Article(id=1308828702335664291, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308828670878376007, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0864, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1753113600000, receivedDateStr=2025-07-22, revisedDate=1764259200000, revisedDateStr=2025-11-28, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1789978679498, onlineDateStr=2026-09-21, pubDate=1773244800000, pubDateStr=2026-03-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1789978679498, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-09-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1789978679497, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1789978679497, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1308828670878376007, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2026', volume='61', issue='3', pageStart='677', pageEnd='1000', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1773244800000', pubDateStr='2026-03-12', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1789978671998, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1789984247322, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1308852055549248371, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308828670878376007, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1308852055549248372, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308828670878376007, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=706, endPage=715, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1308828702536990884, articleId=1308828702335664291, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Advances in liquid-liquid phase separation in bacteria, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) serves as a key mechanism driving numerous essential biological processes. In eukaryotic cells, LLPS facilitates the formation of membraneless organelles (MLOs) by promoting the local enrichment of biomacromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids, thereby establishing compartmentalization to enhance biochemical reaction efficiency. Under stress conditions, it also helps protect critical cellular components, including mRNA and proteins. Growing evidence in recent years indicates that LLPS-driven biomolecular condensation similarly occurs in prokaryotes. For instance, under environmental stresses (such as oxidative stress, nutrient deprivation, or antibiotic exposure), bacteria can form biomolecular condensates via LLPS that perform MLOs-like functions, improving the stress adaptability of bacteria. Proposed protective mechanisms include shielding proteins from irreversible inactivation or degradation, activating protein quality control systems, and inducing a dormant state to promote survival. Moreover, under physiological conditions, LLPS is involved in core cellular processes in bacteria, such as plasmid partitioning, chromosome segregation, transcriptional regulation, cell division, DNA replication, and repair. This review systematically summarizes the mechanisms by which biomolecular aggregates form in bacteria under both physiological and stress conditions, with a focus on how LLPS-mediated phase transitions enhance bacterial fitness and environmental adaptability. We also aim to provide insights into novel antibacterial strategies targeting LLPS.

, authors=Yan ZHANG, Xue-fu YOU*, Jing PANG*, authorsList=Yan ZHANG, Xue-fu YOU, Jing PANG, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Xue-fu YOU, Jing PANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2026 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1308828703409406121, articleId=1308828702335664291, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=细菌中液-液相分离的研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

液-液相分离(liquid-liquid phase separation, LLPS) 是细胞内多种重要生命过程的关键驱动机制。在真核细胞中, LLPS一方面通过促进生物大分子(如蛋白质和核酸) 的局部富集, 介导无膜细胞器(membraneless organelles, MLOs) 的形成, 以构建区室化来提高生化反应效率; 另一方面在压力环境下保护mRNA和蛋白质等重要细胞成分。近年来, 越来越多的证据表明, LLPS驱动的生物分子聚集同样存在于原核生物中。如在环境胁迫(氧化应激、营养匮乏或抗生素压力) 下, 细菌可以通过LLPS形成生物分子聚集体, 发挥类似MLOs的功能, 增加细菌的应激适应能力。其保护机制可能涉及隔离和保护蛋白质免受不可逆的失活或降解、激活蛋白质质量控制系统、诱导休眠状态以维持细菌存活等。此外, 在生理环境下, LLPS也广泛参与细菌质粒分配、染色体分离、转录调控、细胞分裂、DNA复制和修复等核心生命过程。本文系统综述了细菌在生理及应激条件下生物分子聚集体的形成机制, 重点探讨其如何通过LLPS介导的相变增强细菌的生存优势与环境适应性, 以期基于LLPS提出新的抗菌干预策略。

, authors=张炎, 游雪甫*, 庞晶*, authorsList=张炎, 游雪甫, 庞晶, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=游雪甫, 庞晶, authorNote=

作者贡献:

张炎负责文章的构思撰写及文献资料的收集整理; 庞晶和游雪甫负责文章的选题、内容讨论并对文章进行了细致的修改和校对。

, correspAuthorsNote=
游雪甫, Tel: 86-10-67010489, E-mail:
庞晶, Tel: 86-10-67098991, E-mail:
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Microbiol Res, 2021, 251: 126829., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null)], funds=null, companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1308834350477697651, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308828702335664291, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1308834350486086260, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308828702335664291, companyId=1308834350477697651, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=Beijing Key Laboratory of Technology and Application for Anti-infective New Drugs Research and Development, Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1308834350494474869, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308828702335664291, companyId=1308834350477697651, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院医药生物技术研究所, 抗感染新药研发关键技术及应用北京市重点实验室, 北京 100050)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1308834352092504719, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308828702335664291, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=KX9Po57YofWDrTCGqry0PA==, figureFileBig=EmKbhDnqfNO7sdQEZ/kFvg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308834352163807888, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308828702335664291, language=CN, label=Fig.1, caption=Proteins or nucleic acids with IDRs mediates LLPS. The interactions between IDRs mainly include electrostatic interactions, π-π interactions, cation-π interactions, and hydrophobic interactions. LLPS: Liquid-liquid phase separation; IDPs: Intrinsically disordered proteins; IDRs: Intrinsically disordered regions, figureFileSmall=KX9Po57YofWDrTCGqry0PA==, figureFileBig=EmKbhDnqfNO7sdQEZ/kFvg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308834352264471185, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308828702335664291, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=4vHIAEZNg+nDZEgSt9DDCg==, figureFileBig=0EX/uvcXVrrV7hiTscSv+g==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308834352352551570, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308828702335664291, language=CN, label=Fig.2, caption=The layered structure of biofilm mediated by LLPS. eDNA: Extracellular DNA, figureFileSmall=4vHIAEZNg+nDZEgSt9DDCg==, figureFileBig=0EX/uvcXVrrV7hiTscSv+g==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308834352440631955, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308828702335664291, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
SpeciesPhysiological aggregatePhysiological functionReference
B. subtilisParABSMediating chromosome segregation[36-38]
E. coliFtsZRegulate bacterial division[39-43]
E. coliSSBDNA repair repository[44, 45]
E. coliRNAPRegulation of bacterial transcription[46]
B. thetaiotaomicronRhoRegulation of bacterial transcription[49]
E. coliDpsProtect the genome[50]
C. crescentuPodJParticipate in the establishment of cell polarity[54]
M. tuberculosisABCParticipate in the assembly of bacterial membrane proteins[56]
), ArticleFig(id=1308834352516129428, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308828702335664291, language=CN, label=Tab.1, caption=

Biomacromolecules that have been reported exhibiting LLPS properties in bacteria. B. subtilis: Bacillus subtilis; E. coli: Escherichia coli; B. thetaiotaomicron: Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron; C. crescentu: Caulobacter crescentus; M. tuberculosis: Mycobacterium tuberculosis

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
SpeciesPhysiological aggregatePhysiological functionReference
B. subtilisParABSMediating chromosome segregation[36-38]
E. coliFtsZRegulate bacterial division[39-43]
E. coliSSBDNA repair repository[44, 45]
E. coliRNAPRegulation of bacterial transcription[46]
B. thetaiotaomicronRhoRegulation of bacterial transcription[49]
E. coliDpsProtect the genome[50]
C. crescentuPodJParticipate in the establishment of cell polarity[54]
M. tuberculosisABCParticipate in the assembly of bacterial membrane proteins[56]
), ArticleFig(id=1308834352608404117, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308828702335664291, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
SpeciesProtection againstProposed mechanism of protectionReference
E. coliMore severe heat shockInduction of protein quality control components[15]
E. coli and other Gram-negative speciesAntibioticsDormancy[28, 64]
E. coliDesiccation-rehydration stressProtection of sequestered proteins[65]
A. baumanniiDesiccationProtection of sequestered proteins[66]
E. coliAntibioticsDormancy[67]
), ArticleFig(id=1308834352688095894, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308828702335664291, language=CN, label=Tab.2, caption=

Protective biomolecular aggregates in bacteria. MLOs: Membraneless organelles; A. baumannii: Acinetobacter baumannii

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
SpeciesProtection againstProposed mechanism of protectionReference
E. coliMore severe heat shockInduction of protein quality control components[15]
E. coli and other Gram-negative speciesAntibioticsDormancy[28, 64]
E. coliDesiccation-rehydration stressProtection of sequestered proteins[65]
A. baumanniiDesiccationProtection of sequestered proteins[66]
E. coliAntibioticsDormancy[67]
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细菌中液-液相分离的研究进展
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张炎 , 游雪甫 * , 庞晶 *
药学学报 | 综述 2026,61(3): 706-715
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药学学报 |综述 2026 , 61 (3) : 706 -715
细菌中液-液相分离的研究进展
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张炎, 游雪甫* , 庞晶*
作者信息
  • 中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院医药生物技术研究所, 抗感染新药研发关键技术及应用北京市重点实验室, 北京 100050
通讯作者:
游雪甫, Tel: 86-10-67010489, E-mail:
庞晶, Tel: 86-10-67098991, E-mail:
作者简介:

作者贡献:

张炎负责文章的构思撰写及文献资料的收集整理; 庞晶和游雪甫负责文章的选题、内容讨论并对文章进行了细致的修改和校对。

Advances in liquid-liquid phase separation in bacteria
Yan ZHANG, Xue-fu YOU* , Jing PANG*
Affiliations
  • Beijing Key Laboratory of Technology and Application for Anti-infective New Drugs Research and Development, Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
出版时间: 2026-03-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0864
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液-液相分离(liquid-liquid phase separation, LLPS) 是细胞内多种重要生命过程的关键驱动机制。在真核细胞中, LLPS一方面通过促进生物大分子(如蛋白质和核酸) 的局部富集, 介导无膜细胞器(membraneless organelles, MLOs) 的形成, 以构建区室化来提高生化反应效率; 另一方面在压力环境下保护mRNA和蛋白质等重要细胞成分。近年来, 越来越多的证据表明, LLPS驱动的生物分子聚集同样存在于原核生物中。如在环境胁迫(氧化应激、营养匮乏或抗生素压力) 下, 细菌可以通过LLPS形成生物分子聚集体, 发挥类似MLOs的功能, 增加细菌的应激适应能力。其保护机制可能涉及隔离和保护蛋白质免受不可逆的失活或降解、激活蛋白质质量控制系统、诱导休眠状态以维持细菌存活等。此外, 在生理环境下, LLPS也广泛参与细菌质粒分配、染色体分离、转录调控、细胞分裂、DNA复制和修复等核心生命过程。本文系统综述了细菌在生理及应激条件下生物分子聚集体的形成机制, 重点探讨其如何通过LLPS介导的相变增强细菌的生存优势与环境适应性, 以期基于LLPS提出新的抗菌干预策略。

细菌  /  液-液相分离  /  无膜细胞器  /  生物分子聚集体  /  压力环境

Liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) serves as a key mechanism driving numerous essential biological processes. In eukaryotic cells, LLPS facilitates the formation of membraneless organelles (MLOs) by promoting the local enrichment of biomacromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids, thereby establishing compartmentalization to enhance biochemical reaction efficiency. Under stress conditions, it also helps protect critical cellular components, including mRNA and proteins. Growing evidence in recent years indicates that LLPS-driven biomolecular condensation similarly occurs in prokaryotes. For instance, under environmental stresses (such as oxidative stress, nutrient deprivation, or antibiotic exposure), bacteria can form biomolecular condensates via LLPS that perform MLOs-like functions, improving the stress adaptability of bacteria. Proposed protective mechanisms include shielding proteins from irreversible inactivation or degradation, activating protein quality control systems, and inducing a dormant state to promote survival. Moreover, under physiological conditions, LLPS is involved in core cellular processes in bacteria, such as plasmid partitioning, chromosome segregation, transcriptional regulation, cell division, DNA replication, and repair. This review systematically summarizes the mechanisms by which biomolecular aggregates form in bacteria under both physiological and stress conditions, with a focus on how LLPS-mediated phase transitions enhance bacterial fitness and environmental adaptability. We also aim to provide insights into novel antibacterial strategies targeting LLPS.

bacteria  /  liquid-liquid phase separation  /  membraneless organelle  /  biomolecular aggregate  /  pressure environment
张炎, 游雪甫, 庞晶. 细菌中液-液相分离的研究进展. 药学学报, 2026 , 61 (3) : 706 -715 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0864
Yan ZHANG, Xue-fu YOU, Jing PANG. Advances in liquid-liquid phase separation in bacteria[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2026 , 61 (3) : 706 -715 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0864
生物大分子液-液相分离(liquid-liquid phase separation, LLPS) 是一种普遍存在的生物物理现象, 是近年来生命科学领域的新兴研究热点。LLPS作为细胞内生物大分子自组织的重要机制, 参与多种功能性组装体的形成过程[1]。在LLPS过程中, 均相大分子溶液通过相变分离, 形成富含大分子的致密相和稀释相, 其中致密相可进一步组装形成具有液态特性的无膜细胞器(membraneless organelles, MLOs), 在一些研究中称为液滴或液态凝聚体。MLOs形成与外界环境隔离的稳定反应空间, 并可以维持高效的物质交换能力。在真核生物中, 典型的MLOs包括中心体、核仁、核斑点、副斑点、Cajal小体、加工小体和应激颗粒等, 它们在基因表达调控、信号转导等基础生命活动中发挥重要作用[2-4]。MLOs主要成分是具有固有无序区域(intrinsically disordered regions, IDRs) 的蛋白质和核酸分子, 这些大分子发挥LLPS驱动器的功能, 通过多价相互作用形成支架结构, 对维持MLOs的结构完整性和功能至关重要, 但部分高度结构化的蛋白质仍可通过其他机制驱动相分离。
尽管与真核生物相比, 微生物基因组编码的固有无序蛋白(intrinsically disordered proteins, IDPs) 比例相对较低, 但LLPS现象在原核生物中同样存在[5]。由于研究技术的制约, 细菌中LLPS现象的普遍性一度被低估[6]。近年来, 随着超高分辨率显微成像技术和单细胞追踪技术的发展, 研究人员已在多种细菌中观察到由LLPS驱动的生物分子聚集体[7]。相较于真核细胞, 原核细胞具有更为拥挤的胞内环境和更简单的亚细胞结构, 因此LLPS可能对于细菌的生命过程具有更重要的意义[8]。本文将系统阐述LLPS驱动生物分子聚集体形成的分子机制, 并深入综述目前在细菌LLPS相关研究中取得的进展。
生物信息学分析表明, 生物分子聚集体的形成是多种分子机制协同作用的结果, 其过程主要包括LLPS的驱动、大分子蛋白和核酸的准备及生物分子聚集体的形成[9]。
LLPS过程由弱的多价相互作用驱动, 包括静电相互作用、阳离子-π作用、π-π堆积、疏水作用等(图1)[4, 9, 10]。该过程形成的液滴具有动态结构和显著的分子流动性, 大分子可以在相间扩散。LLPS过程可能受到多种因素的调控, 如温度、离子强度及分子拥挤效应等[11]。其中, 温度的变化可通过改变分子热运动、熵变和焓变平衡及生物大分子的构象稳定性, 直接影响LLPS的临界相变浓度和凝聚态的动态性; 离子强度的变化可通过屏蔽电荷、改变分子溶剂化状态直接参与相互作用(如阳离子-π作用), 显著影响LLPS的阈值和凝聚态性质; 分子拥挤效应可以通过体积排斥增强分子间相互作用、降低相分离所需的蛋白质临界浓度, 另外, 拥挤成分(如蛋白质、核酸和脂质复合物等) 也可直接与蛋白质相互作用影响其溶解特性。
值得注意的是, 在细菌胞内这一高度拥挤且环境多变的体系中, LLPS的驱动机制并非由固定的相互作用决定, 而是呈现为“场景依赖”的动态相互作用网络[1, 2, 11, 12]。特定生理或应激条件会通过改变胞内环境, 从而决定何种相互作用在驱动LLPS中占据主导作用。在能量和氨基酸供应充足时, 细菌合成大量蛋白质, 疏水作用作为蛋白质折叠和结构维持的核心力量, 在介导具有疏水表面结构化蛋白的LLPS中起主导作用。而氧化应激则会导致细胞内带负电的分子和金属离子的化学状态改变, 同时产生大量带正电的活性氧修饰蛋白, 此时电荷相关的相互作用(静电相互作用、阳离子-π作用) 优先级最高, 以快速响应核酸和蛋白的电荷状态变化[11, 12]。如果细菌在营养匮乏等能量压力下, 驱动效率高且耗能少的相互作用(如π-π堆积) 的优先级提升。
具有相分离能力的蛋白质通常具有IDRs, 这些区域缺乏稳定的二级或三级结构。IDRs构象的灵活性有利于其与多种配体相互作用, 并在更大程度上接受翻译后修饰。在与配体结合的过程中, IDRs会经历一个无序到有序的构象转变, 称为“诱导折叠”现象[13, 14]。基于以上特性, IDPs通常被认为具有多功能性, 发挥重要的生物学功能, 如信号转导、基因调控和分子识别等[15, 16]。
不同物种的全蛋白质组分析表明, 细菌的IDPs含量(18%~28%) 明显低于真核生物(30%~50%)[17]。这种差异也可能归因于真核生物更复杂的信号调控需求以及其对环境变化的更精细的适应需求。
在LLPS驱动的作用下, IDPs或多价分子通过弱相互作用自组装形成高度浓缩、具有液态特性的动态聚集体[2-4, 9]。这些聚集体内部组分浓度远高于周围溶液, 并能根据环境信号(如营养状态、压力应激) 快速组装或解聚, 适应生存需求。
根据现有研究, 并非所有LLPS过程都依赖内在IDPs或IDRs, 部分高度结构化的蛋白质或复合物仍可通过其他机制驱动LLPS。结构化蛋白的LLPS由结构化域的多价相互作用驱动, 但相比于IDPs的相分离, 其动态性较低。如在真核细胞中, 含GTP结合域的高度结构化微管蛋白的聚合-解聚过程也具有LLPS特性, 其动态平衡受GTP浓度调控; 对于病毒, 具有高度结构化特性的病毒衣壳蛋白(如HIV的Gag蛋白) 能够通过结构化域的多聚化形成六聚体/五聚体, 驱动LLPS, 进而浓缩病毒RNA和宿主因子[18], 促进病毒颗粒的高效组装; 而在细菌中, 如大肠杆菌的淀粉样蛋白(如CsgA) 能够通过β-折叠介导的寡聚化发生LLPS[19], 形成瞬时液滴并固化为淀粉样纤维, 这对生物被膜的成熟和环境抗性至关重要。
真核细胞中, 多种翻译后修饰(post-translational modifications, PTMs) 被证实可以调控生物分子聚集体的形成[20-24]。磷酸化基团的额外负电荷可能根据蛋白质序列的不同而增强静电引力或斥力, 从而加速或抑制LLPS。如组蛋白H1 C末端三个保守丝氨酸残基的磷酸化可削弱其相分离能力, 从而影响染色质的高级结构[22]。组蛋白H1的乙酰化也被证实可以抑制LLPS进程, 并降低液滴密度。精氨酸甲基化主要发生在RNA结合蛋白(如FUS、hnRNPA1) 或应激颗粒核心蛋白(如G3BP1) 中, 通过削弱精氨酸残基的正电荷和暴露疏水结构域等方式增强蛋白的LLPS倾向而形成应激颗粒和其他MLOs[21, 22]。抑制精氨酸甲基化能促进应激颗粒的初始形成, 但却损害其正常自组装, 导致结构或功能异常。这种精细的调控机制具有双重生理意义, 在稳态条件下避免过度消耗细胞资源用于非功能性凝聚体的形成, 在应激状态下确保应激颗粒的高效组装与适时清除。
与真核细胞相比, 细菌通过PTMs调控LLPS的策略更为直接、高效, 以实现对环境压力的快速适应[25-28], 如大肠杆菌(Escherichia coli) 单链DNA结合蛋白(single-stranded DNA-binding protein, SSB) 和应激响应蛋白TmaR蛋白的磷酸化以及RNA聚合酶(RNA polymerase, RNAP) 的乙酰化[24-26]。以TmaR蛋白为例, 其56位丝氨酸(Ser56) 的磷酸化修饰, 是LLPS的关键分子开关, 通过磷酸化引入负电荷, 削弱其IDR的静电斥力, 使TmaR从伸展态转变为更紧凑的构象; 构象的紧凑化极大地增强蛋白分子间多价相互作用的能力和效率[26], 显著降低TmaR发生LLPS的临界浓度, 使细菌能在较低的蛋白浓度下迅速启动相分离, 形成保护性凝聚体。
在特定条件下, 液态聚集体可能会进一步致密, 形成高度有序结构, 如玻璃样固体、淀粉样纤维甚至晶体等病理性固态聚集体, 且这些过程大多是不可逆的[29]。如与肌萎缩性侧索硬化症相关的朊病毒样蛋白FUS, 在生理条件下可通过LLPS形成液体隔室[29]。在疾病病理转化过程中, FUS蛋白液滴会逐渐失去动态性, 发生液-固相变, 形成具有β-折叠核心结构的固态聚集体。不可逆的固态聚集体难以被细胞清除, 最终导致神经元毒性。Ray等[30]发现与帕金森病相关的天然无序蛋白α-突触核蛋白能形成液滴, 并进一步转化为病理过程的终末产物核周聚集小体。核周聚集小体具有固态特性, 其核心成分为淀粉样纤维, 其超微结构与帕金森患者脑组织中的病理沉积结构高度一致。研究还发现, 淀粉样纤维作为阿尔茨海默病的标志[31], 可通过可溶性淀粉样β寡聚体相分离形成液滴, 随后发生构象转变而形成; 而2型糖尿病相关的胰岛淀粉样多肽(IAPP) 的LLPS可促进凝胶样液滴的形成, 继而不可逆地转化为淀粉样聚集体[32]。这些发现共同揭示了LLPS介导的液-固相变在多种蛋白质构象相关疾病中的核心作用, 有助于深入理解相关疾病的分子病理机制。
细菌虽然缺乏典型的膜结合细胞器, 但进化出多种微区室结构来执行细胞功能。传统的微区室由具有选择透过性的蛋白质外壳包裹内部酶核心构成[33-35], 如细菌和古细菌中碳源和能量的存储区——聚羟基丁酸颗粒, 其外层是一层功能性和结构性的蛋白。而近年研究发现, 除了具有物理屏障的微区室外, LLPS驱动形成的动态无膜微区室也参与多种重要的细菌生命过程。LLPS广泛参与细菌的多种生理过程, 包括质粒分配、染色体分离、转录调控、细胞分裂、DNA复制和修复等[36-56], 表1[36-46, 49, 50, 54, 56]列举了细菌中表现出LLPS特性的生物大分子。
三元ParABS系统介导多种细菌染色体的分离, 该系统由ATP酶ParA、DNA结合蛋白ParB和着丝粒样回文DNA序列(称为parS位点) 组成[36]。ParB蛋白首先结合到parS位点并向相邻的非特异性DNA区域扩展, 随后ParB蛋白压缩DNA形成核蛋白复合物(即分离复合物), ParA酶通过水解ATP提供分离复合物向两极移动的驱动力。ParB-DNA核蛋白复合物的形成是染色体准确分配的关键。多项研究表明, ParB能够通过相分离凝聚DNA, 调控细菌染色体分离。如Guilhas等[37]利用单分子追踪技术, 证明ParB和parS在生物体内结合形成纳米尺寸的无膜球形凝聚体, 当局部ParB浓度超过临界值时, 通过多价相互作用形成初始液滴, 触发LLPS; Zhao等[38]发现枯草芽孢杆菌ParB通过其N端结构域的多聚化, 沿DNA分子形成相分离的凝聚体, 显著增强DNA压缩效率。成熟的ParB-DNA共凝聚体保持动态重组能力, 能够承受很强的破坏力, 确保染色体分离过程的可塑性和准确性。
细菌细胞分裂过程受到蛋白质大分子复合物——细菌分裂机器(也被称为分裂体, divisome) 的精密调控。其中, 微管蛋白样GTP酶——丝状温度敏感突变体Z (filamenting temperature-sensitive mutant Z, FtsZ) 发挥关键作用[39-43]。FtsZ单体与GTP结合后聚合成高度动态的环状结构(Z环), 作为细菌分裂机器的支架, 并确定细胞分裂的位点, 招募分裂相关蛋白[39, 40]。此外, FtsZ还可为细胞分裂提供细胞动力。Z环在分裂位点表现出的高度动态凝聚性, 对于维持高效和准确的细胞分裂至关重要[40-42]。作为细菌的骨架蛋白, FtsZ与真核生物的微管蛋白在进化和结构上同源。在原核细胞中, FtsZ的相分离与功能必须通过膜锚定蛋白GPI (glycophosphatidylinositol) 与细胞膜物理连接, 这种锚定将液相Z环的力传递给细胞膜, 直接指导隔膜的形成, 体现了原核系统的精简与直接; 而在真核细胞中, 微管蛋白的相分离与成核通常发生在中心体、高尔基体等膜性细胞器上, 这些细胞器提供了结构基础和调控因子, 从而将微管网络的组织与细胞器的空间分布联系起来, 体现了真核系统的区室化与复杂性。
DNA结合蛋白SlmA, 作为一种类核闭塞因子, 通过与其靶DNA序列(SlmA-binding sequence, SBS) 和FtsZ的双重结合, 进而拮抗FtsZ的过度凝聚, 防止分裂体的不当组装, 确保细胞分裂与染色体分离的协调进行[43]。高度保守的交联蛋白ZapA可通过稳定FtsZ纤维丝促进分裂环的成熟[43]。FtsZ-SlmA-SBS凝聚体在拥挤条件下捕获ZapA, 将其封装在液滴中。ZapA可通过非竞争性结合和相分离驱动的区室化作用, 以浓度依赖的方式对抗SlmA-SBS对FtsZ凝聚的抑制作用。一方面液滴的物理边界限制SlmA-SBS的扩散, 减少SlmA-SBS与FtsZ的过度结合, 同时, ZapA的结合可诱导FtsZ构象变化(如增强β-折叠倾向), 抵消SlmA-SBS对FtsZ凝聚的抑制; 另一方面, 当ZapA浓度超过临界相变浓度时, 能够形成富集ZapA-FtsZ的次级液滴, 进一步隔离SlmA-SBS的抑制作用[43]。这种动态平衡机制确保细菌分裂的精确时空调控, 同时也赋予细菌应对环境变化的能力。
SSB对于基因组的复制和维持至关重要, 包括保护单链DNA区免受核酸酶降解和防止异常二级结构形成等[9, 44, 45]。Harami等[44]发现, 在生理条件下, 大肠杆菌SSB可通过LLPS形成黏性液滴。细菌在内膜上储存了大量的以相分离凝聚物形式存在的SSB以及与SSB相互作用的DNA修复蛋白[44, 45]。在基因组受损, 动态相分离能够将SSB和与SSB相互作用的蛋白快速动员到DNA损伤位点, 以保护暴露的单链DNA并修复受DNA损伤影响的基因组位点[45]。这种可逆的相变过程为细菌提供了快速响应DNA损伤的分子基础。
RNA聚合酶的时空组织对细菌转录调控至关重要, 其活性受到众多转录因子的调控。Ladouceur等[46]发现, 细菌从滞后期向对数生长期的转变过程中, 大肠杆菌RNAP能够在抗终止因子NusA的参与下[46, 47], 迅速从分散模式形成对己二醇敏感的凝聚体(己二醇是一种能够溶解真核细胞中液体状隔室的化学物质), 在进入稳定期后逐渐消散。因此, RNAP的相分离状态与生长条件密切相关, 营养丰富时, 细菌对核糖体RNA (rRNA) 转录需求旺盛, RNAP形成转录活跃的凝聚体, 从而适应快速生长需求; 而当营养缺乏时, RNAP簇会呈散在分布, 主要进行维持基本生命过程的mRNA的转录。
另一个LLPS调控转录例子是关于肠道中普遍存在的有益细菌多形拟杆菌(Bacteroides thetaiotaoarum) 在小鼠肠道中适应性的机制, 涉及转录终止因子Rho的LLPS[48, 49]。Rho是一种能够通过终止特定基因或mRNA分子区域的转录过程来调控基因表达的蛋白质。基于结构生物学的预测分析, 研究人员发现多形拟杆菌中的Rho蛋白N端含有一段内在无序区结构域, 该结构域在大肠杆菌和沙门氏菌的Rho蛋白中均未见存在。该结构域可在体内和体外促进LLPS的发生, 形成的凝聚体作为高效的基因表达调控枢纽, 促进其在肠道中的定植。
在极端胁迫条件下, 大肠杆菌大量表达饥饿细胞DNA结合蛋白(DNA-binding protein from starved cells, Dps)。Dps可通过LLPS形成具有选择透过性的凝聚体, 发挥保护拟核的作用[50]。Janissen等[51]发现, Dps凝聚允许RNAP透过而限制与DNA相互作用的蛋白分子进入。Dps凝聚体这种具有液态特性的保护性微环境和选择性渗透特性在维持基因组稳定性的同时, 确保必需基因的持续转录[51, 52]。
细胞极化(cell polarization) 是广泛存在于动物、植物和微生物等生物体中的一种普遍现象[53]。这种现象发生在母细胞分裂前, 导致产生两个不同的子代细胞。细胞极化在病原微生物中发挥产生细胞多样性、促进抗逆性和逃避免疫监视的作用。研究表明, 在新月柄杆菌(Caulobacter crescentus) 中, 通过延时显微成像技术可观察到支架蛋白PodJ蛋白质聚集体的动态形成过程, 提示PodJ蛋白具备发生LLPS的能力[53, 54]。该过程依赖于两个关键结构域: IDR和CC4-6。这些结构域不仅参与细胞内空间区隔的建立, 还可招募多种定位于新极的信号蛋白, 如PleC、CpaE和FliG等。值得注意的是, 研究发现位于细胞旧极的脚手架蛋白SpmX能够抑制PodJ介导的LLPS过程, 揭示了微生物细胞中细胞极性建立与维持的一种复杂调控机制[54]。
ATP结合组件转运蛋白(ATP-binding cassette transporter, ABC) 最初于20世纪70年代在研究细菌营养物质吸收过程中被发现。该类蛋白通过水解ATP, 驱动底物与特异性结合蛋白之间的直接相互作用, 从而实现跨膜转运功能。这一分子机制已被广泛研究, 并在原核生物和真核生物中均发现具有高度保守性的ABC转运蛋白家族成员[55]。其中, Rv1747是结核分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mtb) 的ABC转运蛋白, 负责转运部分脂质, 参与膜蛋白组装, 是Mtb在宿主细胞内生存和增殖所必需的关键毒力因子。研究表明, 在高浓度条件下, Rv1747蛋白的FHA结构域可发生相分离, 该过程可被磷酸酶逆转, 而PknF激酶介导的磷酸化修饰则显著增强Rv1747在体外形成聚集体的能力[56]。这些结果提示, 相分离可能在分枝杆菌ABC转运蛋白的功能调控及其响应细胞内信号通路的过程中发挥重要作用, 但目前尚不清楚相分离是否在细菌各类膜蛋白的组装与定位中具有普遍性和关键性作用。
蛋白质稳态, 即蛋白质合成、折叠、定位和降解之间的动态平衡, 对于细菌的生存和繁殖至关重要。内源性或外源性胁迫因素(如热休克、干燥、抗生素、氧化应激及金属离子暴露等) 可导致细菌蛋白质稳态失衡, 进而引发蛋白质聚集[9, 57]。这些胁迫因素可能引起蛋白质的错误折叠和疏水性氨基酸残基(即所谓的聚集倾向区域, aggregation-prone regions, APRs) 的暴露, 促进分子间β-片层结构的形成, 介导蛋白质聚集[57, 58]。重组蛋白表达过程中形成的包涵体是细菌生物分子聚集体的最典型案例。
尽管细菌进化出了复杂的蛋白质质量控制机制以维持自身蛋白质稳态[9, 57], 如DnaK-DnaJ-GrpE伴侣系统和GroEL-GroES伴侣系统参与变性蛋白复性, 且ClpAP、ClpXP、HslUV、Lon等蛋白酶负责降解不可逆损伤蛋白质[59, 60]。但在严重胁迫条件下, 细菌质量控制系统的超负荷运行仍然无法阻止生物分子聚集体的积累。
细菌群体可以在细胞分裂过程中通过聚集体的不对称分离来减少错误折叠蛋白引起的毒性作用。研究证明, 在热休克和老化的大肠杆菌细胞中形成的生物分子聚集体主要积累在细胞两极[61]。质子动力、DnaJ/DnaK伴侣蛋白和肌动蛋白同源物MreB是将聚集体运输到两极所必需的物质[62]。在细胞分裂时, 聚集体不对称地分离, 获得了聚集体的细胞表现出更低的生长速率[63]。这种以牺牲一个亚群来减轻损伤的策略, 有助于整个细菌群体在衰老或环境压力下持续繁衍。
尽管蛋白质错误折叠通常会对细菌产生不利影响, 但生物分子聚集体在一定条件下反而表现出对细菌的保护功能。这些聚集体通过隔离受损蛋白质, 阻断其与可溶性大分子或细胞膜的异常互作, 从而降低错误折叠蛋白质的毒性。表2[15, 28, 64-67]列举了细菌保护性聚集体的部分实例。以下将重点介绍细菌在压力条件下由LLPS驱动生成的保护性聚集体。
与经典MLOs不同, 蛋白毒性胁迫诱导的聚集体可容纳数百种蛋白质[28, 64, 65]。包括包涵体在内的聚集体可能包含从完全去折叠到部分甚至完全天然折叠结构的不同构象的蛋白质。已有研究报道聚集体中有活性酶的存在[65]。在胁迫条件解除后, 聚集体内的蛋白质重新可以作为功能蛋白的来源。
大肠杆菌暴露于亚致死蛋白毒性胁迫条件(如高温、过氧化物或抗生素) 形成“记忆”包涵体[66]。胁迫解除后, 定位于细胞两极的聚集体只发生了部分解聚, 并通过不对称遗传产生异质性群体[67]。继承旧极的子细胞会携带大部分聚集体, 从而形成跨代应激记忆, 能够更好地应对第二次压力胁迫[67, 68]。聚集体发挥了表观遗传“记忆”因子的功能, 甚至可以持续数代。此外, DnaK、DnaJ、ClpB等伴侣蛋白和ClpP蛋白酶在聚集体的共定位提示, 蛋白质质量控制系统也参与增强细菌的胁迫耐受性[59, 60]。
研究报道细菌中存在类似应激颗粒的无膜结构, 其功能多与RNA保护和代谢调控相关。如大肠杆菌的CspA家族蛋白在低温或饥饿时通过LLPS形成RNA-蛋白凝聚体, 维持mRNA稳定[9, 57, 69]。
干燥压力是指细菌在脱水环境中引发的多重损伤。胞内自由水的快速蒸发导致细胞质浓缩, 渗透压急剧升高(通常超过1 000 mOsm·kg-1), 诱导DNA双链断裂; 脂质双层会因脱水失去流动性, 导致膜蛋白功能紊乱, 跨膜物质运输受阻; 脱水也会破坏蛋白质水合层, 增加疏水相互作用, 导致蛋白质错误折叠和聚集。
在暴露于干燥压力的鲍曼不动杆菌(Acinetobacter baumannii) 中可检测到内源性蛋白质的聚集, 研究发现, 这与鲍曼不动杆菌对抗干燥胁迫有关[28, 70]。当链霉素处理或lon基因缺失导致错误折叠蛋白积累时, 通过聚集体的物理隔离, 可以防止其扩散干扰细菌的正常功能, 使得鲍曼不动杆菌获得了对压力的耐受性。此外, Wang等[66]以β-半乳糖苷酶为模型酶的研究表明, 滞留在聚集体中的蛋白质可以保持其活性, 在复水后快速恢复功能。因此, 推测聚集体可能通过保存和保护蛋白质来增强鲍曼不动杆菌对干燥的耐受性。除了聚集体的直接作用外, 鲍曼不动杆菌中几种分子伴侣的上调也会使蛋白质稳态在干燥过程中得以维持[28]。总之, 干燥压力通过脱水引发细菌结构破坏和代谢紊乱, 而细菌通过保护性聚集体隔离错误折叠蛋白和保护功能蛋白实现耐受。
抗生素胁迫下, 大肠杆菌蛋白质聚集与持留菌(persistent bacteria) 形成呈现显著相关性[71, 72]。持留菌是非增殖的休眠细胞亚群, 可通过表型异质性耐受高浓度抗生素[73, 74]。与耐药突变株不同, 持留菌是野生菌株的表型变异体, 在恢复生长后, 它们重新恢复药物敏感性。Leszczynska等[67]研究表明, 持留菌的比例与稳定期生物分子聚集体水平呈正相关。对于这种正相关性可能的解释是: 延伸因子EF-Tu在原核生物蛋白质翻译过程中发挥重要作用, 研究表明, EF-Tu在稳定期极易发生聚集, 是聚集体的主要成分; EF-Tu的隔离可能导致翻译过程受阻, 引起细菌休眠[75]。低浓度渗透压调节剂(海藻糖、甜菜碱、甘油或葡萄糖) 可通过干扰生物分子聚集体形成而抑制持留菌的形成; 而乙酸盐或高渗条件则能促进生物分子聚集和持留菌形成[74]。需要指出的是, 生物分子聚集只是持留菌形成的机制之一, 其他多种因素也可能参与持留菌形成的调控。
细菌生物被膜(biofilm) 是微生物为适应环境压力而形成的结构化群落, 其形成过程涉及复杂的分子组装和调控机制[76-78]。近年研究发现LLPS作为生物大分子自组装的重要机制, 在生物被膜形成的时空调控中发挥关键作用。
当细菌接触固体表面时, 含有IDRs的表面菌毛蛋白和鞭毛蛋白界面在微环境中达到临界浓度, 通过多价相互作用形成黏弹性液滴[76]。这些纳米尺寸的液滴具有独特的界面特性, 能润湿细菌表面、显著降低界面张力, 并通过毛细作用力显著促进细菌在表面的初始定植[77, 78]。
随着细菌聚集程度的增加, 胞外多聚物(extracellular polymeric substances, EPS) 进入由LLPS调控的精密组装阶段。革兰阴性菌和革兰阳性菌在胞外基质成分和包膜结构存在差异, 因此相分离聚集体形成位置、物质交换效率、驱动因子和调控通路均有所不同[78, 79]。首先, 革兰阳性菌厚实的肽聚糖层可作为天然支架, 表面蛋白可以共价或非共价与其结合, 从而高效启动LLPS; 而革兰阴性菌的外膜将肽聚糖层与外部环境物理隔离, 迫使许多相分离过程必须在胞外或周质空间完成。其次, 革兰阳性菌由于没有外膜的物理阻隔, 其细胞内合成产物(如蛋白、代谢物) 更易直接扩散到细胞表面甚至胞外基质中参与LLPS, 这可能使得其生物被膜的组装对细胞内代谢状态的变化响应更为迅速。而革兰阴性菌则相对较低[80-82]。最后, EPS的组成上也有所区别。革兰阴性菌如铜绿假单胞菌(Pseudomonas aeruginosa) 中的Psl多糖和Pel磷酸化多糖可通过疏水相互作用形成网络骨架, 淀粉样蛋白CsgA通过β-折叠自组装形成纳米纤维, 多糖的重复单元与CsgA的RGG结构域通过π-π堆积和氢键驱动相分离[50]; 另外, 高浓度c-di-GMP已被证明能够激活Psl/Pel合成基因, 并抑制影响生物被膜形成的磷酸二酯酶RbdA, 从而维持相分离稳态[80]; eDNA可与阳离子(Ca2+/Mg2+) 交联, 形成带负电的凝胶网络, 而高浓度的阳离子可以中和eDNA负电荷, 使得eDNA链能够彼此靠近, 形成致密网络, 促进LLPS。而金黄色葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus aureus) 等革兰阳性菌的EPS的组装过程涉及带正电的多糖PIA通过静电作用与带负电的分子相互作用, 促进胞外基质网络形成; 纤维蛋白SasG的锌结合域可通过与Zn2+结合, 形成SasG-Zn2+复合物, 该复合物会通过LLPS形成黏附液滴, 介导细菌聚集[79-82]; 同时, 纤维蛋白FnbA的FnⅢ结构域暴露的疏水残基也会驱动LLPS; 而组蛋白样蛋白可以将eDNA压缩为可嵌入纤维网络的纳米线, 用于增强生物被膜基质刚性。
成熟的生物被膜呈现明显的LLPS介导的分层结构(图2): 底层为eDNA-蛋白复合物、中层为多糖-淀粉样纤维网络, 表层为疏水蛋白层, 这种层级组织使被膜表现出卓越的机械强度和环境抗性。但这种分层结构也并不是普遍存在的, 其实际呈现形式依赖于菌种特性和环境条件。
由于细菌尺寸较小, 研究细菌中发生的LLPS具有极大的挑战性。近年来, 高分辨率显微成像技术和单分子示踪技术的快速发展助力该领域取得了突破性进展[9]。细菌中蛋白质的LLPS对于细菌的生理过程和压力应激均至关重要。在细菌的生理过程中, LLPS广泛参与包括质粒分配、染色体分离、转录调控、细胞分裂、DNA复制和修复等多种过程; 而在压力应激下, LLPS驱动形成的聚集体也可通过多种途径增加细菌在压力环境中的适应性。细菌LLPS过程对其生存、适应性和致病性至关重要。干扰这些高度有序的动态凝聚体, 为开发新型抗菌药物提供了独特的“靶点”。与传统的单一酶抑制剂或抗生素不同, 靶向LLPS的策略旨在破坏一个功能系统, 可能更难被细菌通过点突变规避, 从而有望应对耐药性的产生。
因此, 基于以上细菌生存必需的LLPS过程, 可以提出新的抗菌干预策略, 如: ①靶向细菌分裂的LLPS过程, 即通过干扰FtsZ-SlmA-ZapA动态平衡影响细菌分裂[39-43]; ②诱导致死性蛋白聚集, 含APRs的多肽已经被证明能与细菌蛋白共聚集, 形成不可逆包涵体。因此, 含APRs的多肽可用作抗菌剂, 含有串联APRs的多肽可被开发用于诱导大量蛋白聚集并形成含有多种细菌蛋白的致死性包涵体[57, 58]; ③破坏生物被膜的LLPS依赖性组装。对于阴性菌, 可通过阳离子聚合物(如壳聚糖) 竞争结合eDNA干扰eDNA-蛋白网络, 或者纳米颗粒负载多糖降解Psl的方式来干扰Psl-CsgA的相分离, 提高生物被膜渗透性并降低其弹性模量[34, 78-81]; 对于阳性菌, 可应用Zn2+螯合剂影响SasG-Zn2+相分离, 破坏液滴形成, 进而降低生物被膜的黏附力[78-82]。
总之, 对细菌中生物分子LLPS的进一步研究对于理解细菌的生理过程、阐明细菌适应胁迫条件和引起抗生素耐药的机制以及寻找新的抗菌策略具有重要的意义。

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2026年第61卷第3期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0864
  • 接收时间:2025-07-22
  • 首发时间:2026-09-21
  • 出版时间:2026-03-12
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  • 收稿日期:2025-07-22
  • 修回日期:2025-11-28
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    中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院医药生物技术研究所, 抗感染新药研发关键技术及应用北京市重点实验室, 北京 100050

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)
属
Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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