaii (Hilo and Kahului), Alaska (King Cove and Atka), and Japan (Hanasaki and Ofunato) are selected to analyze, as shown in Fig. 10. Due to lack of high-resolution topography data, only observations are analyzed here. Although the tsunami only induces 9.8-centermeter wave in deep sea of near-field (DART 32402), the tsunami produced larger tsunami wave at the coasts of far-field. It is noted that California received tsunami wave of around 0.2 m amplitude, nearly 0.8 m tsunami in Hawaii, more or less than 0.2 m tsunami in Alaska, and even 0.2 m in Japan.
The tsunami wave period for Los Angeles and Santa Barbara both were 64 min, 51 min for Port San Luis, while 17 and 37 min for Crescent City for the harbor resonance. The governing period for Hawaii at Hilo and Kahului was 17 min and 16 min respectively. The King Cove possessed 14 min period, while Atka’s period was 64 min. Due to the gauge location, the periods of Hanasaki and Ofunato were different, 30 min and 14 min.
5 Conclusions
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In this work, the tsunami generated by the September 16, 2015 Mw 8.3 Illapel (Chile) earthquake is studied by analysis of the measurements of DART buoys in deep water and tidal gauges near coasts, as well as applying numerical simulation based on different tsunami sources. Although the inversion source by NOAA can produce better numerical results than single fault, it is stated that a single fault with uniform slip can be used for the initial tsunami hazard investigation. For such medium tsunami waves, the dispersive effects are important, while the nonlinear effects are not significant for deep water. The characteristics of tsunami wave are summarized as followed.
(1) The maximum amplitude in the near-field was 4.4 m at Coquimbo, and the other three gauges received more than 1 m tsunami wave were within the range of around 500 km from the epicenter. Most wave periods along the coast of the near-field were 43–64 min.
(2) It is found that the maximum amplitude in deep water decays from 9.8 cm to 0.8 cm as the tsunami propagated from 584 km to 15 868 km. The decay scale is approximate to exponential decay, corresponding to the tsunami generated by the April 1, 2014 Mw 8.2 Iquique, Chile Earthquake. The governing period was 13–17 min and 32 min.
(3) As the tsunami propagated to the shore even in the far-field, the tsunami amplitude increased to around 0.2–0.8 m from centimeter-scale in deep water, due to run up of tsunami wave and resonance from coast reflection. The period was in a wide range for the influence of topography and long distance propagation.
Considering the impact of the coast, the governing period of the tsunami in deep sea is adopted, which is 13–17 min and 32 min. The tsunami only induced less than 0.2 m tsunami near Japan coast, it is believed this tsunami did not induce any impacts on China coast, while 2010 Chile Mw 8.8 only produced the maximum amplitude of 32 cm in China coast (Yu et al., 2011). The minor effects on China’s coastline are due to shielding effects by island chain such as Ryukyu, Penhu, etc. Although this tsunami is relatively moderate, as noted centimeter-scale tsunami in deep water, it still resulted in the damages to coastal infrastructures and some impacts on the coasts in the near-field and far-field. It is suggested that such moderate earthquake tsunami also need to pay attention, including tsunami hazard assessment for the regions in near-field and development the tsunami early warning method for the near-field.
Acknowledgements
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Special thanks to Liu Hua at Shanghai Jiao Tong University and Christopher Earls Brennen at Caltech for their encouragement and suggestion on my research work. The valuable comments from the reviewers enhanced this study.
Funding
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  • The Public Science and Technology Research Funds Projects of Ocean under contract No. 201405026; the National Key Research and Development Program of China under contract No. 2016YFC1401500; the Opening Fund of State Key Laboratory of Ocean Engineering under contract No. 1604.
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Year 2017 volume 36 Issue 5
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Article Info
doi: 10.1007/s13131-017-1005-3
  • Receive Date：2016-03-06
  • Online Date：2026-04-14
  • Published：2017-02-01
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  • Received：2016-03-06
  • Accepted：2016-04-19
Funding
The Public Science and Technology Research Funds Projects of Ocean under contract No. 201405026; the National Key Research and Development Program of China under contract No. 2016YFC1401500; the Opening Fund of State Key Laboratory of Ocean Engineering under contract No. 1604.
Affiliations
    1 National Marine Environmental Forecasting Center, Beijing 100081, China

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表12种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family		 属数
Number of
genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)		 属
Genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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