Article(id=1308841244088950824, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308841198224240856, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0624, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1748620800000, receivedDateStr=2025-05-31, revisedDate=1754755200000, revisedDateStr=2025-08-10, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1789981669685, onlineDateStr=2026-09-21, pubDate=1781193600000, pubDateStr=2026-06-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1789981669685, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-09-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1789981669685, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1789981669685, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1308841198224240856, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2026', volume='61', issue='6', pageStart='1881', pageEnd='2376', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1781193600000', pubDateStr='2026-06-12', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1789981658750, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1789984187230, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1308851803500933401, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308841198224240856, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1308851803500933402, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308841198224240856, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=1924, endPage=1934, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1308841244487409705, articleId=1308841244088950824, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Chemotherapy-induced immunogenic cell death: From molecular mechanisms to clinical practice, columnId=1308841198912106713, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Special Reports: Frontier Target Discovery and Molecular Pharmacological Mechanisms of Major Diseases, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Chemotherapy-induced immune-priming cell death (ICD) is a unique form of cell death. By inducing this type of cell death through specific methods, cells can express damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). These DAMPs can act as antigens to activate the host's immune system, thereby enhancing antitumor immune responses. Its clinical application has also attracted widespread attention. This review summarizes the molecular mechanisms of ICD, including pathways such as endoplasmic reticulum stress, autophagy, and necroptosis, as well as the mechanisms by which various chemotherapeutic drugs induce ICD. Additionally, this review explores the application of ICD in clinical practice, discusses its potential to provide new ideas and challenges for cancer treatment by categorizing it according to different types of cancer, and examines the possibility of applying ICD mechanisms in other diseases.

, authors=Ming-yuan CUI1, Fang WANG2, Kan HE3, *, authorsList=Ming-yuan CUI, Fang WANG, Kan HE, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Kan HE, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2026 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1308841248140648496, articleId=1308841244088950824, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=化疗诱导的免疫原性细胞死亡: 从分子机制到临床实践, columnId=1308841199054713051, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=专题报道: 前沿靶标发现与重大疾病分子药理学机制研究, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

化疗诱导的免疫原性细胞死亡(immune-priming cell death, ICD) 是一种特殊的细胞死亡方式, 通过一定的方法诱导该死亡方式, 能使细胞表达出损伤相关分子模式(damage-associated molecular patterns, DAMPs), DAMPs可以作为抗原激活宿主的免疫系统。而当诱导肿瘤细胞表达DAMPs时, 即可增强抗肿瘤免疫反应。其临床应用也受到广泛关注。本文综述了ICD的分子机制, 包括内质网应激、自噬、坏死性凋亡等通路, 以及多种化疗药物诱导ICD的机制。同时, 本综述探讨了ICD在临床实践中的应用, 按癌种的分类探讨了ICD机制为癌症治疗提供的新思路和挑战, 以及在其他疾病中应用的可能性。

, authors=崔明源1, 王放2, 何侃3, *, authorsList=崔明源, 王放, 何侃, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=何侃, authorNote=

作者贡献:

崔明源负责文献查阅、文章撰写、参考文献引用和图片制作; 何侃、王放协助参与文章修改, 完成文章修改、校对和审核。

, correspAuthorsNote=
何侃, Tel: 13331669539, E-mail:
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化疗诱导的免疫原性细胞死亡: 从分子机制到临床实践
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崔明源 1 , 王放 2 , 何侃 3, *
药学学报 | 专题报道: 前沿靶标发现与重大疾病分子药理学机制研究 2026,61(6): 1924-1934
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药学学报 |专题报道: 前沿靶标发现与重大疾病分子药理学机制研究 2026 , 61 (6) : 1924 -1934
化疗诱导的免疫原性细胞死亡: 从分子机制到临床实践
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崔明源1, 王放2, 何侃3, *
作者信息
  • 1吉林大学白求恩第三临床医院, 吉林 长春 130033
  • 2吉林大学基础医学院病原生物学系, 吉林 长春 130021
  • 3吉林大学基础医学院药理学系, 吉林 长春 130021
通讯作者:
何侃, Tel: 13331669539, E-mail:
作者简介:

作者贡献:

崔明源负责文献查阅、文章撰写、参考文献引用和图片制作; 何侃、王放协助参与文章修改, 完成文章修改、校对和审核。

Chemotherapy-induced immunogenic cell death: From molecular mechanisms to clinical practice
Ming-yuan CUI1, Fang WANG2, Kan HE3, *
Affiliations
  • 1The Third Bethune Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130033, China
  • 2Department of Pathogen Biology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
  • 3Department of Pharmacology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, China
出版时间: 2026-06-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0624
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化疗诱导的免疫原性细胞死亡(immune-priming cell death, ICD) 是一种特殊的细胞死亡方式, 通过一定的方法诱导该死亡方式, 能使细胞表达出损伤相关分子模式(damage-associated molecular patterns, DAMPs), DAMPs可以作为抗原激活宿主的免疫系统。而当诱导肿瘤细胞表达DAMPs时, 即可增强抗肿瘤免疫反应。其临床应用也受到广泛关注。本文综述了ICD的分子机制, 包括内质网应激、自噬、坏死性凋亡等通路, 以及多种化疗药物诱导ICD的机制。同时, 本综述探讨了ICD在临床实践中的应用, 按癌种的分类探讨了ICD机制为癌症治疗提供的新思路和挑战, 以及在其他疾病中应用的可能性。

癌症免疫疗法  /  免疫原性细胞死亡  /  化疗  /  分子机制  /  临床实践

Chemotherapy-induced immune-priming cell death (ICD) is a unique form of cell death. By inducing this type of cell death through specific methods, cells can express damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). These DAMPs can act as antigens to activate the host's immune system, thereby enhancing antitumor immune responses. Its clinical application has also attracted widespread attention. This review summarizes the molecular mechanisms of ICD, including pathways such as endoplasmic reticulum stress, autophagy, and necroptosis, as well as the mechanisms by which various chemotherapeutic drugs induce ICD. Additionally, this review explores the application of ICD in clinical practice, discusses its potential to provide new ideas and challenges for cancer treatment by categorizing it according to different types of cancer, and examines the possibility of applying ICD mechanisms in other diseases.

cancer immunotherapy  /  immunogenic cell death  /  chemotherapy  /  molecular mechanism  /  clinical practice
崔明源, 王放, 何侃. 化疗诱导的免疫原性细胞死亡: 从分子机制到临床实践. 药学学报, 2026 , 61 (6) : 1924 -1934 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0624
Ming-yuan CUI, Fang WANG, Kan HE. Chemotherapy-induced immunogenic cell death: From molecular mechanisms to clinical practice[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2026 , 61 (6) : 1924 -1934 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0624
癌症是全球范围内威胁人类健康的重大疾病之一。传统化疗药物在杀死癌细胞的同时, 也会对正常细胞产生毒性作用, 导致一系列不良反应。如抑制骨髓造血功能, 导致白细胞和血小板减少; 引起恶心、呕吐、腹泻或便秘等胃肠道反应; 攻击快速分裂的毛囊细胞, 导致脱发等。近些年来, 免疫原性细胞死亡(immune-priming cell death, ICD) 的概念逐渐受到关注。ICD是指在细胞死亡过程中, 释放出的一类特殊分子: 损伤相关分子模式(damage-associated molecular patterns, DAMPs) 如钙网蛋白(calreticulin, CRT)、ATP、高迁移率族蛋白B1 (high mobility group box 1 protein, HMGB1) 等, 能够激活宿主免疫系统, 诱导特异性抗肿瘤免疫反应的细胞死亡方式。ICD的发现为癌症治疗提供了新的视角, 有望通过激活患者自身的免疫系统来增强抗肿瘤效果。
细胞受到特殊刺激形成的DAMPs会与先天免疫细胞[如单核细胞、巨噬细胞和树突状细胞(dendritic cells, DCs)] 表达的同源受体[模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptors, PRR)] 结合。随后, 这些携带肿瘤衍生抗原特异性货物的细胞被激活和成熟, 并迁移到引流淋巴结, 在那里将癌症物质呈递给T细胞, 从而产生抗癌免疫反应。DAMP家族中研究最深入的成员是CRT、HMGB1、ATP和Ⅰ型干扰素, 本综述将会详细解读这几种物质如何通过各种通路被释放并引起机体免疫反应[1]。
相比于传统化疗药物, 化疗诱导的ICD具有以下优势: 传统化疗往往不会激活免疫系统, 甚至可能抑制免疫功能, 而ICD通过释放DAMPs和细胞因子, 激活抗原呈递细胞(antigen-presenting cells, APCs), 如DCs, 从而启动适应性免疫反应。蒽环类药物在多种实体瘤和血液系统恶性肿瘤中广泛应用, 如乳腺癌、肺癌、急性髓系白血病等。它们不仅具有直接的抗肿瘤作用, 还能通过ICD机制增强免疫治疗的效果; 奥沙利铂常用于结直肠癌、胃癌等消化道肿瘤的治疗。研究表明, 奥沙利铂与免疫检查点抑制剂(如抗PD-L1抗体) 联合使用, 可以启动有效的抗肿瘤免疫应答。环磷酰胺广泛用于多种血液系统和实体恶性肿瘤的治疗, 如淋巴瘤、乳腺癌等。其免疫调节特性使其在联合免疫治疗中具有潜在的应用价值。这种免疫反应不仅能够清除原发肿瘤, 还可能对转移灶产生免疫监视作用; ICD靶向性更强, 传统化疗药物通常缺乏特异性, 会对正常细胞产生毒性作用, 而ICD诱导剂可以通过纳米技术等手段实现靶向递送, 减少对正常细胞的损伤; ICD诱导剂可以与免疫检查点抑制剂(immune checkpoint inhibitors, ICIs) 联合使用, 将“冷”肿瘤转变为“热”肿瘤, 从而提高免疫治疗的疗效。冷肿瘤是指那些免疫细胞(尤其是T细胞) 浸润较少的肿瘤, 肿瘤细胞表达的抗原较少, 难以被免疫系统识别; 热肿瘤是指那些免疫细胞(尤其是T细胞) 浸润丰富的肿瘤, 这些热肿瘤通常对免疫检查点抑制剂等免疫治疗反应较好, 热肿瘤细胞表达较多的抗原, 能够被免疫系统识别[2]。如在三阴性乳腺癌(triple negative breast cancer TNBC) 中, 多柔比星与纳武利尤单抗(PD-1抑制剂) 联合治疗的客观反应率(objective response rate, ORR) 可达35%。
不同通路通过调控特定DAMPs释放介导ICD, 本部分将介绍研究最深入的几个介导ICD的分子机制。
内质网(endoplasmic reticulum, ER) 是细胞内重要的细胞器, 是储存钙离子、脂质合成的重要场所, 它的稳定对细胞的稳态有着至关重要的影响[3]。当细胞受到生理应激, 如蛋白质过载、氧化还原失衡(二硫键被破坏)、钙稳态失调等, 会引发内质网应激[3-5]。此时, 内质网通过激活未折叠蛋白反应(unfolded protein response, UPR) 来恢复内质网稳态[5]。
UPR机制通过减少蛋白质翻译、增加伴侣蛋白合成和促进蛋白质降解以达到恢复ER相关蛋白折叠的目的, 从而重建ER的稳态。在该机制中, 通过26S蛋白酶体的增加来降解蛋白质; 向ER易位的蛋白质会减少, 伴侣蛋白的合成会增加[5]。UPR的进程是由肌醇需求酶(inositol requiring enzyme, IRE) 1α、蛋白激酶R样内质网激酶(protein kinase R-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase, PERK) 及激活转录因子(activating transcription factor, ATF) 6等应激传感器来调节的[5]。这些蛋白受到GRP-78和BiP的抑制, 在生理条件下处于非活性状态。而在外界刺激因素导致ER应激时, GRP-78和BiP与应激传感器解离, 从而激活PEAK通路。
PERK是UPR的关键传感器之一, 激活后会使真核起始因子2α (eukaryotic initiation factor 2α, eIF2α) 磷酸化, 抑制蛋白质合成。同时, 激活的PERK对于ICD相关的ecto-CRT表达至关重要[6, 7], 但仅靠ER应激激活PERK通路并不足以诱导CRT转移到细胞表面, 进而达到增加ecto-CRT的效果。CRT的转移发生在磷脂酰丝氨酸转移到细胞膜之前, 作为凋亡前事件[8, 9]。Ecto-CRT是一种强力的DAMP信号, 被吞噬细胞上的CD91受体识别, 促进吞噬细胞对死亡癌细胞的吞噬(图1)。
与此同时, ER应激和CRT暴露也会导致Ca2+泄漏、活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS) 产生与细胞死亡。ER环境的改变会导致ROS的产生[10]。ROS可以在ER氧化还原蛋白-1 (endoplasmic reticulum redox protein-1, ERO-1) 和蛋白质二硫异构酶(protein disulfide isomerase, PDI) 的作用下将电子从蛋白质硫醇转移到分子氧的过程中产生, 也可在谷胱甘肽(glutathione, GSH) 耗尽导致的蛋白质错误折叠过程中产生[11]。
然而, ROS本身不足以诱导ICD, 因为ER中产生的ROS不足以引发氧化应激[12]。ER的钙泄露被认为是化疗诱导ICD中ER应激和ROS之间的关键一环。ER释放的钙可通过线粒体相关膜(mitochondria-associated membranes, MAMs) 进入来增加线粒体内的钙离子负载[13], 促使线粒体内ROS生成[14]。线粒体内的ROS的产生使ER钙离子通道更加敏感, 从而释放更多钙离子, 一次形成正反馈回路使更多ROS生成[15]。钙诱导的线粒体ROS与ER腔内的ROS增多可加剧ER应激, 达到ICD所需的临界阈值, 导致细胞凋亡[16]。
几种特殊化合物如奥沙利铂、米托蒽醌、多柔比星等可使垂死的肿瘤细胞释放ATP[17, 18]。ICD机制可以让DCs识别垂死肿瘤细胞释放的胞外高ATP, 这一机制由自噬所诱导。该机制被视为一种有效的趋化因子, 可吸引B细胞至微环境中通过嘌呤能P2RX7驱动DCs的激活。
自噬是一种细胞死亡前应激机制, 是对多种刺激物的反应, 如缺氧、ER应激和氧化应激。在自噬这一过程中, 含有溶酶体蛋白酶的自噬体溶酶体复合物形成, 它可以降解细胞质蛋白、聚集体及受损的细胞器。自噬体-溶酶体复合物可以确保从垂死细胞中释放的ATP传递到其他细胞中[19]。奥沙利铂、米托蒽醌等通过抑制自噬相关(autophagy related gene, ATG) 5、ATG7和Beclin1基因的表达来抑制垂死细胞的ATP传递到其他细胞中, 这使得自噬仅在早期凋亡中发挥作用[19, 20]。自噬允许ATP释放需要溶酶体相关膜蛋白(lysosome-associated membrane proteins, LAMP) 1的参与, 该蛋白通过caspase和pannexin 1 (PANX1) 依赖的方式转移到质膜。然而, 自噬和LAMP1并不影响PANX1通道的打开, 这使得LAMP1转移至质膜和溶酶体胞吐成为可能[20]。溶酶体和质膜的融合, 使得ATP胞吐, 这是胞内囊泡中的ATP释放至胞外的主要方式[21-24]。ATP一旦释放到胞外环境中, 就会立即吸引DC并激活ICD (图2)。这是通过ATP中P2RX7受体激活DCs和巨噬细胞[17]中的NACHT、LRR和PYD结构域蛋白(NACHT, LRR, and PYD domain proteins, NLRP) 3炎性体的通路完成的。NLRP3通路激活caspase-1, 促进成熟的促炎细胞因子IL-1β和IL-18的分泌, IL-1β和IL-18作用于γδ T细胞, 产生Ⅰ型干扰素(type Ⅰ interferon, IFN) γ的肿瘤特异性CD8+ T细胞出现, 增强免疫反应[17]。然而, ATP也可能通过上调吲哚胺2, 3-双加氧酶(IDO) 1等机制, 赋予浸润的DCs免疫耐受特性[25], 这种酶参与急性髓细胞性白血病(AML) 中免疫抑制微环境的产生。经化疗处理的垂死细胞释放的胞外ATP增加了表达PD-1、IDO1+和CD39+的DCs的数量。相反, 在缺乏可与ATP结合的P2RX7受体的小鼠中, 柔红霉素不会诱导T细胞和耐受性树突状细胞的产生。总之, 在某些情况下ATP信号会导致免疫抑制微环境的形成。
与此同时, 自噬机制也可与其他通路协同。自噬与UPR等通路有协同作用, 当UPR无法恢复蛋白质稳态, 导致大量未折叠蛋白积累时, ICD诱导剂引发ER应激可触发自噬, 帮助清除这些蛋白, 蛋白酶体可降解短寿蛋白质[26], 而自噬则可分解长寿蛋白质和大量聚集的蛋白质[27]。这种机制可以在一定阈值下拯救细胞, 增强ICD。此外, ER应激可直接促进自噬, 通过磷酸化Bcl2, 使Beclin-1从Bcl2上解离, 这是自噬进程的关键步骤[28]。同时, eIF2α/ATF4通路也可通过上调应激调节蛋白p8及其下游靶点伪激酶Tribbles同源物3 (Tribbles homolog 3, TRB3) 的表达来调节ATG的转录激活自噬[3]。
坏死性凋亡与免疫原性: 坏死性凋亡是一种调节性坏死形式, 与免疫原性密切相关。受体相互作用蛋白激酶(receptor interacting protein kinase, RIPK) 3可引发细胞坏死而caspase-8能引发细胞凋亡。它们存在于同一免疫信号复合体——细胞死亡信号(ripoptosome, RIP) 复合体中, 相互拮抗[29]。RIP复合体建立了先天免疫和细胞死亡程序之间的联系。肿瘤坏死因子(tumor necrosis factor, TNF) α是一种多效性细胞因子, 在炎症、NF-κB通路的激活或RIPK1依赖性细胞死亡中起关键的作用。RIPK1在TNFα信号转导通路中很重要, 当caspase激活被阻止时, 它与细胞凋亡或诱导细胞坏死关系密切[30]。TNFα受体(TNFα receptor, TNFR) 1介导的坏死以复合体Ⅰ的形成为特征, 复合体Ⅰ涉及TNFR1相关死亡结构域(TNFR1-related death domains, TRADD)、TNFR1相关因子(TNFR1-associated factor, TRAF) 2、细胞凋亡抑制剂(cellular inhibitor of apoptosis proteins, cIAP) 1和2以及RIPK1[30-32]。cIAPs诱导复合体Ⅰ中蛋白质(如RIPK1) 的多泛素化[33], 激活NF-κB信号传导[34, 35]。RIPK1和RIPK3形成一个复合物, 包含TRADD、Fas相关死亡结构域蛋白(Fas-associated with death domain, FADD) 和caspase-8[36]。Caspase-8与细胞FLICE抑制蛋白(cellular FLICE-inhibitory protein, CFLIP) 的异二聚体结合, 通过切割RIPK1抑制细胞坏死, 进而引发细胞凋亡。
HMGB1通常在坏死细胞中释放, 但越来越多的证据表明, HMGB1的释放也会发生在细胞凋亡的后期[37]。它作为一种重要的DAMPs, 与DCs细胞的TLR4受体结合, 在HMGB1的两个保守半胱氨酸残基Cys23与Cys45之间形成二硫键, 从而作为促炎因子的诱导剂[38], 促进DCs的吞噬、抗原呈递和共刺激分子的上调, 增强免疫反应。但HMGB1的免疫调节功能具有复杂性, 其氧化状态决定了其功能, 当HMGB1的3个半胱氨酸残基Cys23、Cys45和Cys106处于还原状态时才具有作为ICD诱导剂的活性, 当处于生理状态时, 细胞外空间主要处于氧化状态, 这使得HMGB1失去活性。由此可见, 肿瘤所处的微环境的氧化还原属性、不同癌症细胞类型以及癌症发展的不同阶段均能表现出不同的免疫调节作用[39, 40]。然而, 体内的肿瘤细胞微环境大部分都是促氧化的, 促氧化环境使HMGB1半胱氨酸残基氧化, 大大减少了HMGB1的免疫潜力, 对此可以通过使用ROS靶向抗氧化治疗在一定程度上减少半胱氨酸残基的氧化[41]。
大多数化疗和放疗都是通过在肿瘤细胞中诱导细胞应激, 从而引发DNA损伤并激活转录因子p53。这种激活会诱导一系列具有广泛功能的基因, 包括细胞周期停滞和DNA修复, 最终恢复细胞稳态; p53是一种肿瘤抑制基因(tumor suppressor gene, TSG), 被称为基因组的守护者。p53是人类肿瘤中最常发生突变的基因, 其突变是肿瘤逃避细胞凋亡和衰老的一种机制[42]。新的证据表明, p53功能障碍可诱导肿瘤免疫逃避并激活炎症, 这凸显了p53作为肿瘤发生的免疫驱动因子的新作用。因此, 在免疫抑制性肿瘤微环境中聚焦p53可能是一种增强抗肿瘤免疫的免疫学策略。然而, 在90%的黑色素瘤中, 它以野生型的形式存在。肿瘤微环境中p53通路的药理激活导致ICD。具有功能性p53的EL4和B16黑色素瘤, 在使用p53激活剂nutin-3a治疗后启动ICD。该激活剂能够结合并抑制p53的负调节因子小鼠双分2同源物(mouse double minute 2, MDM2)。瘤内局部递送nutlin-3a也可诱导HMGB1和ATP的释放, 并激活树突状细胞和巨噬细胞[43] (图3)。抗肿瘤免疫和肿瘤消退对免疫原性EL4肿瘤的清除也有效; 然而, 在非免疫原性B16肿瘤中没有发现类似的结果。将p53的功能伴侣p19Arf (小鼠p19Arf, 人p14ARF) 引入B16黑素瘤细胞, 在体外和体内恢复p53通路, 促进细胞死亡[44]。有趣的是, p19Arf与IFNβ的结合诱导细胞死亡并促进适应性免疫反应。黑色素瘤细胞中p53/p19Arf和IFNβ通路的重建促进坏死性凋亡, 引发自然杀伤细胞(NK细胞)、中性粒细胞、CD4+和CD8+ T淋巴细胞介导的抗肿瘤免疫反应[45]。
IFNβ是一种多效性细胞因子, 是IFN家族的成员。该细胞因子还具有免疫调节活性, 可能有助于宿主抗病毒防御[46]。TLR3是双链RNA的关键内体PRR, 已知在抗病毒免疫应答中触发IFN[46, 47]。蒽环类药物[48]在癌细胞中引发TLR3通路, 导致自分泌/旁分泌Ⅰ型IFN信号传导, 随后分泌趋化因子配体(C-X-C motif chemokine ligand, CXCL) 10。这些过程表明, 蒽环类药物介导的免疫反应类似于病毒病原体诱导的免疫反应。IFN结合其同源受体干扰素α/β受体(interferon alpha/beta receptor, IFNAR) 1和2的异源二聚体, 触发信号转导和转录激活蛋白(signal transducer and activator of transcription, STAT) 转录因子的磷酸化, 以及IFN应答基因的转录。这些反应随后导致CXCL10的释放, 并促进抗癌免疫反应。敲除小鼠的TLR3或IFNAR基因会导致肿瘤化疗失效, 但分别给予Ⅰ型IFN (针对TLR3敲除) 或CXCL10 (针对IFNAR敲除) 可避免这一现象。因此, 这种措施保证了小鼠对肿瘤再挑战[48]的免疫能力。IFN标记也是预测以蒽环类药物为基础的化疗临床反应的良好预后因素, 这种化疗在乳腺癌患者中通常效果不佳。
由于化疗药物诱导ICD的靶点和作用模式不同, ICD诱导剂分为Ⅰ型诱导剂和Ⅱ型诱导剂。Ⅰ型诱导剂主要靶向细胞核中的DNA或DNA复制相关蛋白, 通过温和的内质网应激反应诱导细胞凋亡并释放DAMPs, 激活免疫反应。常见药物包括蒽环类药物、铂类药物和蛋白酶体抑制剂等, 已在多种肿瘤治疗中广泛应用[49]。Ⅱ型诱导剂则主要靶向内质网, 通过剧烈的内质网应激和ROS依赖机制, 诱导更高水平的DAMPs释放, 增强免疫反应。常见药物包括光动力疗法、溶瘤病毒疗法和某些天然产物等, 其临床应用仍在探索阶段。两者在肿瘤免疫治疗中具有重要应用前景, 联合使用可进一步增强抗肿瘤效果。
蒽环类药物(如多柔比星和米托蒽醌) 诱导ICD的机制是一个复杂的过程, 涉及多个细胞内信号通路和免疫系统组分的相互作用[17, 47]。首先, 这些药物通过与DNA结合并干扰拓扑异构酶Ⅱ的活性, 导致DNA双链交联, 从而阻碍DNA的正常解旋和复制过程[40, 50]。
DNA损伤和细胞应激还会导致内质网应激, 进而激活UPR通路, 导致CRT的暴露。CRT是一种内质网驻留蛋白, 正常情况下位于内质网内。在蒽环类药物诱导的细胞应激下, CRT被转运到细胞表面, 作为“吃我”信号被DCs表面的受体(如LRP1或CD91) 识别, 从而促进DCs对死亡细胞的吞噬作用[8]。
除了CRT, 蒽环类药物诱导的细胞死亡还会导致热休克蛋白(heat shock protein, HSP) 70和HSP90的暴露, 这些蛋白同样可以作为免疫原性信号被免疫细胞识别[8, 48]。在细胞死亡过程中, 细胞还会释放大量的ATP和HMGB1。
米托蒽醌等蒽环类药物可诱导垂死细胞分泌ATP[51]。ATP作为一种重要的DAMPs, 可以激活免疫细胞上的P2RX7受体, 促进免疫细胞的趋化和激活, 特别是DCs的成熟和激活。
强心苷类(cardiac glycosides, CGs) 如地高辛、洋地黄毒苷等主要作用于钠钾ATP酶(Na+/K+-ATPase, NKA) 的α亚基, 抑制其活性, 使细胞内Na+和Ca2+浓度升高, K+浓度降低。高浓度的Na+抑制Na+/Ca2+交换体的活性, 导致Ca2+在细胞内尤其是内质网和线粒体中积累, 引发轻度内质网和线粒体应激[39], 进而激活UPR通路使CRT暴露。
微管抑制剂(如紫杉醇、秋水仙碱、帕妥珠利) 诱导ICD的机制是一个复杂的生物学过程, 涉及细胞内微管功能的干扰、内质网应激与UPR的激活、DAMPs的暴露、DAMPs的释放以及免疫细胞的激活等多个环节。
微管抑制剂, 如紫杉醇、多西他赛和长春碱等, 通过稳定或破坏微管结构, 干扰细胞内微管的正常功能。微管在细胞分裂、细胞形态维持和细胞内运输等过程中起着关键作用。微管抑制剂的干扰会导致细胞周期阻滞, 特别是在有丝分裂阶段, 促进染色体含量和多倍体化的不平衡[52]。这种多倍体化激活内质网应激, 进而触发UPR通路[53], 导致CRT的暴露。
秋水仙碱和两种2-苯基-4-喹诺酮类似物通过诱导HSP70、HSP90和HMGB1的释放诱导ICD; 然而, 对CRT的表达没有影响[54]。这些物质也可作为DAMPs诱导ICD的发生。
临床前研究表明, 微管抑制剂(如紫杉醇和多西他赛) 能够增强免疫细胞的活性, 并在多种肿瘤模型中显示出抗肿瘤效果。在乳腺癌和非小细胞肺癌患者中, 同时给药长春瑞滨和顺铂能够增加细胞毒性T细胞(cytotoxic T lymphocytes, CTLs) 的水平, 并减少调节性T细胞的数量[55]。这些发现为微管抑制剂在癌症免疫治疗中的应用提供了理论基础。
紫草素是一种蛋白酶体活性抑制剂, 可抑制癌细胞的蛋白酶体功能, 导致细胞内蛋白质降解受阻, 引发细胞死亡。同时, 其可触发线粒体应激, 诱导免疫原性细胞凋亡[56]。
紫草素处理的癌细胞通过激活线粒体进而触发免疫原性凋亡, 诱导癌细胞释放HSP70、HSP90、葡萄糖调节蛋白78 (glucose-regulated protein 78, GRP78)/免疫球蛋白结合蛋白(binding immunoglobulin protein, BiP) 和HMGB1等DAMPs[57]。这些DAMPs可激活DCs, 增强Th1/Th17效应细胞的启动能力, 促进肿瘤特异性免疫反应。
汉黄芩素是黄芩中发现的一种甲氧基化黄酮和类黄酮化合物。汉黄芩素通过触发ER应激反应, 导致CRT和膜联蛋白A1暴露于细胞质膜上, 激活PERK/AKT信号通路, 增强癌细胞的免疫原性。汉黄芩素通过诱导HMGB1和ATP的释放而发挥有效的抗肿瘤免疫作用。
环磷酰胺通过在DNA复制过程中形成链间或链内交联, 使DNA不稳定, 诱导癌细胞死亡。这种死亡方式可促进CRT暴露和HMGB1释放, 从而促进免疫原性肿瘤细胞凋亡[58]。
与此同时, 环磷酰胺与Ⅰ型干扰素具有协同作用, 促进DCs的扩增, 增强抗肿瘤免疫反应。在可移植的小鼠胶质瘤模型中, 环磷酰胺可促进ICD, 有利于NK细胞的扩增, 并减少Treg, 增强免疫治疗效果[59]。
金丝桃素(hypericin) 诱导ICD的机制主要涉及光动力疗法(photodynamic therapy, PDT) 中的ROS产生、内质网应激的激活以及DAMPs的释放。
在光动力疗法中, 金丝桃素作为一种光敏剂, 能够被特定波长的光激活[60], 从而产生ROS。这些ROS会引发细胞内的氧化应激, 进而激活内质网应激反应。内质网应激是ICD的关键特征之一, 它通过激活UPR来诱导细胞凋亡[6]。
同时, 金丝桃素诱导的细胞死亡还会导致多种DAMPs的释放, 包括细胞表面CRT的暴露、ATP的分泌及HMGB1的释放[6]。这些DAMPs能够吸引免疫细胞到肿瘤部位, 并激活免疫系统, 特别是DCs, 从而引发适应性免疫反应。这种免疫反应能够激活CD4+和CD8+ T细胞的克隆扩增, 进而导致肿瘤的消退, 并且在再次挑战时能够防止肿瘤的生长[61]。因此, 金丝桃素通过诱导ROS依赖的内质网应激和DAMPs的释放, 激活免疫系统, 引发ICD, 为开发新型的癌症免疫治疗策略提供了重要的理论基础。
溶瘤病毒如柯萨奇病毒B3、溶瘤腺病毒、新城疫病毒通过感染癌细胞, 产生病毒包膜蛋白诱导内质网应激。柯萨奇病毒B3和溶瘤腺病毒可在非小细胞肺癌和腺癌细胞中诱导CRT的表面表达, 随后释放ATP和HMGB1[62, 63], 新城疫病毒可诱导GL261胶质瘤细胞发生坏死性凋亡, 并伴有CRT的表面暴露[64]。
溶瘤病毒诱导癌细胞释放ATP、HMGB1等DAMPs, 激活免疫系统。同时, 影响DCs的成熟和功能, 增强免疫细胞的浸润和激活, 促进抗肿瘤免疫反应。如柯萨奇病毒B3可诱导肿瘤组织中NK细胞、巨噬细胞、粒细胞和成熟DCs的浸润[65]。
ICB疗法在“热肿瘤” (富含抗肿瘤T细胞和免疫效应细胞因子的肿瘤) 中效果较好, 而在“冷肿瘤” (如前列腺癌和胰腺癌) 中效果不佳。ICD诱导可使癌细胞产生抗肿瘤反应, 激活免疫应答和T细胞, 从而将“冷肿瘤”转变为更有利于ICB疗法发挥作用的“热肿瘤”。通过诱导癌细胞发生ICD, 释放DAMPs, 吸引APCs, 激活适应性免疫, 增强肿瘤抗原性和免疫原性, 与ICB疗法协同作用, 提高治疗效果[66]。
TNBC具有高异质性和侵袭性, 肿瘤浸润淋巴细胞(tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, TILs) 功能常处于失活状态, 致使ICIs治疗效果不佳。诱导TNBC细胞发生ICD可促进DCs激活以及TILs的活化和浸润, 增强机体对肿瘤的免疫应答, 提升TNBC对程序性死亡配体的单克隆抗体1 (anti-programmed death-ligand 1, aPD-L1) 治疗的响应率, 是改善TNBC治疗效果的有效策略。然而, 大多数ICD诱导剂在发挥作用时, 会刺激肿瘤细胞表达更高水平的程序性死亡配体1 (programmed death-ligand 1, PD-L1), 这会消耗部分aPD-L1抗体, 削弱aPD-L1的疗效。雷公藤红素(celastrol) 是从雷公藤中提取的关键活性成分, 可诱导肿瘤细胞发生ICD, 同时降低肿瘤细胞膜表面的PD-L1水平。研究人员制备了负载雷公藤红素的人参皂苷Rg3脂质体(Cel-Rg3-Lp), 它能减少雷公藤红素的毒性, 增强其溶解性。其中, Rg3可与TNBC细胞表面高表达的葡萄糖转运蛋白1 (glucose transporter 1, GluT1) 结合, 增强药物在肿瘤部位的积累。实验表明, Cel-Rg3-Lp能显著抑制TNBC肿瘤生长, 联合aPD-L1治疗效果更佳[67]。
阿克拉霉素(aclarubicin, ACM) 联合NK细胞通过诱导ICD, 促使AML细胞释放ICD相关分子, 如CRT、ATP和HMGB1等。这些分子能激发DC的吞噬作用、招募DC细胞并促进其与肿瘤细胞的结合, 从而激活抗肿瘤免疫反应, 增强机体对AML细胞的免疫清除能力[68]。
低浓度乙醇处理肝细胞癌(hepatocellular carcinoma, HCC) 细胞(如Hep-55.1C细胞) 时, 5%乙醇作用6 h可使eIF2α磷酸化显著增强, 且随时间延长, 8 h时达到峰值。这一过程激活了UPR, 其下游信号通路中的关键蛋白ATF4和CHOP表达增加。同时, 作为内质网应激IRE1α通路激活的标志, XBP1 mRNA的剪接在5%乙醇处理4 h后显著增加, 这些都表明乙醇能诱导内质网应激, 进而引发UPR, 最终诱导ICD[69]。
Ru1激活cGAS-STING通路后, 可直接激活内质网上的PERK, 使eIF2α磷酸化, 诱导内质网应激, 进而促使肿瘤细胞发生ICD。ICD发生时, 细胞会出现一系列特征, 如CRT暴露、ATP释放和HMGB1分泌等, 这些变化可激活免疫系统, 引发抗肿瘤免疫反应[70]。
采用CIBERSORT方法分析LIRI和正常样本的免疫细胞浸润情况, 发现LIRI样本中活化的NK细胞、单核细胞、M0巨噬细胞、活化的DCs和活化的肥大细胞比例较高, 而CD8+ T细胞、静止的NK细胞、M2巨噬细胞和静止的肥大细胞比例较低。同时研究ICDs-DEGs表达与免疫细胞比例的关系, 发现两者显著相关。这表明ICD在调节LIRI的免疫微环境中发挥作用, 通过影响免疫细胞的募集和活化, 参与LIRI的发展过程。
通过分析ICD相关基因在LIRI样本和正常样本中的表达差异, 筛选出关键基因构建诊断模型。利用随机森林(RF) 和支持向量机(SVM) 算法构建的模型, 在训练集和验证集中都展现出高预测准确性, 能有效区分LIRI和正常样本。列线图的构建进一步验证了模型在预测LIRI风险方面的临床适用性, 校准曲线和决策曲线分析表明模型可靠且具有较高临床价值, 有助于临床医生早期发现LIRI, 及时采取干预措施。
研究揭示了ICD在调节LIRI免疫微环境中的作用, 以及LIRI两个亚型(cluster 1和cluster 2) 在免疫功能和相关基因富集通路方面的差异, 为治疗LIRI提供了潜在靶点。发现的关键基因模块和hub基因, 如“turquoise”模块和“blue”模块中的相关基因, 可能成为药物研发或其他治疗手段的潜在靶点, 通过干预这些靶点, 有望调节ICD过程, 减轻LIRI, 改善患者预后。研究还发现NFKB2等基因在LIRI细胞模型中表达上调, 这些基因参与的信号通路与LIRI病理机制相关, 提示针对这些基因或信号通路的干预措施可能成为治疗LIRI的新方向[71]。
钠死亡(钠过载死亡) 是一种新型的细胞程序性死亡方式, 研究表明, 钠死亡过程中细胞内渗透压的改变和细胞损伤可能触发ICD机制, 诱导免疫反应。如碳酸氢钠纳米颗粒在肿瘤细胞内释放大量钠离子, 激活焦亡途径和ICD, 从而增强抗肿瘤免疫效果[72]。此外, 高盐环境对免疫细胞的功能也有影响, 高盐饮食可增强某些免疫细胞的活性, 但也可能抑制其他免疫细胞的功能。因此, 钠死亡与ICD之间的关系复杂, 涉及细胞内钠离子的调控、细胞损伤信号的释放及免疫系统的激活等多个方面[73]。
双硫死亡(disulfidptosis) 是一种由细胞内二硫键积累引起的程序性细胞死亡形式, 常发生在葡萄糖饥饿条件下。其特征包括NADPH耗竭、二硫键异常积累以及细胞骨架破坏。双硫死亡与ICD存在关联, 因为它能够诱导DAMPs的释放, 如CRT、HMGB1、HSP70和ATP等, 这些分子可以激活免疫系统, 促进DCs的成熟和活化, 从而引发适应性免疫反应。尽管双硫死亡的研究仍处于初级阶段, 但其诱导的DAMPs释放和免疫细胞浸润的基因表达特征表明, 它可能通过ICD机制增强抗肿瘤免疫反应, 为肿瘤免疫治疗提供了新的研究方向[74]。
本文综述了化疗诱导的ICD的分子机制及其在临床实践中的应用。ICD通过诱导肿瘤细胞释放DAMPs激活免疫系统, 有望将“冷”肿瘤转变为“热”肿瘤, 增强抗肿瘤免疫反应并延长患者生存期。ICD诱导剂与免疫检查点抑制剂等联合治疗可显著提升疗效。
在分子机制方面, ICD涉及多个信号通路的调控。内质网应激和UPR是ICD的关键机制之一, 通过激活PERK通路, 促进CRT的暴露, 作为“吃我”信号被DCs识别, 从而启动免疫反应。自噬在ICD中也发挥重要作用, 通过促进ATP的释放, 激活P2RX7受体, 增强免疫细胞的趋化和激活能力。此外, 坏死性凋亡通过释放HMGB1等DAMPs, 激活TLR4信号通路, 进一步增强免疫反应。Ⅰ型干扰素的产生也是ICD的重要特征, 通过激活IFN信号通路, 促进免疫细胞的活化和增殖。
在临床实践中, ICD的应用为多种肿瘤的治疗提供了新的思路。如在前列腺癌和胰腺癌等“冷肿瘤”中, ICD诱导剂可以将肿瘤转变为“热肿瘤”, 增强免疫检查点阻断疗法的效果。在三阴性乳腺癌中, 通过诱导ICD, 可以增强树突状细胞的激活和肿瘤浸润淋巴细胞的活化, 提高对免疫检查点抑制剂的响应率。此外, ICD诱导剂还可以与溶瘤病毒、光动力疗法等联合使用, 进一步增强抗肿瘤免疫反应。在研究领域前沿, 钠死亡和双硫死亡为治疗肿瘤提供了新方向。
ICD机制的拓展应用也为更多疾病的治疗提供了新的思路。如在肝缺血再灌注损伤中, 通过分析ICD相关基因的表达差异, 可以构建诊断模型, 预测LIRI的风险, 并为治疗提供潜在靶点。
但与此同时, ICD分子机制抗肿瘤也面临着许多挑战。肿瘤微环境可能抑制ICD机制。在肿瘤微环境中, DAMPs的功能可能被抑制, 从而削弱免疫反应并促进肿瘤进展[75]。DAMPs如HMGB1、ATP、CRT等通常在细胞损伤或死亡时释放, 激活免疫细胞并启动免疫反应。然而, 肿瘤微环境中的免疫抑制细胞(如调节性T细胞、髓源性抑制细胞、M2型巨噬细胞) 和免疫抑制因子(如TGF-β、IL-10) 可以抑制DAMPs的功能[76], 降低免疫细胞的激活程度和抗肿瘤免疫反应的强度。肿瘤细胞分泌的TGF-β可以抑制DAMPs诱导的树突状细胞成熟, 减少T细胞的激活。此外, 某些肿瘤细胞通过表达CD47等免疫检查点分子, 避免被免疫细胞识别和清除。因此, 肿瘤微环境通过多种机制抑制DAMPs的功能, 从而逃避免疫监视并促进肿瘤进展[77]。
纳米载体靶向递送ICD诱导剂是癌症免疫治疗的一个未来方向。通过纳米载体的靶向性、缓释性和多功能性, ICD诱导剂可以被精准递送至肿瘤组织, 提高药物在肿瘤部位的浓度, 增强免疫反应, 同时减少对正常组织的毒性[78]。如研究团队[79]开发的多功能纳米载体能够激活STING通路、诱导ICD并沉默PD-L1表达, 显著增强抗肿瘤免疫反应。未来, 进一步优化纳米载体设计、加速临床转化以及探索联合治疗策略, 将为癌症治疗带来新的突破[80]。

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2026年第61卷第6期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0624
  • 接收时间:2025-05-31
  • 首发时间:2026-09-21
  • 出版时间:2026-06-12
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  • 收稿日期:2025-05-31
  • 修回日期:2025-08-10
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    1吉林大学白求恩第三临床医院, 吉林 长春 130033
    2吉林大学基础医学院病原生物学系, 吉林 长春 130021
    3吉林大学基础医学院药理学系, 吉林 长春 130021

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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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