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Paleoceanographic and paleoenvironmental changes in the high-latitude Southern Ocean during late Quaternary: progress and prospects based on the Chinese Antarctic Expeditions
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Li Wu1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Rujian Wang2, *, Wenshen Xiao2, Qingmiao Li2, Kaitao Ni1, Ran Xu1, Yi Chen1
Acta Oceanologica Sinica | 2025, 44(4) : 1 - 19
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Acta Oceanologica Sinica | 2025, 44(4): 1-19
• Multiscale processes in polar oceans and their climate and ecological implications: Part Ⅱ •
Paleoceanographic and paleoenvironmental changes in the high-latitude Southern Ocean during late Quaternary: progress and prospects based on the Chinese Antarctic Expeditions
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Li Wu1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Rujian Wang2, *, Wenshen Xiao2, Qingmiao Li2, Kaitao Ni1, Ran Xu1, Yi Chen1
Affiliations
  • 1Laboratory for Coastal Ocean Variation and Disaster Prediction, College of Ocean and Meteorology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China
  • 2State Key Laboratory of Marine Geology, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
  • 3Key Laboratory of Climate, Resources and Environment in Continental Shelf Sea and Deep Sea of Department of Education of Guangdong Province, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China
  • 4Key Laboratory of Space Ocean Remote Sensing and Application, Ministry of Natural Resources, Beijing 100081, China
  • 5Key Laboratory for Polar Geology and Marine Mineral Resources of Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China
Published: 2025-04-25 doi: 10.1007/s13131-025-2465-5
Outline
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This review compiles studies on paleoceanographic and paleoenvironmental changes in the high-latitude Southern Ocean during the late Quaternary based on Chinese Antarctic Expeditions. Four major findings are summarized as follows. (1) Diatom compositions in sediment record sea surface condition changes in the Bransfield Strait and Cosmonaut Sea, indicating an increase in sea ice cover since the Mid-Holocene for both areas, possibly linked to cold water mass injection from the Weddell Sea ice shelf. (2) Export productivity records from Antarctic marginal seas show a glacial-interglacial variation pattern, with higher and lower productivity during the interglacial and glacial periods, respectively, controlled by both the intensity of Circumpolar Deep Water upwelling and sea ice cover. An overall increase of export productivity from Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 12 to MIS 6 is noticed. (3) Ventilation state of the abyssal Southern Ocean is closely related to global climate change and atmospheric CO2 concentrations, with elevated ventilation efficiency during deglacial periods responsible for elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations. (4) Antarctic marine-based ice sheets/glaciers wax and wane in line with global and regional ice volume changes, predominantly subject to oceanic forcing, while land-based ice sheets might only reorganize in specific glacial intervals. Despite significant progress in understanding the role of the Southern Ocean and the Antarctic Ice Sheet within the global climate system, challenges remain in sample collection and research methods. Future studies should aim to collect samples from a broader range of latitudes, ensure higher quality and longer temporal span, resolve dating issues, reconstruct seawater temperature, and focus on reconstructions of Southern Ocean carbon cycling and changes of intermediate to deep water masses.

Southern Ocean  /  Antarctica  /  Chinese Antarctic Expedition (CHINARE)  /  paleoceanography and paleoclimate  /  Pleistocene
Li Wu, Rujian Wang, Wenshen Xiao, Qingmiao Li, Kaitao Ni, Ran Xu, Yi Chen. Paleoceanographic and paleoenvironmental changes in the high-latitude Southern Ocean during late Quaternary: progress and prospects based on the Chinese Antarctic Expeditions[J]. Acta Oceanologica Sinica, 2025 , 44 (4) : 1 -19 . DOI: 10.1007/s13131-025-2465-5
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1　Introduction
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Antarctic Ice Sheet (AIS) and the Southern Ocean represent the two most significant geographical units in the high latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere. The AIS, covering over 98% of the Antarctic continent, holds the largest ice mass on modern Earth, it spans nearly 14 × 106 km2 and contains 26.5 × 106 km3 of ice, which is equivalent to approximately 58 m of potential sea-level rise (Fretwell et al., 2013). And thus, even partial melting of the AIS would induce significant global mean sea level rise (Blackburn et al., 2020; DeConto and Pollard, 2016). The Southern Ocean acts as a vital conduit connecting global oceans, facilitating the transfer of heat, gases, nutrients, and water masses (Bostock et al., 2013). In particular, it acts as an important interface of CO2 exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere because it represents the major upwelling branch of the Global Thermohaline Overturning Circulation (Anderson et al., 2009; Jaccard et al., 2013; Marshall and Speer, 2012; Sigman et al., 2010).
Scientific investigation in this region primarily focuses on two key issues. (1) How does the AIS influence and respond to regional and global climate changes over varying timescales (e.g., Cook et al., 2013; Passchier, 2011; Patterson et al., 2014; Ge et al., 2022; Wilson et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2018; An et al., 2024)? (2) What role does the Southern Ocean play in regulating atmospheric CO2 levels (e.g., Anderson et al., 2009, 2014a; Jaccard et al., 2016; Martínez-Garcia et al., 2011; Meckler et al., 2013; Wu et al., 2017, 2018)? Marine sediment cores from the high latitudes of the Southern Ocean are crucial archives to address these questions. In recent decades, studies utilizing marine sediment cores have increasingly highlighted the significant role of the Southern Hemisphere’s high latitudes in regulating global climate and environment (Sikes et al., 2023; Starr et al., 2021; An et al., 2024; Lamy et al., 2024). Notably, research based on Chinese Antarctic Expedition (CHINARE) has made substantial contributions, which were primarily focused on sea surface conditions, export productivity, abyssal ventilation of the Southern Ocean and dynamics of glaciers around AIS (e.g., Chen et al., 2024; Ge et al., 2022; Hu et al., 2023; Li et al., 2021, 2022; Liu et al., 2024; Nie et al., 2022; Tang et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2022b; Wu et al., 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020). China initiated Antarctic expeditions in 1984, marking four decades of exploration this year. This review aims to synthesize the major findings achieved based on sediment cores retrieved during CHINARE and outlines perspectives for future studies.
2　Environmental setting
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AIS is divided by the Trans-Antarctic Mountains into the East AIS (EAIS) and the West AIS (WAIS). Although the WAIS accounts for only 12% of the total AIS (Fretwell et al., 2013), it is considered the most dynamic part of AIS due to its significant portion lying below sea level (DeConto and Pollard, 2016; Pollard and DeConto, 2009; Tigchelaar et al., 2018). In contrast, a large portion of the EAIS is situated on land and is generally considered to be less variable during the Quaternary (Passchier, 2011). However, about one-third of the EAIS is marine-based and has also been shown to be dynamic (Fretwell et al., 2013; Golledge et al., 2017; Wilson et al., 2018).
The Southern Ocean features a series of oceanic fronts defined by gradients in water mass characteristics such as salinity, temperature, and nutrient concentrations (Orsi et al., 1995). These fronts divide the Southern Ocean into distinct zones (Fig. 1; Orsi et al., 1995; Orsi and Whitworth Ⅲ, 2005). From south to north, these fronts include the Southern Antarctic Circumpolar Current Front (SACCF), the Southern Polar Front (SPF), the Subantarctic Front (SAF), and the Subtropical Front (STF; Orsi et al., 1995). The Antarctic zone lies south of the SPF, the polar frontal zone is between the SPF and SAF, and the subantarctic zone is located between the SAF and STF (Orsi et al., 1995).
Oceanic currents in the Southern Ocean primarily consist of the eastward-flowing Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) and the westward-flowing Antarctic slope current/coastal current (Orsi et al., 1995). These currents are separated by clockwise-rotating mesoscale eddies, which form the Antarctic divergence zone and coincide with the southern boundary of the ACC, namely the SACCF. Additionally, clockwise gyres develop in bay areas such as Prydz Bay, the Ross Sea, and the Weddell Sea (Orsi et al., 1995).
Several major water masses exist in the Southern Ocean (Orsi et al., 1995). Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW), the densest water mass type, is found at the deepest part of the Southern Ocean. Above the AABW lies the Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW), which is the predominant water mass in the Southern Ocean. Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) is produced at the SPF, and Subantarctic Mode Water (SAMW) is produced at the Subantarctic Zone. These water masses are formed through rapid sinking of Antarctic surface water.
Maximum sea ice cover occurs in the austral winter, reaching approximately 18.3 × 106 km² in September and forming a continuous ring around Antarctica (Comiso, 2010). In contrast, minimum sea ice cover is observed in the austral summer, around February, covering about 3 × 106 km² predominantly in the western Weddell Sea, Bellingshausen Sea, Amundsen Sea, and part of the Ross Sea and southern Indian Ocean (Comiso, 2010). During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), studies based on diatom assemblages and model simulations suggest that both summer and winter sea ice limits extended further north. The winter sea ice limit during the LGM likely reached the position of the modern SPF, while the summer sea ice limit generally expanded to approximately the modern winter sea ice edge (Crosta et al., 1998; Gersonde et al., 2005; Röthlisberger et al., 2010).
3　Data and proxies
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3.1　 Sediment cores
This review compiles data from marine sediment cores collected through CHINARE, focusing on five high-latitude regions in the Southern Ocean around Antarctica: Prydz Bay, Ross Sea, Amundsen Sea, the region around the Antarctic Peninsula, and Cosmonaut Sea (Fig. 1, Table 1). These sites are distributed across continental shelves, slopes, rises, and abyssal plains south to the polar front (62°S), with water depths ranging from 75 m to over 4600 m. The cores were obtained using gravity corers and vary in length from 22 cm to 819 cm, spanning ages from several thousand years to 773 ka, and have average sedimentation rates ranging from <60 cm/ka. Sediment colors observed include greenish-gray, gray, yellowish-gray, and brownish-gray. The sediment mainly consists of clayey silt, silty clay, silty sand, sandy silt, and gravelly sand, with occasional dropstones.
Biogenic opal is the predominant biogenic component in the sediment, primarily consisting of diatoms, with minor amount of radiolarians and sponge spicules. The cores generally lack biogenic carbonates, though some layers contain planktonic foraminiferal species, mainly Neogloboquadrina pachyderma and a few endemic Antarctic benthic species such as Miliammina arenacea, Trifarina earlandi, and Lagena spp. (Fan et al., 2021). Table 1 lists a total of 29 published cores from CHINARE. The earliest core is PC10 from the 7th CHINARE, while the most recent cores are C5/6-07 and C4-05 from the 37th CHINARE. The scarcity of published core data can be attributed to two main reasons: firstly, some expeditions, particularly the earlier ones, did not yield suitable sediment cores for study; secondly, establishing age-depth models for most CHINARE cores has proven challenging, which complicates further research.
3.2　 Age-depth model construction
Establishing reliable age-depth models for sediment cores is fundamental to research in paleoenvironment, paleoceanography, and paleoclimate. For the cores collected during CHINARE, multiple techniques have been developed to address this need.
For sediment cores younger than 45 ka, AMS14C dating of foraminiferal tests can provide accurate absolute ages by assuming a constant reservoir age (about 1300 a) (Domack et al., 2001; Hajdas et al., 2021). However, due to poor preservation of biogenic carbonate in the Southern Ocean, this method is often limited (Tang et al., 2016, 2022; Wu et al., 2017; Xiao et al., 2016). As an alternative, dating the organic carbon of bulk sediments is used. Despite uncertainties related to old carbon contamination, which can affect the accuracy of the age of the bulk sediment organic fractions, a study from the Ross Sea suggests that old carbon contamination may remain constant for Holocene core sediments (Prothro et al., 2020). By subtracting this constant old carbon contamination, which is typically estimated using the core-top age, a reliable age-depth framework can be established. Consequently, most shorter sediment cores collected during CHINARE have been dated using this method (e.g., Chen et al., 2024; Hu et al., 2022, 2023; Li et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2023a; Fan et al., 2021; Nie et al., 2014; Lei et al., 2022; Yan et al., 2023; Huang et al., 2016; Long et al., 2024).
Studies show a close coupling between productivity in the Southern Ocean and global and regional climate changes (Bonn et al., 1998). On glacial-interglacial timescales, higher export productivity was observed during interglacials, and lower productivity was during glacials in the south of the SPF (Jaccard et al., 2013). This productivity-climate coupling relationship seems to persist even on millennial timescales (Lu et al., 2022), providing a reliable method for establishing age-depth models for longer sediment cores (Presti et al., 2011; Wu et al., 2017). Sediment cores such as P1-2, P1-3 (Tang et al., 2016; Wu et al., 2017), and A2-10 (Tang et al., 2022) have been dated using this approach.
In the open ocean regions around Antarctica, previous studies have demonstrated a strong correlation between the magnetic susceptibility records of sediment cores and Antarctic ice core dust records (Pugh et al., 2009; Weber et al., 2012; Xiao et al., 2016). On glacial-interglacial timescales, higher magnetic susceptibility during glacial periods corresponds to increased dust fluxes in Antarctic ice cores, while lower magnetic susceptibility during interglacial periods relates to decreased dust fluxes (Pugh et al., 2009). This coupling holds on millennial timescales, as supported by additional dating methods (Weber et al., 2012; Xiao et al., 2016), despite ongoing debates about the origin of sediment magnetization in the Southern Ocean (Xiao et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2022). This approach offers a cost-effective, efficient, and high-resolution technique for establishing age-depth models of marine sediment cores retrieved from the Southern Ocean, such as Cores DC-11 and D5-12 (Yang et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2023b).
Near the Antarctic Peninsula, significant volcanic activities occurred during Late Quaternary (Ren, 1993). These volcanic activities resulted in deposition of tephra layers. Importantly, these tephra layers can be precisely dated using radiogenic isotopes. Consequently, chronological studies of these volcanic events have laid a solid foundation for correlating and dating volcanic ash layers in nearby sediment cores. As an illustration, tephra stratigraphy was successfully applied to date sediment Core D1-7, as reported by Nie et al. (2022).
3.3　 Proxy records
3.3.1　 Surface seawater conditions
Export productivity reflects sea surface conditions. In the Southern Ocean, common sedimentary proxies for export productivity include Total Organic Carbon (TOC) (Feng et al., 2023), biogenic opal (Tang et al., 2016), the Ba/Al count ratio and the Si/Al count ratio (Wu et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2022b), all of which are associated with diatoms. Export productivity records in marine sediments are controlled by sea surface productivity, but are potentially affected by preservation and burial efficiency at the sea floor (Jaccard et al., 2010). Lateral transport and winnowing by bottom currents controls their burial efficiency, while the preservation efficiency of these proxies varies significantly due to different controlling factors. For instance, TOC preservation is primarily linked to seawater dissolved oxygen content, and higher dissolved oxygen levels increase the chance of TOC being mineralized into dissolved inorganic carbon (Canfield, 1994). In contrast, biological Ba, existing mainly as BaSO4, remains stable under oxic conditions but is prone to be decomposed and transported under reducing conditions (Anderson et al., 2002; McManus et al., 1998), while biogenic opal preservation is mainly controlled by diatom flux, with higher flux leading to better preservation and vice versa (Pondaven et al., 2000; Sayles et al., 2001). Therefore, to accurately constrain temporal variability of sea surface productivity, studies often utilize multiple indicators of export productivity simultaneously, as consistent trends between these indicators typically reflect changes in export productivity rather than preservation efficiency (e.g., Wu et al., 2017).
In addition to productivity records, some sediment cores have been analyzed for diatom assemblages to reconstruct environmental changes of, such as sea ice conditions with Fragilariopsis curta, and sea surface stratification with Chaetoceros Resting Spores (CRS), based on ecological habits of the diatom species (e.g., Li et al., 2021; Nie et al., 2022). Others have been surveyed for δ15N in bulk sediment to reconstruct sea surface nitrate utilization efficiency (e.g., Hu et al., 2023).
3.3.2　 Bottom current strength and abyssal ventilation
The strength of bottom currents in the Southern Ocean is primarily reconstructed using sediment grain-size compositions. Two methods can extract information about changes in bottom current intensity from grain-size data. The first is end-member modeling analyses (Jonkers et al., 2015; Prins et al., 2002), which decomposes grain-size distribution data to identify end-members that reflect hydrodynamic conditions, as demonstrated by Wu et al. (2018) and Wu et al. (2024). The second involves calculating the Sortable Silt Mean Grain-size (SSM) (McCave and Andrews, 2019; McCave et al., 2017). When SSM correlates linearly with the relative percentage of Sortable Silt (SS), it serves as a proxy for changes in bottom current strength (McCave and Andrews, 2019; McCave et al., 2017).
In addition, the geochemical ratio Zr/Rb provides an alternative method for reflecting the strength of bottom currents. This method, validated by Wu et al. (2020), has been successfully applied to high-resolution reconstructions of bottom current activity throughout the past 5 Ma in the South Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean (Lamy et al., 2024).
The redox state of bottom water masses is closely related to their ventilation status. During CHINARE, indicators such as manganese (Mn) and uranium (U) were used to assess this redox state (Wu et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2018, 2022a; Tang et al., 2022). In oxic conditions, Mn exists as Mn(Ⅲ) or Mn(Ⅳ) oxides/hydroxides, tending to precipitate and accumulate in sediments, and conversely, under reducing conditions, Mn is dissolved as Mn(Ⅱ) ions, tending to dissolve and migrate (Calvert and Pedersen, 1993; Wagner and Hendy, 2017).
Similarly, in oxygen-rich environments, U is present as soluble U(Ⅵ). As oxygen levels decrease, U is reduced and precipitates as insoluble U(Ⅳ) (Morford and Emerson, 1999). This reduction creates a concentration gradient between the bottom water and the upper sediment layers, leading to the diffusion of dissolved U into the sediment and the formation of authigenic U phases (Morford and Emerson, 1999).
3.3.3　 Ice sheet/glaicer dynamics
Ice-Rafted Debris (IRD) refers to terrestrial sediments transported by icebergs and deposited upon their melting, providing direct geological evidence of iceberg calving (Wang et al., 2013, 2023a). Icebergs can carry debris of various grain sizes, but sediments whose grain-size is <63 μm are often subject to sorting by ocean currents (McCave and Andrews, 2019). To account for this, IRD is typically defined as particles of grain-size >63 μm, or even coarser, to reduce the effects of current sorting, assuming that such larger sediment particles can not be moved by ocean currents (McCave and Andrews, 2019; Wang et al., 2013, 2023a; Liu et al., 2015). Core samples used to study iceberg activity and IRD include P1-3 (Liu et al., 2015), P1-2 (Wu et al., 2021), P5-03 (Wu et al., 2021), JB06 (Huang et al., 2016), and A2-10 (Wang et al., 2022b).
In addition, sediment provenance indicators are valuable for understanding glacier and ice sheet dynamics, as non-biogenic sediment components in the marginal seas around Antarctica primarily originate from erosion by AIS and glaciers (Cook et al., 2013; Hillenbrand et al., 2009; Wilson et al., 2018). Provenance indicators used in CHINARE cores include clay mineral compositions, Sr/Nd isotopic ratios (Wang et al., 2022b; Wu et al., 2021), and the geochemical composition of elements (Chen et al., 2024; Ge et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2022b; Zhang et al., 2023a).
4　Progress
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4.1　 Surface seawater conditions evolution since the LGM
The surface conditions in the high-latitude regions of the Southern Ocean are significantly influenced by sea ice, icebergs, and glacial melts (Li et al., 2021; Nie et al., 2022). These influences are authentically recorded through the composition of sedimentary diatom species and export productivity (Li et al., 2021; Nie et al., 2022). During the LGM, most marginal seas around Antarctica were either grounded by the marine portions of glaciers or covered by ice shelves and permanent sea ice, resulting in minimal export productivity (Hou et al., 1996, 1998; Xiu et al., 2017; Feng et al., 2023; Wu and Lu, 1998; Zhang et al., 2023b; Fan et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2014; Yan et al., 2023; Huang et al., 2016; Long et al., 2024). However, sediment Cores C3-09 and C4-05 from the Cosmonaut Sea, East Antarctica recorded a high abundance of Fragilariopsis kerguelensis (Fig. 2c), despite being close to the Antarctic continent (Table 1, Fig. 1). The presence of this open-ocean species, combined with relatively high level of F. curta (Fig. 2d), which indicates presence of winter sea ice (Gersonde and Zielinski, 2000), and Actinocyclus actinochilus (Fig. 2e), indicative of a cold-water environment (Esper et al., 2010, 2014), suggests that the area was covered only by seasonal sea ice even during the LGM (Li et al., 2021).
The LGM exhibits the highest abundance of CRS (Fig. 2b), relatively high F. curta (Fig. 2d) and A. actinochilus (Fig. 2f), and relatively low F. kerguelensis (Fig. 2c), indicating high seasonal sea ice density at the sites, with strong upper ocean stratification due to input of glacial melt water. During the last deglaciation, F. curta and A. actinochilus rapidly decreased while F. kerguelensis gradually increased, indicating a gradual reduction in seasonal sea ice cover at the sites. It is noteworthy that an increase in CRS and F. curta and a decrease in F. kerguelensis are prominent during Antarctic Cold Reversal (ACR), indicating millennial-scale rebound of seasonal sea ice cover in response to regional temperature drop (Fig. 2a). Throughout the Early and Mid-Holocene, the surface marine environment stabilized with minimal seasonal sea ice cover, possibly due to southward intrusion of CDW. Entering the Late Holocene, a trend of increasing seasonal sea ice cover at the sites emerged, accompanied by decreasing export productivity in this area (Hu et al., 2023).
Over the past 6 000 a, diatom records from Core D1-7 in the Bransfield Strait, West Antarctica, reveal exceptionally high levels of CRS (88%) (Fig. 3d) and low levels of F. kerguelensis (1.3%) (Fig. 3e). These findings contrast sharply with those at the Cosmonaut Sea sites. The high CRS content and low F. kerguelensis content suggest well-developed glacial meltwater and surface stratification, potentially due to greater dynamism of the West AIS compared to the East AIS. Additionally, the continuous presence of F. curta (Fig. 3f) and F. kerguelensis (Fig. 3e) indicates that the site has been persistently influenced by seasonal sea ice throughout the last 6000 a. This is further supported by the occurrence of Rhizosolenia antennata fo. semispina (Fig. 3c) in the sediments, which suggests a cold or restricted open-water environment (Nie et al., 2022).
During the late Mid-Holocene, Porosira glacialis, which is associated with early sea ice advance and a strong presence of spring and winter sea ice, exhibited significantly lower and stable abundance compared to the Late Holocene (Nie et al., 2022). This stability in abundance, combined with the generally lower abundance ratio of P. glacialis to Thalassiosira antarctica (P/T) as shown in Fig. 3b, indicates a relatively less severe sea ice cover at the site and a more stable environmental condition compared to the Late Holocene.
Moving into the Late Holocene, the P/T ratio continues to increase, suggesting an increase in sea ice cover and surface water stratification. This trend aligns with the situation observed in the Cosmonaut Sea, as recorded by the export productivity (Fig. 3a) and diatom compositions (Fig. 2). Both areas exhibit synchronized evolution of the surface ocean environment, driven by local spring/summer solar radiation, intrusion of CDW, and cold water mass from beneath the Weddell Sea ice shelf (Li et al., 2021; Nie et al., 2022). However, the Bransfield Strait area, which faces the Pacific Ocean, may also be influenced by El Niño and Southern Oscillation activity (Nie et al., 2022).
4.2　 Export productivity and air-sea CO2 exchange in glacial cycles
The Southern Ocean is located at the rising branch of the North Atlantic overturning circulation, playing a crucial role in air-sea CO2 exchange (Marshall and Speer, 2012). Physical, chemical, and biological processes within the Southern Ocean could regulate CO2 distribution between the ocean and atmosphere efficiently, thereby impacting global climate (Abelmann et al., 2006; Elderfield and Rickaby, 2000; Ferrari et al., 2014; Sikes et al., 2023). The “biological pump” effect converts atmospheric CO2 into organic matter, transferring it to deep-sea, while the “physical pump” effect pumps CO2 from the deep Southern Ocean up to the upper/surface ocean where it exchanges with the atmosphere (Toggweiler et al., 2006).
The Southern Ocean’s productivity is dominated by diatomaceous organisms contributed by diatoms (Cornet-Barthaux et al., 2007). On glacial-interglacial timescales, the growth of diatoms in the open ocean regions of the Southern Ocean is primarily influenced by nutrient supply, sourced mainly from upwelling of CDW (Anderson et al., 2009; Jaccard et al., 2013; Wu et al., 2017). Therefore, the export productivity in the open ocean area could reflect changes in the intensity of CDW upwelling (Anderson et al., 2009). In seasonal sea-ice zones, however, sea ice cover affects seawater stratification and availability of solar radiation, being another important factor influencing diatom growth (Presti et al., 2011; Wu et al., 2017). Most of the sediment cores collected during CHINARE are located in the seasonal sea-ice zones of the Southern Ocean (Fig. 1), contributing to the complexity of factors controlling productivity variability therein.
During the Middle to Late Quaternary, the Southern Ocean exhibits two modes of productivity variation on glacial-interglacial timescales (Jaccard et al., 2013). These variations typically co-vary with climate change, presenting a seesaw pattern between the north and the south of the APF. Specifically, during interglacials, higher productivity is observed south of the APF while it diminishes northward, and vice versa during glacials (Jaccard et al., 2013).
Many sediment cores collected during CHINARE surrounding Antarctica, including Prydz Bay (Wu et al., 2017), Amundsen Sea (Tang et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2023b; Ju et al., 2019), Ross Sea (Long et al., 2024), and Scotia Sea, exhibit orbital-scale periodicity in export productivity evolution, characterized by higher export productivity in interglacials and lower in glacials, in phase with the temporal variations in the LR04-δ18O stack (Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005) and EDC pCO2 records (EPICA Community Members, 2004) (Fig. 4). The high interglacial productivity is attributed to the southward shift of the Southern Hemisphere westerlies, bringing more heat into high southern latitudes, resulting in ice sheet retreat, sea ice melting, enhanced CDW upwelling, and nutrient transfer into surface waters of the Southern Ocean (Anderson et al., 2009; Jaccard et al., 2013; Wu et al., 2017; Tang et al., 2022). Conversely, during glacials, the northward shift of the westerlies increases ice sheet extent and sea ice coverage, isolating seawater from the atmosphere, and weakening CDW upwelling, thereby transferring atmospheric CO2 downward into the deep Southern Ocean through the biological pump (Anderson et al., 2009; Jaccard et al., 2013; Wu et al., 2017; Tang et al., 2022).
Interestingly, a comparison of the export productivity records from different marine regions reveals that during MIS 11 to MIS 6, or the so called Mid-Brunhes period (Barth et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2003; Yin and Berger, 2010), the glacial-interglacial oscillations of productivity seem to overlay a long-term increasing trend in productivity (Figs 4c–e). This sustained increase in productivity is seemingly parallel with the trend showing in the LR04 δ18O stack (Fig. 4f) but was not found in lower latitude of the Southern Ocean (e.g., Jaccard et al., 2013) and may represent the response of the upper ocean environment in high-latitude Southern Ocean regions to Middle Pleistocene oceanic changes that is never identified before, warranting further investigation.
4.3　 Bottom water conditions and CO2 storage in glacial cycles
Some areas around Antarctica, including Cape Darnley, Wilkes Land, the western Ross Sea, and Weddell Sea, undergo processes of ice formation in sub-ice shelves and/or polynyas, generating high-density waters by brine rejection (Williams et al., 2008; Meijers et al., 2010). These brine passes over the continental shelf and slope, flows down submarine canyons, sinks into the depths of the Southern Ocean, and ultimately forms AABW, which carries dissolved oxygen into depths, filling and ventilating the bottom of the world’s oceans (Foster and Carmack, 1976; Orsi et al., 1999; Williams et al., 2008; Yabuki et al., 2006).
Previous studies have found a close coupling between the physical and chemical properties of AABW and regional/global climate changes. Over millennial timescales, Jaccard et al. (2016) observed two-stage pulse-like elevation in dissolved oxygen concentration in the deep Weddell Sea during Heinrich Stadial 1 (HS1) and Younger Dryas (YD) (Jaccard et al., 2016). A CHINARE sediment core from Cosmonaut Sea recorded similar pulse-like elevation in abyssal ventilation during the last deglacial period (Hu et al., 2023). During glacial periods, the rate of formation of bottom waters in Weddell Sea significantly decreased, although there were probably some millennial-scale strengthened bottom current activities (Yan et al., 2023), in response to temporary southward shift of the southern westerly wind belt (Lu et al., 2022). In particular, during glacial maxima, northward export of AABW from the Weddell Sea nearly stagnated (Huang et al., 2020).
On glacial-interglacial timescales, sediment cores off Prydz Bay recorded that each deglaciation of the Late Quaternary was always accompanied by intense authigenic Mn enrichment (Fig. 5c) (Li et al., 2022; Wu et al., 2018), elevated silt relative to clay (S2/S1) (Fig. 5b) as well as Zr/Rb ratio (Wu et al., 2018, 2020), indicating enhanced diapycnal mixing and ventilation in the deep Southern Ocean (Wu et al., 2018). This process might lead to continuous diffusion of deeply sequestered CO2 mixing upward, facilitating its transfer to the upper ocean and ultimately release into the atmosphere, and consequently a sudden increase in atmospheric CO2 during deglaciations (Fig. 5a; Wu et al., 2018). This interpretation is also supported by the strong Mn enrichment during the recent four deglacial periods in sediment cores collected off Wilkes Land (Jimenez-Espejo et al., 2020).
In another work, Tang et al. (2022) further found co-variation of Mn enrichment (Fig. 5d) and authigenic uranium (aU) enrichment (Fig. 5e) on glacial-interglacial timescales in the sediment Core A2-10 from the Amundsen Sea over the last 770 ka, showing higher authigenic Mn enrichment and lower authigenic aU during interglacial, and lower authigenic Mn enrichment and higher authigenic aU during interglacials. They interpreted this co-variation as a compensation relationship between deep Southern Ocean dissolved oxygen content and abyssal carbon storage (Tang et al., 2022). Specifically, during glacial period, dissolved oxygen concentration in the abyssal Southern Ocean decreased while carbon storage increased, and vice versa during interglacials, resulting in continuous switching of the Southern Ocean between a carbon sink and a carbon source during glacial-interglacial cycles (Tang et al., 2022).
4.4　 AIS dynamics in glacial cycles
AIS/glacier dynamics are directly related to global sea level fluctuations (Blackburn et al., 2020; DeConto and Pollard, 2016). Under the background of global warming, Antarctic glaciers are showing an accelerating trend of melting (Pattyn et al., 2018). The historical patterns and mechanisms of AIS fluctuations have significant implications for predicting its future dynamics, and have been receiving increasing attention (Hillenbrand et al., 2009; Pollard and DeConto, 2009; Wilson et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2021).
Measurements of submarine topography and seismic profiles on the Antarctic continental shelf provide direct geological evidence of the extent of Antarctic glacier fluctuations (Domack et al., 1998; O’Brien et al., 1999). These studies indicate the presence of extensive glacial erosion features across the Antarctic continental shelf during the LGM, indicating northward advance of Antarctic glaciers (Anderson et al., 2014b; Domack et al., 1998; Halberstadt et al., 2016; O’Brien et al., 1999; Prothro et al., 2018). During the last deglacial period, these glaciers rapidly retreated, transforming the continental shelf from a sub-glacial/sub-ice shelf environment to a seasonal open ocean environment. Some of the glaciers’ grounding lines did not retreat to their near-modern positions until the Late Holocene (Anderson et al., 2014b; Prothro et al., 2020).
Glacier retreat on the continental shelf triggered a series of oceanic environmental changes. For instance, during the last glacial period, Yan et al. (2023) found deposition of IRD in the northwest of the Weddell Sea was closely related to strengthening of local bottom currents, and a series of studies (Zhao et al., 2017; Huang et al., 2016; Fan et al, 2021; Liu et al., 2024) observed diminished bottom current strength in the central and western Ross Sea shelves as glaciers retreated, accompanied by significant increases in IRD deposition. During the last deglacial period, Zhang et al. (2023a) and Chen et al. (2024) found that sedimentary process in Cosmonaut Sea was controlled by changes in the dynamics of the Lambert Glacier system in Prydz Bay in the east, and may align closely with millennial-scale climate fluctuations (Chen et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2023a). Moving to Holocene, Lei et al. (2022) discovered that the deposition of IRD in Amundsen Sea decreased with gradually declining local atmospheric temperatures (Lei et al., 2022).
On glacial-interglacial timescales, deep sea sediment cores from the Prydz Bay sector and the Amundsen Sea sector recorded the dynamic changes of the Lambert Glacier system (Ge et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2015; Wu et al., 2021) and the glaciers around the West AIS (Wang et al., 2022b). IRD records of these cores provide direct evidence for the dynamics of the glaciers (Liu et al., 2015), while clay mineral compositions in these cores provide a more detailed history of their fluctuations (Wang et al., 2022b; Wu et al., 2021).
During interglacial periods, the clay mineral composition of the Prdzy Bay Cores P1-2 and P5-3 is dominated by an illite-rich end member (EM1), whereas in glacial periods, it is dominated by a kaolinite-rich end member (EM2). EM1 was interpreted as a background sedimentation of clay minerals, while EM2 was likely derived from older successions in the Prydz continental shelf due to reworking of the Lamber Glacier system, and thus EM2/(EM1 + EM2) was used to represent the relative position of the grounding line of the Lambert Glacier in geological history (Fig. 6c; Wu et al., 2021). This index exhibits a temporal variation pattern similar to deep-sea oxygen isotopes (Fig. 6g; Lisiecki and Raymo, 2005) and Antarctic ice volume changes (Fig. 6a; Pollard and DeConto, 2009) over glacial-interglacial timescales, indicating the sensitivity of the Lambert Glacier system to oceanic forcing and sea level changes (Wu et al., 2021). Nd isotopes show that besides the north-south advance and retreat of the Lambert Glacier system, there may also be lateral readjustment of the glacier system during MIS 12 and MIS 4−2 (Fig. 6d), possibly in response to eccentricity minima (Ge et al., 2022).
In the Amundsen Sea region, the source rocks of illite and chlorite might be widely distributed in Antarctica and thus serve as background sedimentation as well, while kaolinite is primarily supplied from subglacial erosion of pre-Oligocene sedimentary rocks or palaeosoils in the hinterland of Amundsen Sea (Hillenbrand et al., 2002, 2003), and smectite may be derived from Cenozoic volcanic rocks in Marie Byrd Land (Hillenbrand et al., 2003). Kaolinite content in the sediments might be related to dynamical behaviour of the glaciers in the Amundsen Sea sector, as recorded in sediment Core PS5458/254 from the continental rise (Hillenbrand et al., 2009).
In further north at the Core A2-10, changes of the current system in the Southern Ocean might play a more significant role in regulating the composition of clay minerals (Wang et al., 2022b), and the ratio (smectite + kaolinite)/(illite + chlorite) in Core A2-10 was used as a proxy for the relative strength of the ACC and the Antarctic Slope Current. However, it indirectly indicated waxing and waning of the glacier systems around the Amundsen Sea sector, West Antarctica (Fig. 6f; Wang et al., 2022b). Higher values during interglacial periods indicate more influence from the ACC, implying a retreated glacier system in the Amundsen Sea sector, and during glacial period, lower values indicate more influence form the Antarctic Slope Current, hinting an expanded glacier system (Wang et al., 2022b).
Overall, similar glacial-interglacial variation pattern of the glacier systems in the Prydz Bay sector and the Amundsen Sea sector (Figs 6c and f) indicates oceanic forcing was the primary forcing mechanism for the dynamics of the marine-based ice sheet in both East Antarctica and West Antarctica during the middle to late Pleistocene (Ge et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2022b; Wu et al., 2021). Interestingly, however, IRD occurrence recorded in these sediment cores differ. In the Prydz Bay cores, IRD were mainly present during interglacial-to-glacial transitions (Fig. 6b), while in Amundsen Sea, IRD were predominantly present in interglacial periods (Fig. 6e), consistent with the temporal distribution of the (smectite + kaolinite)/(illite + chlorite) ratio (Fig. 6f), possibly indicating different scenarios of iceberg calving in these areas, and also reminding that caution must be paid when correlating IRD records with a fixed phase of ice sheet/glacier evolution in the Southern Ocean.
5　Summary
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In this review, we compiled studies on paleoceanographic and paleoclimatic changes recorded in sediments from the high-latitude Southern Ocean during the Middle to Late Pleistocene based on CHINARE data. The major findings are summarized as follows.
(1) Diatom compositions and sea surface conditions: Diatom records indicate changes in sea surface conditions since the LGM in Bransfield Strait, West Antarctica, and Cosmonaut Sea, East Antarctica. Despite their long distance from each other, both areas show an increase in sea ice cover since the end of the Mid-Holocene, potentially related to reduced local insolation and cold water mass injection from beneath the Weddell Sea ice shelf. Additionally, a polynya may have existed in the Cosmonaut Sea area during the LGM.
(2) Export productivity: Records of export productivity around Antarctica reveal a consistent glacial-interglacial variation pattern, with higher productivity during interglacial periods and lower productivity during glacial periods. This pattern is influenced by both the intensity of CDW upwelling and sea ice cover. Notably, there is an observed long-term increase in export productivity from MIS 12 to MIS 6 in different sectors of the high latitudes of the Southern Ocean, responding to the amplification of the polar climate since MBE (about 430 ka).
(3) Ventilation state of the Abyssal Southern Ocean: The ventilation state of the abyssal Southern Ocean is closely linked to global climate change and atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Increased ventilation efficiency during deglacial periods might be partly responsible for elevated atmospheric CO2 levels, while varying ventilation efficiency during interglacial and glacial periods partly explains the fluctuations in atmospheric CO2 concentrations during these times.
(4) Ice sheets/glaciers dynamics: Marine-based ice sheets and glaciers in Antarctica exhibit fluctuations in alignment with global and (simulated) regional ice volume changes on glacial-interglacial timescales, predominantly influenced by oceanic forcing. In contrast, terrestrial ice sheets, particularly in the Prydz Bay region, appear to have been reorganized mainly during specific glacial intervals, such as MIS 12 and MIS 4−2.
6　Future perspective
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This review demonstrates that substantial progress has been achieved through CHINARE over the past 40 years in understanding the role of the Southern Ocean and the AIS within the global climate system. Nonetheless, several challenges persist, including:
(1) Sample collection: Although CHINARE has extensively covered important sectors of the Southern Ocean, the focus has primarily been on regions south of 65°S within the seasonal sea ice zone. Furthermore, the core lengths (less than about 8.2 m) and temporal spans (<770 ka) of samples are generally limited. Additionally, other critical frontal zones, such as the SPF zone, which are essential for studying changes in the Southern Hemisphere westerlies and CDW upwelling, remain underrepresented. Future studies should, therefore, aim to collect samples from a wider range of latitudes and ensure these samples are of higher quality and span a longer temporal range.
(2) Research methods: First, the dating of marine sediments from high-latitude regions of the Southern Ocean remains unresolved. Recent advancements, including the introduction of Relative PaleoIntensity (RPI) (e.g., Ge et al., 2014; Hopkins et al., 2024) and the compound specific AMS14C dating (e.g., Prothro et al., 2020) methods, offer promising solutions. Second, there is still a lack of comprehensive records for seawater temperature reconstruction in these high-latitude regions. While biomarkers (e.g., Chen et al., 2021) and foraminifera-based proxies (e.g., Song et al., 2022) have been used to attempt sea surface temperature reconstructions, further calibration is necessary. Additionally, the Southern Ocean plays a critical role in ocean-atmosphere CO2 exchange, but direct geological reconstructions of carbon cycling (such as using foraminifer-based boron isotope and B/Ca ratio) in the intermediate to deep water masses in this region are limited, highlighting a crucial aspect for future research.
Funding
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  • The National Natural Science Foundation of China under contract Nos 42030401 and 42276077; the Open Foundation of State Key Laboratory of Marine Geology, Tongji University under contract No. MGK202207; the Open Foundation Project of the Key Laboratory of Polar Geology and Marine Mineral Resources of Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), under contract Nos PGMR-2024-102 and PGMR-2023-304; the Start-up Foundation of Guangdong Ocean University under contract No. 060302032110.
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doi: 10.1007/s13131-025-2465-5
  • Receive Date：2024-08-29
  • Online Date：2026-11-05
  • Published：2025-04-25
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  • Received：2024-08-29
  • Accepted：2024-10-25
Funding
The National Natural Science Foundation of China under contract Nos 42030401 and 42276077; the Open Foundation of State Key Laboratory of Marine Geology, Tongji University under contract No. MGK202207; the Open Foundation Project of the Key Laboratory of Polar Geology and Marine Mineral Resources of Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), under contract Nos PGMR-2024-102 and PGMR-2023-304; the Start-up Foundation of Guangdong Ocean University under contract No. 060302032110.
Affiliations
    1Laboratory for Coastal Ocean Variation and Disaster Prediction, College of Ocean and Meteorology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China
    2State Key Laboratory of Marine Geology, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
    3Key Laboratory of Climate, Resources and Environment in Continental Shelf Sea and Deep Sea of Department of Education of Guangdong Province, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang 524088, China
    4Key Laboratory of Space Ocean Remote Sensing and Application, Ministry of Natural Resources, Beijing 100081, China
    5Key Laboratory for Polar Geology and Marine Mineral Resources of Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China

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表12种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family		 属数
Number of
genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)		 属
Genus		 种数
Number of
species		 占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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