Geological context and vents morphology in the ultramafic-hosted Tianxiu field, Carlsberg Ridge

Geological context and vents morphology in the ultramafic-hosted Tianxiu field, Carlsberg Ridge

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Jin Liang¹^,², Chunhui Tao¹^,²^,³^,^*, Xiangxin Wang⁴^,^*, Cheng Su⁵, Wei Gao⁴, Yadong Zhou², Weikun Xu⁴, Xiaohe Liu¹^,⁶, Zhongjun Ding⁴

Acta Oceanologica Sinica | 2023, 42(9) : 62 - 70

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Acta Oceanologica Sinica | 2023, 42(9): 62-70

• Marine Geology •

Geological context and vents morphology in the ultramafic-hosted Tianxiu field, Carlsberg Ridge

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Jin Liang¹^,², Chunhui Tao¹^,²^,³^,^*, Xiangxin Wang⁴^,^*, Cheng Su⁵, Wei Gao⁴, Yadong Zhou², Weikun Xu⁴, Xiaohe Liu¹^,⁶, Zhongjun Ding⁴

Affiliations

¹ Key Laboratory of Submarine Geosciences, Ministry of Natural Resources, Hangzhou 310012, China

² Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Hangzhou 310012, China

³ School of Oceanography, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China

⁴ National Deep Sea Center, Qingdao 266237, China

⁵ School of Earth Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China

⁶ Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan 316021, China

Published: 2023-09-25 doi: 10.1007/s13131-023-2157-y

Outline

Abstract

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The Tianxiu hydrothermal field (TXHF) located on Carlsberg Ridge is one of the few active ultramafic-hosted venting systems known in the Indian Ocean. Despite numerous investigations, there is limited understanding of its sulfide structure morphology, and the factors controlling the formation of TXHF are poorly understood. In this study, we conducted detailed seafloor mapping using visual data obtained by dives using the human-occupied vehicle (HOV) Jiaolong. The TXHF is found to be an active, off-axis, ultramafic-hosted, high-temperature hydrothermal area in which serpentine peridotite is exposed. Two main hydrothermal sites were identified, i.e., P and Y, both of which feature a complex of chimneys and beehive diffusers constituting a “chimney jungle” and isolated large steep-sided structures developed on flat-lying sulfide mounds. In addition, some sporadic inactive chimneys and outcrops of hydrothermal deposits were noted. The chimneys are rich in Fe and Zn sulfide, and lack the central fluid channel formed by focused high-temperature fluid flow. Hydrothermal venting at TXHF is likely related to low-angle detachment faults that focus and transport hydrothermal fluids away from a heat source along the valley wall. Our results complement and expand upon previous works concerning sulfide chimney morphology and their corresponding mineral paragenesis in ultramafic-hosted hydrothermal systems in the Indian Ocean and further our understanding of modern seafloor hydrothermal systems.

Key words

hydrothermal activity / sulfide accumulation / morphology / ultramafic-hosted / Carlsberg Ridge

Cite this Article

Jin Liang, Chunhui Tao, Xiangxin Wang, Cheng Su, Wei Gao, Yadong Zhou, Weikun Xu, Xiaohe Liu, Zhongjun Ding. Geological context and vents morphology in the ultramafic-hosted Tianxiu field, Carlsberg Ridge[J]. Acta Oceanologica Sinica, 2023 , 42 (9) : 62 -70 . DOI: 10.1007/s13131-023-2157-y

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1 Introduction

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Diverse active hydrothermal systems have been documented along mid-ocean ridges, volcanic arcs, and in back-arc basins (Baker, 2017; Beaulieu et al., 2015; Hannington et al., 2005). Seafloor massive sulfides are major products of hydrothermal activity and are rich in elements such as Fe, Cu, Zn, Au, and Ag. In addition to their significance as potential future metal resources (Hannington et al., 2011), hydrothermal systems provide critical constraints on material and energy exchanges among the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere (Alt, 1995; de Ronde et al., 2005; Kelley et al., 2002; Tivey, 2007; Von Damm, 1995). The formation and evolution of modern seafloor hydrothermal systems have drawn increased interest during the last half century (Barreyre et al., 2012; Fouquet et al., 1996; Genna et al., 2014; Haymon, 1983; Ludwig et al., 2006; Meng et al., 2019; Von Damm et al., 1997). Understanding the factors that control the distribution and type of hydrothermal venting is key to developing tools for seafloor exploration and exploiting the metallogenic potential of ancient massive sulfide deposits using modern analogues (Hannington et al., 2005).

The Indian Ocean Ridges are up to approximately 18 000 km in length, with various full spreading rates (<12–60 mm/a). Exploration of hydrothermal activity along these ridges has identified a series of extinct sites and seawater anomalies (German et al., 1998; Halbach et al., 1998; Münch et al., 2000); the first direct observations of an active hydrothermal field in the Indian Ocean was at Kairei in 2000 (Gamo et al., 2001) and the first high-temperature venting field was confirmed along the ultraslow-spreading Southwest Indian Ridge in 2007 at Longqi (Tao et al., 2012). Subsequent exploration efforts along the Southwest, Central (and the Carlsberg) and Southeast Indian Ridges visually identified more than twenty active and extinct vent sites, and numerous seawater anomalies have been located. They may be controlled by geologic settings and diverse hydrothermal circulation processes, and play host to unique ecologic communities (Van Dover et al., 2001; Zhou et al., 2022) and form hydrothermal deposits in various morphology, some of which could be of great economic potential of mineral resources (Yu et al., 2021).

Wang et al. (2021) summarized the occurrences of hydrothermal sulfide fields in the Indian Ocean into two groups. Unlike the slow-spreading Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) (Fouquet et al., 2010), relatively few sulfide deposits along the length of the Indian Ocean Ridges occurred off-axis high on the rift valley wall, either hosted by or related to ultramafic rocks (e.g., Tianzuo, Onnuri, Cheoeum, Yokoniwa, and Tianxiu) (Table 1). Previous research concerning the mineralization and hydrothermal processes of these deposits has been restricted to extinct or waning systems (Choi et al., 2021; Ding et al., 2021, 2022; Lim et al., 2022). The ultramafic-hosted Tianxiu hydrothermal field (TXHF) (3.70°N, 63.83°E, water depth about 3 350 m) is located on slow-spreading Carlsberg Ridge (CR), first documented during the 26th Chinese Cruise in 2012, which conducted a plume survey (Tao et al., 2013). The TXHF was visually confirmed in 2015 during the 33rd cruise (Jiang et al., 2015), and further investigated by video reconnaissance using the human-occupied vehicle (HOV) Jiaolong. In 2017 (cruise report of Chinese Dayang Cruise 38th, National Deep Sea Center, 2017), coupled with high-resolution bathymetric side scan mapping. Further Jiaolong dives were devoted to the TXHF in 2022 (Chinese Dayang Cruise 72nd), and based on this cruise, this paper describes the distribution and characteristics of hydrothermal activity at this location and discusses the geological factors controlling the TXHF.

2 Geological setting

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The CR is a slow-spreading ridge with a full spreading rate of 22–32 mm/a (Raju et al., 2008). It extends from 2°S to 10°N and forms the northern section of the Central Indian Ridge (CIR) in the western Indian Ocean, connecting the African and Indo–Australian plates. The first major evidence of hydrothermal activity at the CR was the observation of an event plume, recorded by conductivity-temperature-depth (CTD) measurements and Miniature Autonomous Plume Recorder casts in 2003 (Murton et al., 2006). Three active hydrothermal fields have been reported along the CR, i.e., the Wocan-1, Daxi, and Tianxiu fields (Qiu et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2021), and sediments from the ridge flank and cores have been found to contain hydrothermal components with Mn and Fe contents up to 44.63 wt% and 26.95 wt%, respectively (Olatunde and Akintoye, 2021).

The TXHF is located on the southern valley wall of the ridge axis at a water depth of 3 300–3 500 m (Fig. 1). It is the first confirmed high-temperature active ultramafic-hosted hydrothermal system in the Indian Ocean. Its location on the northwestern slope of an oceanic core mosaic lies approximately 5 km away from the ridge axis (Yang et al., 2021a), and peridotites in the area have undergone extensive serpentinization (Chen et al., 2020). The surface sediments show a dominance of Cu-Zn-Fe (equiaxial cubanite, cubanite, sphalerite and pyrrhotite) sulfide aggregates in samples collected adjacent to the vent area, whereas fine-grained Fe-oxides and hydroxides and calcite were found outside the hydrothermal field (Cai et al., 2020).

3 Data and methods

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Ship-based bathymetric data of the study area were newly acquired using a Kongsberg EM124 multibeam system during research Chinese Dayang Cruise 72nd in 2022. Additional bathymetric data and side scan sonar data of the hydrothermal area were obtained using the high-resolution bathymetric side-scan sonar (HRBSSS) system of the manned submersible Jiaolong which surveyed ~80 m above the seafloor at a speed of less than 2 kn. The pulse length of the HRBSSS sonar was 6 ms, with a maximum ping rate of 2 Hz, and a center frequency of approximately 150 kHz. The sonar beam opening angle of 100° (both sides, across track) and 1.5° along track allowed for maximum coverage width of sounding is 500 m and maximum coverage width of side scan is 800 m. Underwater acoustic communication devices transmitted positioning data obtained by a POSIDONIA USBL on the R/V Shenhaiyihao, allowing for the determination of the initial position of the integrated navigation system. The Doppler Velocity Log mounted on the submersible provided information on the velocity over ground. Motion sensor IXBLUE Octans provided data on attitude and heading. Both datasets were used to supplement HRBSSS data to aid navigation. The CTD installed on the submersible provided depth and sound velocity information. Final data cleaning of the positions and the mosaicking of the images were conducted using the CleanSweep3 seafloor mapping software developed by Oceanic Imaging Consultants, Inc (Yang et al., 2021b). For near-bottom optical surveys, the submersible is equipped with a 3CCD TV (charged coupled device television) camera with parallel laser scale (0.1 m spacing), eight lights, two 1CCD TV cameras, and a pan-and-tilt digital still camera. Still images and high-definition video footage were used to create image mosaics following the methods adopted by Sheng et al. (2020). Geological samples were collected using the manipulator of the submersible Jiaolong in the Chinese Dayang Cruise 72nd.

4 Results and discussion

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4.1 Observation of the Tianxiu vent field

Fragments of serpentinized peridotite were widely observed in and around the Tianxiu Hydrothermal Field (TXHF) (Fig. 2d), and evidence of faults was also obvious, including scratches and steps (Fig. 2e). Outcrops of mylonitized peridotite were observed (Fig. 2f). Nearly E–W fractures/fissures and landslides were commonly distributed, and hydrothermal products were identified along the fractures/fissures (Figs 2g, h). Sediments were found to be widely distributed, and inactive chimneys could be seen exposed throughout pelagic sediments (Fig. 2h). The pelagic sediments in the southeast of the hydrothermal area have a thickness of more than 50 cm (Fig. 2i), and wave markings were rarely observed.

With the exception of sporadic inactive chimneys and outcrops of hydrothermal deposits, hydrothermal chimneys were found to be concentrated in the Yu (Y) and Pan flut (P) sites sites, which are approximately 200 m apart (Fig. 2a). The Y site is located at a water depth of 3 370 m, with continuously visible hydrothermal deposits over a range of ~30 m. Numerous slender beehive-like chimneys 10–50 cm in diameter aggregate into a huge steep-sided structure ~5 m in diameter and ~18 m in height (Fig. 3a). At the top of the Y structure, vigorous black smoke indicating active high-temperature venting was observed (Fig. 3b), and a large number of beehive diffusers with brownish Fe-oxide surface coatings and slowly venting clear hydrothermal fluids can be seen in the middle of the structure (temperature measured at 210–270℃ in Chinese Dayang Cruise 72nd) (Fig. 3c). An obvious horizontal boundary between the brownish sulfide base and the dark gray active chimney can be seen at the bottom of this structure (Fig. 3d), and massive sulfide and chimney fragments are distributed at the foot (Fig. 3e). The Y site is characterized by an extremely high density of alvinocaridid shrimps (Zhou et al., 2022), which predominantly gather in the active beehive chimneys (Figs 3a, c and d).

The P site is located at the north side at water depths of 3 320–3 365 m, extends for ~60 m from east to west and ~50 m from north to south, and can be identified in the bathymetric side scan images (Figs 2b, c). This site consists of a large number of chimneys with diameters of 10–50 cm and heights of 1–5 m following a NW–SE striking line, parallel to the strike of the vent field itself, forming a “chimney jungle” (Figs 3f, h and i). Compared with Y, the P site is significantly less active, as shown by the large number of upright, toppled chimney clusters with yellowish-brown oxides on the surface of the surrounding beehive diffusers. A small number of “flanges” were observed on this inactive structure (Figs 3f, g); such features are rare in ultramafic-hosted hydrothermal fields. Patches of Alviniconcha marisindica snails, accompanied by alvinocaridid shrimps and bathymodiolin mussels, dominated the faunal assemblages surrounding the diffusing beehive-like chimneys (Zhou et al., 2022), and anemones flourished in inactive areas of the P site (Fig. 3j).

4.2 Formation of sulfide deposits

The TXHF is one of few presently known hydrothermal areas associated with ultramafic rocks in the Indian Ocean (Table 1). Like other ultramafic-hosted high-temperature venting fields (Rainbow, Logatchev, and Ashadze), the discharge in the TXHF is less focused than others of mafic-hosted (Fouquet et al., 2010). However, peculiar features such as the “chimney jungle” at the P site and steep-sided structure at the Y site differ from most other seafloor hydrothermal systems. For example, the basalt-hosted hydrothermal deposits along the East Pacific Rise feature mainly individual chimneys (Hannington et al., 1995; Haymon and Kastner, 1981; Hekinian et al., 1985; Tivey et al., 1999); at Endeavour, mainly large steep-sided structures occur; those at Galapagos or Trans-Atlantic Geotraverse (TAG) are hydrothermal mounds; black smoker complexes with a maximum height of ~10 m occur in the Kairei vent area (Gallant and Von Damm, 2006); and 2–3 m tall, slender, focused black smoker chimneys characterize the Beebe vents in the Mid-Cayman Rise (Kinsey and German, 2013). The TXHF also significantly differs from some representative ultramafic-hosted hydrothermal deposits along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR), where hydrothermal venting largely occurs through smoking craters with a pronounced rim and a central depression that is a few meters deep, lacking large chimney structures (e.g., Logatchev-1, Ashadze, and Nibelungen) (Fouquet et al., 2008; Melchert et al., 2008; Petersen et al., 2009).

Regardless of their size and activity, the chimneys in the TXHF are mainly classified as beehive structures (Figs 4a, b). Beehive structures are a category of chimneys with more diffuse or lower flow velocities than focused chimney, first reported at the Snake Pit hydrothermal field on the MAR (Fouquet et al., 1993), such structures occur widely at other seafloor hydrothermal sites, such as Cleft, Logatchev, Beebe, Piccard, and NW Caldera (Berkenbosch et al., 2012; Kinsey and German, 2013; Koski et al., 1994; Petersen et al., 2009; Webber et al., 2017; Wheeler et al., 2013). Beehive diffusers in the TXHF share common features with other hydrothermal vent fields, such as lacking a principle axial fluid conduit (Koski et al., 1994; Webber et al., 2017). A cross-section of these beehive chimney shows porous concentric layers of Zn- and Fe-sulfide minerals (pyrrhotite, pyrite, and sphalerite) surrounding mini fluid conduits (Figs 4e–g), although some chimneys are Zn-sulfide rich (Fig. 4h); the principal difference between beehive and focused venting chimneys is their lack of central fluid conduits that are typically lined by inner zones of fine-to-coarse-grained chalcopyrite (Fig. 4i). Instead, the beehive diffuser structure has a highly porous axial zone through which fluids diffuse upward and laterally rather than passing through a principal axial conduit (Fouquet et al., 1993). Previous studies have proposed that beehive diffusers may be excellent carriers of high gold concentrations (Fouquet et al., 1993; Webber et al., 2017), and native Au in sulfides from TXHF has been preliminarily reported (Yang et al., 2021a), as they contain highly porous pyrrhotite framework, which indicate favorable highly reduced conditions for gold precipitation (Webber et al., 2017).

In addition, although the small size of the flange is far smaller than those at the Endeavour segment and Snake Pit field, where sulfide structures are dominated by flanges with high-temperature chimneys (Delaney et al., 1992; Robigou et al., 1993), the small flanges observed in the TXHF are rare but interesting phenomena in ultramafic-hosted hydrothermal areas. Delaney et al. (1992) presented a model for the outward growth of sulfide structures, wherein episodic shifts in the bulk permeability of the capping vent structure result in multiple tiers of flanges. The formation of flanges at the TXHF may indicate a decline in fault-controlled conduit permeability at the distal end, i.e., far from the ridge axis and close to the termination of the detachment fault.

4.3 Indication to the subseafloor hydrothermal circulation

In previous studies, the host rock has been proposed as the principal factor controlling variations in the morphology and size of hydrothermal deposits (Fouquet et al., 1993), for instance, a flat-lying profile corresponds to ultramafic basement, whereas a mound-like structure is commonly basalt-hosted (Fouquet et al., 2010). This viewpoint is supported by our seafloor investigations in the TXHF, where the “chimney jungle” at the P site and the steep-sided structure at the Y site both occur on relatively flat deposits. The construction of large-scale sulfide accumulations requires a long and steady period of hydrothermal fluid circulation. Mixing between fluid flows and seawater, the permeability of fluid conduits, and the stability of the hydrothermal system, among other factors, have been proposed as controls on the shape and scale of large-scale hydrothermal sulfide deposits (Haymon, 1983; Herzig and Hannington, 1995; Peng and Zhou, 2005; Tivey, 2007; You and Bickle, 1998). Morphological differences between the TXHF and other hydrothermal fields may reflect the geometry of the hydrothermal up flow and, especially, the permeability of the crust in the upper few hundred meters below the seafloor (Jamieson et al., 2017).

The most plausible reason for the differences in the internal morphologies observed at the P and Y sites in the TXHF is a combination of factors and local differences in subseafloor fluid pathways, similar to the different vent styles observed at the Logatchev-1 field (Petersen et al., 2009). Additionally, the widely observed beehive structures in the TXHF may indicate fluctuations in temperature and/or vent fluid composition (Webber et al., 2017). Bathymetric mapping, geological sampling and seafloor observations have suggested that hydrothermal venting at the TXHF is likely related to low-angle detachment faults that focus and transport hydrothermal fluids away from a heat source, likely mafic intrusions along the southern rift valley wall (Fig. 5). Fluids may pass through permeable layers in the subseafloor, where their diversion creates distinct vent sites and areas of diffuse venting. At the Y site, with more stable enhanced heat and limited mixing of seawater, focused fluid flow from the subsurface to the seafloor results in a large steep-sided structure that emanates black smoker fluids. At the P site, the enhanced mixing of seawater in the up-flow zone within or underneath the flat-lying mound may lead to conductive cooling and therefore lower vent fluid exit temperatures during the waning stage. Further sampling and dating are expected to determine whether venting was continuous or discontinuous at the TXHF.

5 Summary

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In this study, we have described the morphology of hydrothermal structures throughout the TXHF, a typical ultramafic-hosted high-temperature active hydrothermal area, where outcrops of serpentine peridotite are exposed and where evidence of significant tectonic activities such as mylonitization is observed. Hydrothermal activities in the area are mainly distributed at the P and Y sites, which are approximately 200 m apart. These sites are characterized by “chimney jungles” and isolated steep-sided structures developed on flat-lying sulfide mounds. The chimneys are primarily beehive structures, rich in Fe and Zn sulfide, and lack the central fluid channel characteristic of focused high-temperature fluid flow. In addition, sporadic inactive chimneys and outcrops of hydrothermal deposits indicating past hydrothermal activities were observed. No significant differences were observed between the dominant vent biota in the TXHF and those in the CR and CIR. Hydrothermal venting at the TXHF is likely related to low-angle detachment faults focusing and transporting hydrothermal fluids away from a heat source along the valley wall. Further geological and geochemical characterization need to be conducted to better understand ultramafic-hosted hydrothermal mineralization in the Indian Ocean.

Acknowledgements

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We thank captain and crew of the COMRA Cruise 72nd on R/V Shenhaiyihao. Special thanks go to the submersible Jiaolong group. The Daxi group lead by Xiqiu Han is specially thanked for intellectual support. We are also grateful for the constructive comments and suggestions from two anonymous reviewers.

Funding

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The National Key Research and Development Program of China under contract No. 2017YFC0306603; the Scientific Research Fund of the Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources under contract Nos JG1905 and SZ2201; the National Natural Science Foundation of China under contract No. 41806076; and the National Key Research and Development Program of China under contract No. 2021YFC2801705.

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Year 2023 volume 42 Issue 9

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doi: 10.1007/s13131-023-2157-y

Receive Date：2022-08-26
Online Date：2025-11-22
Published：2023-09-25

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Received：2022-08-26
Accepted：2022-11-01

Funding

The National Key Research and Development Program of China under contract No. 2017YFC0306603; the Scientific Research Fund of the Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources under contract Nos JG1905 and SZ2201; the National Natural Science Foundation of China under contract No. 41806076; and the National Key Research and Development Program of China under contract No. 2021YFC2801705.

Affiliations

¹ Key Laboratory of Submarine Geosciences, Ministry of Natural Resources, Hangzhou 310012, China

² Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Hangzhou 310012, China

³ School of Oceanography, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China

⁴ National Deep Sea Center, Qingdao 266237, China

⁵ School of Earth Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China

⁶ Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan 316021, China

Corresponding:

* E-mail: taochunhuimai@163.com

wangxiangxin@ndsc.org.cn

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表12种不同金属材料的力学参数

科 Family	属数 Number of genus	种数 Number of species	占总种数比例 Percentage of total species (%)	属 Genus	种数 Number of species	占总种数比例 Percentage of total species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae	2	11	5.26	鹅膏菌属 Amanita	10	4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae	2	12	5.74	丝盖伞属 Inocybe	5	2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae	8	14	6.70	蜡蘑属 Laccaria	5	2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae	3	23	11.00	小皮伞属 Marasmius	6	2.87
				小菇属 Mycena	11	5.26
				光柄菇属 Pluteus	5	2.39
				红菇属 Russula	17	8.13
				栓菌属 Trametes	5	2.39

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Site	Location	Latitude	Longitude	Water depth/m	Full spreading rate/ (mm·a⁻¹)	Activity	Host rock	Tectonica control	Deposit of mineralization	Source
Tianxiu	CR	3.70°N	63.83°E	3 350	24.5	active	ultramafic rocks	detachment fault	chimney, mound	this study
Onnuri	CIR	11.42°S	66.42°E	2 000	34.4	diffuse	ultramafic rocks	detachment fault	breccia	Lim et al. (2022)
Cheoeum	CIR	12.67°S	66.20°E	3 100	36.7	diffuse	ultramafic rocks	oceanic core complexes	chimney, mound	Choi et al. (2021)
Yokoniwa	CIR	25.27°S	70.07°E	2 500	47.2	inactive	ultramafic rocks	non-transform offset	small sulfide chimneys	Fujii et al. (2016)
Kairei	CIR	25.32°S	70.03°E	2 450	47.5	active	basalt	detachment fault	mound, chimeny, massive sulfide, breccia	Nakamura et al. (2009) Wang et al. (2018)
Tianzuo	SWIR	27.95°S	63.53°E	3 630	12	inactive	ultramafic rocks	detachment fault	breccia, mound	Ding et al. (2021)
Longqi	SWIR	37.78°S	49.65°E	2 700	14	active	basalt	detachment fault	mound, chimeny, massive sulfide, breccia	Tao et al. (2014)
Yuhuang	SWIR	37.94°S	49.26°E	1 500	14	inactive	basalt	detachment fault	massive sulfide, breccia	Yu et al. (2021)

Fig. 1. Bathymetric map of the Tianxiu hydrothermal field on the Carlsberg Ridge (CR) (the bathymetric data were collected by multi-beam surveys of Chinese Dayang Cruise in 2013). The red dashed line indicates the ridge axis. CIR: Central Indian Ridge; SWIR: Southwest Indian Ridge; SEIR: Southeast Indian Ridge. OCC: Oceanic Core Complex.

Fig. 2. Seafloor morphology of the Tianxiu hydrothermal field. Bathymetric map of the study area showing track of the submersible Jiaolong’s dives in Chinese Dayang Cruise 72nd, the white box shows the range of the side scan (the bathymetric data were collected by multi-beam surveys of Chinese Dayang Cruise 72nd in 2022) (a); colored and corresponding backscatter image showing the main area of the P site (white and red dashed lines, respectivelys) (b, c); scattered serpentine peridotite fragments (d); fault scratch and steps (e); mylonitized outcrop, white dotted line indicates the approximate strike of the fault (f); accumulation of hydrothermal deposits can be seen at the landslides (g); sulfide distributed in lines (h); pelagic sediments showing a certain thickness of more than 50 cm (the square pit is caused by box sampler) (i). All photos or videos were taken in Chinese Dayang Cruise 72nd in 2022.

Fig. 3. Representative chimney morphology in Tianxiu hydrothermal field. Mosaic of the Y chimney (similar in shape to the Chinese classical folk instrument “Yu”) (a); focused fluid flow emitting for the top of the Y structure (b); beehive structures at the middle of the Y structure showing dominance of alvinocaridid shrimps (c); the boundary between the brownish sulfide base and the dark-gray active chimneys (d); massive sulfide and chimney fragments at the foot of the Y site (e); inactive chimneys complex in P site (similar in shape to the Chinese classical folk instrument “Pan Flute” P) (f), showing small flanges with ~10 cm in width (g); lined distributed chimneys in P site showing white shells of mussels indicating waning stage (h); beehive diffusers shimmering light smoke surrounded by toppled chimney clusters in P site with yellowish-brown oxide on the surface (i), showing anemones and Alviniconcha marisindica snails (j). All photos or videos were taken in Chinese Dayang Cruise 72nd in 2022.

Fig. 4. Representative chimney fragments in Tianxiu hydrothermal field. a. Toppled chimney clusters in P site with yellowish-brown oxide on the surface, partly in dark gray (b), indicating status of still active. c. The extinct “chimney jungle” in P site, showing absence of large fluid conduit (d). e. Chimney fragment collected from Y site showing multi fluid conduits wall mainly composed of pyrite and sphalerite. f. Chimney fragment collected from Y site showing major fluid conduit wall mainly composed of pyrite and sphalerite, showing reddish-brown pyrrhotite rich layer. g. Another chimney fragment showing major reddish-brown pyrrhotite rich layer; h. Inactive chimney fragment collected from P site, showing sphalerite rich and multi micro fluid conduits. i. Chimney fragment of focused fluid flow, rich in chalcopyrite and pyrite composing the fluid conduit walls, collected from other high-temperature hydrothermal area is taken here for comparison. py: pyrite; sp: sphalerite; po: pyrrhotite; ccp: chalcopyrite. The scale bar represents 5 cm.

Fig. 5. Schematic model for fluid circulation at Tianxiu hydrothermal field.

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