Article(id=1308816705707663517, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308816657934541639, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0734, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1750953600000, receivedDateStr=2025-06-27, revisedDate=1753286400000, revisedDateStr=2025-07-24, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1789975819279, onlineDateStr=2026-09-21, pubDate=1768147200000, pubDateStr=2026-01-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1789975819279, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-09-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1789975819279, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1789975819279, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1308816657934541639, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2026', volume='61', issue='1', pageStart='1', pageEnd='320', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1768147200000', pubDateStr='2026-01-12', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1789975807888, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1789984282344, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1308852202421191556, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308816657934541639, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1308852202421191557, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308816657934541639, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=147, endPage=156, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1308816707406356638, articleId=1308816705707663517, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Research progress of plant-derived extracellular vesicles and their application in drug delivery systems, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles are a kind of nanoscale vesicles with lipid bilayer membrane structure actively secreted by plant cells. As important media for intercellular communication in plants, extracellular vesicles are rich in a variety of biologically active molecules, including nucleic acids, proteins and lipids, and play key roles in intercellular material transport and information transmission. Due to excellent biocompatibility, low immunogenicity and natural cross-species delivery ability, plant-derived extracellular vesicles have become an ideal choice for new drug delivery carriers, which can efficiently load nucleic acid drugs, protein preparations and hydrophobic drug molecules. In recent years, with the rapid development of nanomedicine technology, the application of plant-derived extracellular vesicles in targeted drug delivery systems has made significant progress. This review systematically summarizes the separation and purification technology, stability, targeting, drug loading strategy of plant-derived extracellular vesicles and their latest application results as drug delivery carriers, in order to provide theoretical reference for related research.

, authors=Yu-hao YE1, Ke-xin CHEN1, Yang XIONG1, 2, *, authorsList=Yu-hao YE, Ke-xin CHEN, Yang XIONG, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Yang XIONG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2026 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1308816708123582625, articleId=1308816705707663517, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=植物源性细胞外囊泡及其在药物递送系统应用中的研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

植物源性细胞外囊泡是由植物细胞主动分泌的一类具有脂质双层膜结构的纳米级囊泡。作为植物细胞间通讯的重要介质, 外囊泡富含多种生物活性分子, 包括核酸、蛋白质和脂质等, 在细胞间物质转运和信息传递过程中发挥着关键作用。得益于其优异的生物相容性、低免疫原性和天然的跨物种递送能力, 植物源性细胞外囊泡已成为新型药物递送载体的理想选择, 可高效负载核酸类药物、蛋白类药物及小分子化学药物。近年来, 植物源性细胞外囊泡在递送系统中的应用研究取得了显著进展。本文系统综述了植物源性细胞外囊泡分离纯化技术、稳定性、靶向性、药物装载策略及其作为药物递送载体的最新应用成果, 以期为相关研究提供理论参考。

, authors=叶宇豪1, 陈可欣1, 熊阳1, 2, *, authorsList=叶宇豪, 陈可欣, 熊阳, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=熊阳, authorNote=

#

共同第一作者.

作者贡献:

叶宇豪负责查阅文献、整理并写作; 陈可欣负责初稿批改、补充完善相关研究和临床应用内容; 熊阳负责选题、监督和指导论文写作。

, correspAuthorsNote=
叶宇豪, E-mail:
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Extraction methodPrincipleAdvantageShortcomingRef.
UltracentrifugationThere are differences in particle size and density between different particlesSimple operation, high yieldLong time, complex equipments[18-20]
UltrafiltrationThe permeability of ultrafiltration membrane to different particles is differentSimple equipments, high separation efficiencyLow purity[21-23]
Size exclusion chromatographyThe migration rate of different particle size components in the chromatographic column is differentHigh resolution, good repeatability, great biocompatibilityCan't handle large volume samples[24-26]
Polymer precipitation methodThe lipid molecules of PDEVs bind to polymers, resulting in reduced solubility and precipitationHigh yield, suitable for large-scale productionLow purity[27]
Immune capture methodAntigen-antibody specific recognitionHigh purityConstrictive application range[28, 29]
Electrophoresis-dialysis methodThe combination of electric field driven separation technology and membrane separation technologyHigh separating efficiency, high purityComplex operation[30, 31]
), ArticleFig(id=1308816712091394245, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308816705707663517, language=CN, label=Tab.1, caption=

Isolation methods of PDEVs. PDEVs: Plant-derived extracellular vesicles

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Extraction methodPrincipleAdvantageShortcomingRef.
UltracentrifugationThere are differences in particle size and density between different particlesSimple operation, high yieldLong time, complex equipments[18-20]
UltrafiltrationThe permeability of ultrafiltration membrane to different particles is differentSimple equipments, high separation efficiencyLow purity[21-23]
Size exclusion chromatographyThe migration rate of different particle size components in the chromatographic column is differentHigh resolution, good repeatability, great biocompatibilityCan't handle large volume samples[24-26]
Polymer precipitation methodThe lipid molecules of PDEVs bind to polymers, resulting in reduced solubility and precipitationHigh yield, suitable for large-scale productionLow purity[27]
Immune capture methodAntigen-antibody specific recognitionHigh purityConstrictive application range[28, 29]
Electrophoresis-dialysis methodThe combination of electric field driven separation technology and membrane separation technologyHigh separating efficiency, high purityComplex operation[30, 31]
), ArticleFig(id=1308816712166891718, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308816705707663517, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
SourceEngineering transformation methodDelivery methodDrugTargetingRef.
GingerNatural vesiclesp.o.N/AIntestinum[8]
GrapefruitNatural vesiclesp.o.N/ALiver[9]
GarlicNatural vesiclesp.o.N/ALiver[9]
LemonModification of heparin-cRGD conjugateN/ADOXSKOV3 cells[35]
GarlicNatural vesiclesN/AN/AHepG2 cells[12]
GinsengNatural vesiclesi.v. & i.p.N/ALiver & spleen[37]
GinsengNatural vesiclesp.o.N/AGastrointestinal tract[37]
GingerModification of folic acidp.o.DOXColon 26 tumor[38]
GrapefruitCombing with white cell membranei.v.DOX & curcuminInflammatory tumor[39]
GingerCombing with liposomep.o.N/AColon[40]
KiwifruitModification of RNAi.v.siRNANon-small cell lung cancer[41]
), ArticleFig(id=1308816712254972103, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308816705707663517, language=CN, label=Tab.2, caption=

Study on the targeting of PDEVs. p.o.: Per os; cRGD: Cyclic RGD peptide; DOX: Doxorubicin; i.v.: Intravenous injection; i.p.: Intraperitoneal injection

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
SourceEngineering transformation methodDelivery methodDrugTargetingRef.
GingerNatural vesiclesp.o.N/AIntestinum[8]
GrapefruitNatural vesiclesp.o.N/ALiver[9]
GarlicNatural vesiclesp.o.N/ALiver[9]
LemonModification of heparin-cRGD conjugateN/ADOXSKOV3 cells[35]
GarlicNatural vesiclesN/AN/AHepG2 cells[12]
GinsengNatural vesiclesi.v. & i.p.N/ALiver & spleen[37]
GinsengNatural vesiclesp.o.N/AGastrointestinal tract[37]
GingerModification of folic acidp.o.DOXColon 26 tumor[38]
GrapefruitCombing with white cell membranei.v.DOX & curcuminInflammatory tumor[39]
GingerCombing with liposomep.o.N/AColon[40]
KiwifruitModification of RNAi.v.siRNANon-small cell lung cancer[41]
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植物源性细胞外囊泡及其在药物递送系统应用中的研究进展
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叶宇豪 1 , 陈可欣 1 , 熊阳 1, 2, *
药学学报 | 综述 2026,61(1): 147-156
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药学学报 |综述 2026 , 61 (1) : 147 -156
植物源性细胞外囊泡及其在药物递送系统应用中的研究进展
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叶宇豪1, 陈可欣1, 熊阳1, 2, *
作者信息
  • 1浙江中医药大学药学院, 浙江 杭州 311402
  • 2浙江中医药大学中医药科学院, 浙江 杭州 310053
通讯作者:
叶宇豪, E-mail:
作者简介:

#

共同第一作者.

作者贡献:

叶宇豪负责查阅文献、整理并写作; 陈可欣负责初稿批改、补充完善相关研究和临床应用内容; 熊阳负责选题、监督和指导论文写作。

Research progress of plant-derived extracellular vesicles and their application in drug delivery systems
Yu-hao YE1, Ke-xin CHEN1, Yang XIONG1, 2, *
Affiliations
  • 1College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 311402, China
  • 2Academy of Chinese Medical Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
出版时间: 2026-01-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0734
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植物源性细胞外囊泡是由植物细胞主动分泌的一类具有脂质双层膜结构的纳米级囊泡。作为植物细胞间通讯的重要介质, 外囊泡富含多种生物活性分子, 包括核酸、蛋白质和脂质等, 在细胞间物质转运和信息传递过程中发挥着关键作用。得益于其优异的生物相容性、低免疫原性和天然的跨物种递送能力, 植物源性细胞外囊泡已成为新型药物递送载体的理想选择, 可高效负载核酸类药物、蛋白类药物及小分子化学药物。近年来, 植物源性细胞外囊泡在递送系统中的应用研究取得了显著进展。本文系统综述了植物源性细胞外囊泡分离纯化技术、稳定性、靶向性、药物装载策略及其作为药物递送载体的最新应用成果, 以期为相关研究提供理论参考。

植物源性细胞外囊泡  /  分离纯化  /  稳定性  /  靶向性  /  药物递送

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles are a kind of nanoscale vesicles with lipid bilayer membrane structure actively secreted by plant cells. As important media for intercellular communication in plants, extracellular vesicles are rich in a variety of biologically active molecules, including nucleic acids, proteins and lipids, and play key roles in intercellular material transport and information transmission. Due to excellent biocompatibility, low immunogenicity and natural cross-species delivery ability, plant-derived extracellular vesicles have become an ideal choice for new drug delivery carriers, which can efficiently load nucleic acid drugs, protein preparations and hydrophobic drug molecules. In recent years, with the rapid development of nanomedicine technology, the application of plant-derived extracellular vesicles in targeted drug delivery systems has made significant progress. This review systematically summarizes the separation and purification technology, stability, targeting, drug loading strategy of plant-derived extracellular vesicles and their latest application results as drug delivery carriers, in order to provide theoretical reference for related research.

plant-derived extracellular vesicle  /  separation and purification  /  stability  /  targeting  /  drug delivery
叶宇豪, 陈可欣, 熊阳. 植物源性细胞外囊泡及其在药物递送系统应用中的研究进展. 药学学报, 2026 , 61 (1) : 147 -156 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0734
Yu-hao YE, Ke-xin CHEN, Yang XIONG. Research progress of plant-derived extracellular vesicles and their application in drug delivery systems[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2026 , 61 (1) : 147 -156 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0734
近年来, 生物及仿生药物递送系统的研究取得了显著进展, 其中细胞外囊泡(extracellular vesicles, EVs) 作为一种新兴的纳米级递送载体备受关注。EVs是由细胞主动分泌的具有完整磷脂双分子层结构的膜性囊泡, 富含蛋白质、核酸、脂质等多种亲代细胞源性生物活性分子, 是细胞间信息传递的关键介质[1]。由于EVs具有脂质双分子层结构, 能够装载疏水性药物, 可作为保护性屏障, 改善药物水溶性, 以及防止药物被清除[2]。同时, EVs具有良好的特异靶向能力, 能够起到增效化疗药物并降低系统毒性的作用[3, 4]。然而, 目前研究主要集中于哺乳动物来源的EVs, 但其临床应用仍面临诸多挑战, 如癌症刺激风险、含量低、分离困难、纯化复杂及血液清除快等问题[5]。
近年来, 大量研究证实植物细胞能够分泌具有生物活性的纳米级囊泡, 即植物源性细胞外囊泡(plant-derived extracellular vesicles, PDEVs)。这类囊泡在功能上与哺乳动物EVs相似, 同时展现出诸多独特的优势: ①来源广泛且成本低廉, 可从多种食用和药用植物中大量获取; ②制备工艺简单, 易于实现规模化生产; ③具有优异的生物相容性, 不受物种限制, 不会引发机体炎症反应和免疫排斥[5]; ④口服生物利用度高, 其磷脂双分子层结构可有效保护内容物免受消化道环境破坏; ⑤富含特有的植物活性成分, 如芦荟PDEVs中含有的槲皮素和没食子酸等成分能显著降低氧化应激水平[6]; 生姜PDEVs则表现出显著的抗炎效果, 可有效缓解结肠炎症状[7]; ⑥具有组织特异性靶向能力, 其生物分布特性取决于囊泡膜脂质组成, 如富含磷脂酸(phosphatidic acid, PA) 的生姜PDEVs主要靶向肠道组织[8], 而以磷脂酰胆碱(phosphatidylcholine, PC) 为主的葡萄柚和大蒜PDEVs则倾向于向肝脏富集[9]。值得注意的是, PDEVs不仅本身具有多种治疗活性(如抗炎、抗肿瘤、抗衰老和肝脏保护等[8, 9]), 还能作为高效载体递送外源性药物分子。这种双重功能特性使其在药物递送领域具有广阔的应用前景。
PDEVs含有丰富的生物活性成分, 脂质、蛋白质和核酸作为其三大核心组分, 协同调控着PDEVs的多重生物学功能。
脂质是PDEVs的核心组成成分, 研究表明, PDEVs的脂质组成十分丰富, 主要包含以下几类关键脂质分子: ①磷脂类物质, 包括PA、磷脂酰乙醇胺和磷脂酰肌醇; ②中性脂质, 包括二酰甘油和三酰甘油; ③糖脂类物质, 包括半乳糖基二酰甘油和单半乳糖基二酰甘油[9]。这些脂质成分不仅构成了PDEVs的基本骨架, 还可能影响其生物学功能, 如药物包载效率、靶向递送能力及免疫调节作用[8, 9], 为PDEVs的医学应用提供了重要分子基础。
相较于哺乳动物EVs, PDEVs所含的蛋白质种类相对较少且丰度较低, 同时, PDEVs的蛋白质组成受到植物种类和生长环境的影响[10]。PDEVs的蛋白与其生物活性密切相关, 据报道, 桑葚树皮来源的PDEVs含有热休克蛋白HSP70和HSPA8, 能够起到预防结肠炎的作用。PDEVs中的蛋白也常常用于表征, 许多PDEVs中含有CD63和CD81, 可以用于其表征。此外, 蛋白质在维持PDEVs的稳定性[11]、介导PDEVs的靶向递送[12]等方面均发挥着重要的作用。同时, PDEVs中富含的蛋白质通常被用作其表征标志物, 其中CD63和CD81等跨膜蛋白在PDEVs中广泛存在, 可作为其特异性检测的重要分子标记[13]。
PDEVs含有的核酸主要是miRNA、sRNA, 作为基因调控的重要媒介, 这些核酸参与宿主细胞的基因调控, 发挥多样的生物学功能。例如, 拟南芥分泌的PDEVs将sRNA递送至真菌病原体, 抑制了真菌病原体的毒力基因[14]; 卷心菜、菠菜和莴苣中含有的miRNA-156a则能抑制炎症患者内皮细胞中单核细胞的募集, 发挥抗动脉粥样硬化作用[15]。
PDEVs的来源十分广泛, 在植物的根、茎、叶、果实和种子等各种器官中均有分布。针对不同植物器官的生理特性, 在分离PDEVs之前需要采取相应的预处理方法以获得高质量的植物汁液[10]。针对生姜、人参等质地坚硬且汁液含量较低的植物, Qiao等[16]采用了机械研磨法成功实现了生姜汁液的提取。该方法通过物理破碎细胞结构释放胞内物质, 尤其适用于高纤维含量植物组织的有效成分提取。相比之下, 榨汁法更适用于质地柔软、汁液含量较高的植物材料。Long等[17]采用机械压榨方式成功提取了柑橘汁液, 该方法通过外力挤压破坏薄壁细胞组织, 能够高效获取植物中的液态成分。
超速离心法被广泛认为是分离PDEVs的经典方法, 其分离原理主要依赖于不同颗粒间存在的粒径差异和密度差异[18], 又可分为差速离心法和密度梯度离心法。
差速离心法首先采用500~1 000 ×g离心力去除植物残渣等大颗粒杂质, 随后通过2 000~3 000 ×g离心去除细胞碎片, 再以10 000 ×g离心去除杂蛋白等较小污染物, 最终在10 000~150 000 ×g的高离心力条件下获得高纯度的PDEVs[19]。这种逐步递增离心力的分离策略能有效实现不同粒径污染物的逐级去除, 从而保证PDEVs的纯度。密度梯度离心法常用于PDEVs的纯化, 该方法通过预先构建具有特定密度分布的离心介质, 在超速离心过程中, 各类生物颗粒会依据其密度特性迁移至相应的等密度区, 从而实现PDEVs与其他成分的高效分离[20]。
超滤法是一种基于颗粒大小和分子质量分离PDEVs的方法, 该方法利用跨膜压力差作为驱动力, 无需依赖大型离心设备, 具有操作简便、处理快速等优势[21]。然而, 由于膜分离的选择性限制, 部分小分子杂质可能穿透滤膜, 影响最终产物的纯度。研究表明, 该方法特别适用于如石竹[22]、蓝莓[23]中PDEVs的初步分离。
尺寸排阻色谱法是一种高效PDEVs分离技术, 其分离机制基于不同粒径组分在色谱柱中迁移速率的差异, 通过多孔凝胶基质的分子筛效应, PDEVs与其他分子质量物质按尺寸大小依次洗脱, 具有分辨率高、重复性好、生物相容性佳等显著优势[24]。然而受限于色谱柱载样量, 该技术较难处理大体积样本。尺寸排阻色谱法已被应用于卷心菜[25]和胡萝卜[26]中PDEVs的分离。
除传统方法外, 目前多种新兴技术已成功应用于PDEVs的分离纯化: ①聚合物沉淀法[27], 该法利用亲水性聚合物(例如分子质量在6 000~20 000 Da的聚乙二醇) 调控溶液相行为, 改变PDEVs溶解度实现PDEVs的选择性富集; ②免疫捕获法[28, 29], 该法基于抗原-抗体特异性识别原理, 采用表面修饰特异性抗体的磁珠捕获含有特异性膜蛋白标志物的EVs, 但由于PDEVs缺少相应的特异性膜蛋白标志物, 该法在植物中应用较少; ③电泳透析法[30, 31], 该法结合了电场驱动分离技术与膜分离技术的优势, 能够显著提升PDEVs的分离效率和纯度。
鉴于植物物种的多样性(如单子叶与双子叶植物、草本与木本植物等), 其PDEVs在粒径分布、表面标志物及密度等方面存在显著差异, 因此, 在实际研究中需综合考虑目标植物的组织特性、PDEVs的理化性质及后续应用需求, 选择最优的分离纯化策略, PDEVs的提取方法总结见表1[18-31]和图1。
作为一种新型药物递送载体, PDEVs必须具备优异的胃肠道稳定性和血液循环稳定性, 才能有效保护其载药成分, 确保药物在复杂的生理环境中保持结构完整性, 最终实现精准递送至目标组织或细胞。这种双重稳定性是PDEVs成功跨越胃肠道屏障并实现系统性递送的关键特性, 直接决定了其作为药物载体的治疗效果和应用前景。
目前, PDEVs在胃肠环境中的稳定性机制尚未完全阐明。研究表明, 高度有序的脂质分子排列可显著增强囊泡对胃肠恶劣环境(如低pH和消化酶) 的抵抗能力[32]。因此, PDEVs表现出的优异胃肠稳定性可能与其膜结构特有的有序脂质排列(脂质双分子层结构) 密切相关。PDEVs的脂质组成也与其稳定性密切相关, 具体而言, 较长的脂肪酸碳链长度(通常≥ 18) 和较高的饱和脂肪酸比例(如棕榈酸、硬脂酸等) 能够显著增强PDEVs的胃肠稳定性[33]。此外, 部分脂质例如磷脂酰胆碱具有抗氧化活性, 能有效缓解脂质囊泡的氧化降解, 从而提高PDEVs的胃肠稳定性[19]。需要指出的是, 不同来源的PDEVs在稳定性方面存在显著差异。研究表明, 仅有部分PDEVs能够满足药物递送系统对稳定性的严格要求, 如红豆杉叶来源的PDEVs具有良好的胃肠道稳定性, 其在模拟人工胃液及人工肠液中孵育8 h后的粒径和PDI均未发生较大变化, 具有口服给药载体的潜力[34]。源自柠檬的PDEVs在血液循环中具有显著的稳定性特征, 静脉注射96 h后, 其特异性荧光标记信号仍可被有效检测[35]。
为克服PDEVs稳定性方面的局限性, 研究人员已开发出多种工程化改造策略[33, 36]。苦荞源性PDEVs的胃肠道稳定性欠佳, 为解决这一关键问题, 李国梁研究团队创新性地开发了一种基于氧化还原反应的表面工程化策略: 通过精确调控反应条件, 在PDEVs膜表面原位生成并均匀包覆硒纳米颗粒(selenium nanoparticles, SeNPs), 形成稳定的SeNPs-PDEVs复合体系, 实验数据证实, 这种表面修饰使PDEVs在模拟胃肠液中的稳定性得到显著提升[36]。PDEVs的膜稳定性与其表面脂质组成密切相关, 以芦荟源性PDEVs为例, 在低渗压力应激条件下, 其膜脂质会发生显著的重塑过程: 磷脂分子链长度增加, 饱和脂肪酸比例升高, 这种应激诱导的脂质重构使得膜结构更加紧密有序, 显著增强了膜刚性和机械强度[33]。
综上, 天然膜特性和工程化修饰保证了PDEVs的稳定性, 有望为高效药物递送提供理想载体。
PDEVs具有显著的靶向特性, 其生物分布和转运行为主要取决于特定的脂质组成比例[5]。例如, 口服给药后, 富含PA的生姜来源PDEVs主要分布于肠道组织并被肠上皮细胞选择性摄取[8], 其靶向机制与肠道菌群密切相关, 鼠李糖乳杆菌作为肠道菌群的重要组成部分, 能够特异性识别磷脂酸并摄取表面富含PA的PDEVs[9]。不同菌群对PDEVs的摄取具有选择性, 进而影响了其体内分布特征, 瘤胃球菌属优先摄取富含PC的葡萄柚和大蒜来源PDEVs, 这类PDEVs表现出显著的肝脏转运特性[9]。PDEVs表面的蛋白质也会影响其靶向性。例如, 大蒜来源PDEVs通过其膜表面的凝集素Ⅱ与肝癌细胞HepG2表面过表达的CD98糖蛋白的特异性结合, 可有效促进其细胞内化, 显著增强肝癌细胞靶向[12]。此外, 给药途径也显著影响PDEVs的体内分布, 静脉注射和腹腔注射的人参PDEVs主要富集于肝脏和脾脏, 而灌胃的人参PDEVs则主要分布于胃肠道[37]。
值得注意的是, 天然来源的PDEVs并不都具有理想的靶向特性。为了提升PDEVs作为药物载体的精准递送效率, 近年来研究者开发了多种工程化改造策略, 通过表面修饰或成分优化等手段显著提升了PDEVs的靶向能力。叶酸介导的靶向修饰是重要的靶向化策略, 基于Colon 26结肠癌细胞表面存在叶酸受体的特异性过表达的特性, 研究人员通过生物偶联技术将叶酸分子修饰在生姜源性PDEVs的膜表面, 显著增强了PDEVs对结肠癌细胞的主动靶向能力[38]。膜融合技术是一种有效的生物膜功能化改造策略, 通过将PDEVs与动物细胞膜融合, 可赋予其特定的动物细胞膜特性, 来源于葡萄柚的PDEVs与白细胞膜融合后, 其对炎症部位的靶向性显著提高[39]。除了与动物细胞膜进行融合, PDEVs还可与脂质体进行融合。当生姜源性PDEVs与脂质体融合后, 其体内分布特性发生显著改变: 原本的肝脏靶向蓄积特征转变为胃肠道特异性分布[40]。
PDEVs所具有的靶向递送优势, 能够实现药物的精准定位输送, 为开发高效低毒的新型制剂提供了新的思路, PDEVs的靶向性研究总结见表2[8, 9, 12, 35, 37-41]。
基于PDEVs具有完整的磷脂双分子层结构, 研究人员提出可将PDEVs开发为新型药物递送系统, 类似于人工合成的脂质体。相比动物源性的EVs, PDEVs来源更广泛、生物相容性更好、安全性更高, 因此近年来受到研究者的广泛关注, 已成为极具潜力的天然药物载体[42]。目前, PDEVs的药物装载策略主要分为两大类: 被动载药法和主动载药法。
被动载药法(如共孵育) 是一种基于浓度梯度的药物装载策略[43], 其特点在于无需借助电场、超声波或温度变化等外源性刺激来破坏PDEVs的膜结构完整性。该方法充分利用PDEVs天然的脂质双分子层结构特性, 通过被动扩散原理实现药物装载。由于脂质双分子层对疏水性化合物具有较高的亲和性, 被动载药法尤其适用于疏水性药物的高效装载。多种疏水性药物, 如10-羟基喜树碱[44]、虾青素[45]、紫杉醇(paclitaxel, PTX)[34]等, 均可通过被动共孵育法成功装载至PDEVs中。这种非侵入性的载药方式不仅能保持PDEVs的完整结构, 还能维持其天然的生物相容性和靶向特性。然而, 被动载药法不依赖外源性刺激, 仅依靠浓度梯度驱动药物装载, 其载药效率往往受到限制, 导致最终制剂的包封率和载药量相对较低[46]。
为了克服被动载药法载药效率低下的难题, 研究者引入了主动载药法, 该方法通过施加电场、超声波或温度变化等外源性刺激, 可控地调节PDEVs膜结构完整性, 从而在囊泡表面形成可逆的瞬时孔道, 显著提高药物分子的跨膜转运效率[47]。常采用的主动载药法有超声、共挤出、电穿孔等。
超声是一种广泛应用于PDEVs载药的技术手段, 其通过产生的空化效应[48]和机械力作用可逆性地改变脂质双层的分子排列, 从而显著提高药物的跨膜渗透效率[31]。相较于传统的共孵育法, 超声辅助载药展现出明显的效率优势, 但值得注意的是过强的机械力作用可能导致囊泡结构的暂时性扭曲, 甚至影响其完整性。因此, 优化超声参数(如功率、时间和循环次数) 对于平衡载药效率与囊泡结构完整性至关重要。
共挤出技术是通过将囊泡与药物混合溶液强制通过特定孔径的聚碳酸酯膜, 利用机械挤压作用使较大的囊泡重构为粒径均一的纳米囊泡[49], 同时实现小分子药物的高效包封, 该技术已广泛应用于细胞膜载药系统[50]。然而需要注意的是, 过度的机械挤压会导致EVs表面电位改变和生物活性降低, 这可能与其结构完整性受损有关。因此, 在实际应用中需严格控制挤出次数和挤出压力, 控制载药效率与囊泡生物活性之间的平衡。
电穿孔载药利用高压脉冲电场诱导PDEVs膜发生电穿孔效应, 在磷脂双分子层上形成瞬时亲水性孔道, 从而显著增强药物的跨膜转运效率[51]。该技术的载药效率受多因素调控, 主要包括: PDEVs的初始浓度、药物与载体比例、缓冲液理化性质(如离子强度和pH值), 以及电穿孔关键参数(如电场强度和脉冲电容等[52])。相较于超声载药法和挤出载药法, 电穿孔载药法作用时间短, 对PDEVs的损伤较小[53], 多用于RNA药物的负载, 如piRNAs[54]、siRNA[55]。
除上述方法外, 冻融循环和化学促进剂(如皂苷) 辅助装载也是促进PDEVs负载药物的重要策略。但是, 冻融循环可能导致蛋白质失活、PDEVs聚集和颗粒大小逐渐增加等问题[56], 而皂苷的使用则因其溶血效应受到限制。
综上, PDEVs作为递送载体时, 其装载策略具有多样性, 需综合考虑药物特性(如分子质量、亲疏水性)、PDEVs来源及预期治疗效果等因素, 选择最优化的单一或组合载药策略, 以达到有效载药的目的。
传统化疗药物, 如多柔比星(doxorubicin, DOX)、PTX在临床应用中面临诸多挑战, 包括水溶性差、系统毒性显著及生物利用度低等问题[57]。相比之下, 植物PDEVs作为新型药物递送载体, 通过其天然的靶向性和生物相容性, 能够显著提高化疗药物的递送效率并降低毒副作用。这一特性使得PDEVs在克服合成载体(如脂质体) 的免疫原性问题和哺乳动物EVs的规模化生产限制方面展现出独特优势[58]。Niu等[59]采用共孵育法成功将DOX负载于葡萄柚源性PDEVs中, 研究发现该递送系统能够通过其膜表面特定蛋白介导的主动转运机制, 有效穿越血脑屏障和血脑肿瘤屏障, 显著增强药物在胶质瘤组织的靶向蓄积, 从而显著提升疗效。近年来的研究进一步揭示了不同植物来源PDEVs的药物递送优势。例如, 苦瓜源性PDEVs负载DOX可显著减轻其诱导的心肌细胞氧化应激损伤, 展现出良好的心脏保护作用[60]; 而甘蓝源性PDEVs递送DOX能显著抑制SW480结肠癌细胞增殖, 同时保持较低的全身毒性, 在结直肠癌靶向治疗中表现出重要应用价值[25]。
基于PDEVs的药物递送系统还为抗炎治疗提供了新策略, 该体系能够高效递送疏水性抗炎药物至炎症部位, 实现精准的炎症调控。比如, 姜黄素虽然具有显著的抗炎活性, 但其临床应用受到疏水性和化学不稳定的限制[61]。Wang等[39]创新性地利用葡萄柚源性PDEVs作为姜黄素递送载体, 该体系不仅能克服姜黄素固有的疏水性和不稳定性, 还展现出优异的黏膜穿透能力及天然的结肠靶向性, 使药物在结肠组织中的蓄积量较传统制剂显著提升。
核酸作为一类具有重要治疗价值的生物大分子, 其临床应用面临多重挑战: 理化特性方面, 其高度亲水性和聚阴离子特性导致细胞膜穿透效率低下[62]; 药代动力学方面, 其易受核酸酶降解及肝/肾快速清除的影响, 血浆半衰期很短[63]; 生物安全性方面, 某些核酸序列可能诱发固有免疫应答或干扰凝血功能[62]。这些特性使得裸核酸的生物利用度普遍较低。为此, 开发高效安全的递送系统成为核酸药物临床转化的关键, 理想的递送载体需同时解决以下问题: 保护核酸免受酶解、延长体内循环时间、促进细胞摄取、降低免疫原性, 并实现组织特异性递送[62]。目前核酸递送大部分采用传统病毒载体[64] (如腺病毒或慢病毒), 但这类载体存在显著的安全隐患, 包括较高的免疫原性、较差的生物相容性, 以及可能导致外源基因随机插入宿主基因组等风险。PDEVs在核酸药物递送方面展现出较好的优势, 例如, 采用电穿孔联合超滤纯化技术处理的柠檬源性PDEVs可高效负载siRNA, 并能特异性靶向胃癌细胞表皮生长因子受体, 实现较高的基因沉默效率[65]。葛根源性PDEVs凭借其天然的血脑屏障穿透能力, 可通过神经元胞吞作用将神经保护性miRNA (如miR-124和miR-132) 递送至帕金森病模型小鼠的脑部病灶区域, 显著改善小鼠的线粒体功能障碍并恢复其神经元活性。柑橘PDEVs富含类黄酮、有机酸和柠檬酸等物质, 经电穿孔技术处理后可负载DDHD1-siRNA (包封率约为13%) 并将其靶向递送至人类结直肠癌细胞[55]。针叶樱桃源性PDEVs则可作为核酸药物的高效口服递送载体, 通过共孵育法包载的miRNA在PDEVs的保护下, 能够有效抵抗RNA酶降解及消化道强酸强碱环境的影响, 保持完整的生物学活性。实验证实, 该递送系统可顺利通过胃肠道屏障并精准靶向目标组织, 显著抑制靶基因表达, 展现出良好的基因治疗潜力[66]。
当然, PDEVs作为核酸药物递送系统也面临两大主要技术瓶颈, 首先, 核酸装载效率有待提高[67] (siRNA包封率通常维持在15%~25%); 另外, 大多数PDEVs的组织靶向特异性仍存在不足。
蛋白类药物因其高特异性、强效性和良好的生物相容性, 在肿瘤治疗、代谢性疾病和免疫调节等领域展现出不可替代的治疗价值。然而, 这类药物在临床应用中面临着显著的药代动力学挑战: 首先, 其分子结构易受多种蛋白酶(如胰蛋白酶、组织蛋白酶等) 降解作用的影响[68]; 其次, 在生理环境下易发生构象变化和聚集沉淀; 再者, 由于肾脏快速清除和网状内皮系统摄取, 其血浆半衰期普遍较短[69] (通常 < 2 h)。因此, 开发新型药物递送系统已成为当前蛋白质药物研究的重点方向。有研究报道, 苦瓜源性PDEVs通过超声载药法包载胰岛素后[13], 其在模拟胃液和肠液中的稳定性极大提高, 且在透过人结直肠癌细胞单层后仍然能保持稳定的二级结构, 极大提高了胰岛素的口服生物利用度[13]。Garaeva等[70]通过系统的体外实验证实, 葡萄柚源性PDEVs成功实现了两种模型蛋白(HSP70和BSA) 的高效装载, 显著提高了结肠癌细胞和人外周血单核细胞对这两种蛋白的摄取效率。
由于PDEVs独特的生物相容性和保护特性, 其所包载的蛋白质药物能够有效抵御胃肠道酶解作用及pH梯度变化等复杂体内环境的影响, 可显著提高蛋白类药物的生物利用度, 这些优势使PDEVs成为极具发展前景的蛋白类药物递送载体。
PDEVs作为新型药物递送载体具有多重优势, 主要体现在生物安全性、规模化可行性及治疗协同性三方面。
PDEVs来源于植物细胞, 其磷脂双分子层结构与哺乳动物EVs的组成高度相似, 但缺乏哺乳动物细胞特异性抗原(如MHC-Ⅰ/Ⅱ), 因而表现出显著降低的免疫原性。多项体内实验证实了其优异的安全性特征, 桑叶源性PDEVs在静脉注射后未引发显著的细胞毒性[71]; C57BL/6小鼠连续口服苦荞源性PDEVs 6周后, 组织病理学分析显示各主要器官均无异常病理改变[36]; 体外溶血实验证明, 即使浓度高达50 mg·L-1, 葡萄柚源性PDEVs仍不会引起显著溶血反应[72]。
PDEVs因其植物来源特性而被认为是一种极具规模化生产潜力的可持续资源[73]。与人工合成纳米颗粒或哺乳动物外泌体相比, PDEVs在原料获取方面具有显著优势: 植物原料来源广泛、生物量大、生长周期短且培养条件简单, 更易于实现规模化生产。从生产效率角度看, PDEVs的提取工艺具有时间短、产率高、操作简便等特点, 同时对生产设备要求较低, 这为其工业化大规模生产提供了便利条件[74]。此外, 在成本效益方面, PDEVs的原料成本和设备维护成本均显著低于哺乳动物来源的EVs, 使其在商业化应用中更具竞争优势。
由于PDEVs富含核酸、蛋白质和脂质在内的多种生物活性分子, 研究者认为其具有一定的生物活性并对其潜在应用展开了探索[37]。研究表明, PDEVs具有多种重要的生物学功能, 例如, 紫甘蓝PDEVs表现出显著的抗炎活性[75], 能够抑制巨噬细胞的炎症反应并促进结肠上皮细胞再生, 从而缓解炎症性肠病; 葡萄和番茄PDEVs具有强大的抗氧化能力[76], 能够显著降低活性氧水平并减轻氧化应激诱导的线粒体损伤; 人参PDEVs则展现出潜在的抗肿瘤效应, 其能够透过血脑屏障并招募M1型巨噬细胞, 起到增强抗肿瘤免疫的作用[77]。这些多元化的生物活性使PDEVs在治疗炎症性疾病、氧化应激相关疾病及肿瘤治疗等领域展现出广阔的应用前景。
PDEVs虽在药物递送领域展现出巨大优势, 但其实际应用仍面临分离纯化技术不成熟、载药效率低下, 以及长期安全性存疑等挑战。
传统差速离心法回收率很低, 且易混入植物细胞碎片、蛋白质聚集体等杂质[78]; 超速离心虽可提高纯度, 但耗时长, 且高剪切力易破坏囊泡完整性[79]。除了技术不理想以外, 植物本身的差异也带来一定的难题。不同植物来源(如果实、叶片、根茎) 的密度与粒径差异显著(如葡萄柚外囊泡平均粒径150 nm, 而拟南芥仅80 nm), 需开发针对性分离策略。新兴技术在实际应用中仍有一定局限。例如, 微流控分选可提高桑叶外泌体纯度(相较于传统方法), 但设备成本高且通量受限[80]。
PDEVs的药物装载效率目前仍存在显著局限性。以常用的共孵育法为例, 其对亲水性药物(如DOX) 的包封率明显低于人工合成的脂质体载体系统[5]。这主要归因于PDEVs天然膜结构的渗透性差异, 不仅导致初始载药效率低下, 还会引发药物泄漏问题, 严重影响递送系统的稳定性和治疗效果。
目前PDEVs的安全评估体系仍存在显著不足, 主要表现在以下方面: 首先, 现有研究多局限于短期毒性评价[72] (如采用MTT法检测72 h内的急性细胞毒性), 而缺乏系统性的长期安全性数据(如6个月以上的慢性毒性、免疫原性[81]和器官累积效应等), 这使得其潜在的长期不良反应风险难以准确评估。例如, 部分植物含有植物凝集素[82], 因此这类植物的PDEVs也可能含有凝集素, 长期摄入此类PDEVs可能导致机体出现不良反应。更为关键的是, 在临床转化过程中还面临重要的物种差异问题——现有研究主要基于小鼠等动物模型[83], 但由于人类与啮齿类动物在免疫系统响应和代谢途径等方面存在显著差异[84], 这些临床前数据可能无法准确预测PDEVs在人体中的实际安全性表现。因此, 建立更完善的长期毒性评价体系和开发更具预测性的拟人化动物模型, 是推进PDEVs临床应用亟待解决的关键问题。
本文系统综述了植物源性细胞外囊泡分离纯化技术、稳定性、靶向性、药物装载策略及其作为药物递送载体最新应用成果。PDEVs凭借其独特的生物学特性——包括天然的脂质双层结构、丰富的内源性生物活性物质(如蛋白质、核酸和脂质等), 以及出色的跨物种递送能力, 在药物递送领域展现出突破性优势。最新研究证实, PDEVs不仅能高效负载各类治疗分子, 其固有的低免疫原性和卓越的生物相容性更可显著降低传统递送系统常见的毒副作用, 在炎症性疾病、恶性肿瘤等多种疾病的治疗中已取得令人鼓舞的实验成果。
然而, PDEVs的临床应用仍面临若干关键科学问题和技术瓶颈: ①现有分离纯化技术(如差速离心法、尺寸排阻色谱法等) 在纯度、得率和可重复性方面仍存在明显不足, 且缺乏统一的质量控制标准; ②药物装载策略(如电穿孔法、冻融循环法等) 的效率与稳定性亟待提升, 靶向递送的精准度也有待加强; ③也是最为关键的, PDEVs的体内代谢动力学、长期生物安全性(特别是6个月以上的慢性毒性), 以及跨物种调控机制等基础科学问题尚未阐明, 严重制约了其临床转化进程。
基于当前研究现状, 未来突破方向应着重关注: ①开发高纯度、高产量的标准化制备工艺, 建立完善的质控体系; ②通过多学科交叉手段(如微流控技术、CRISPR基因编辑等) 实现PDEVs的精准工程化改造; ③深入解析PDEVs天然活性成分的分子作用机制; ④建立涵盖急性毒性、慢性毒性、免疫原性等全方位的安全性评价规范。随着纳米技术、生物工程等领域的协同发展, PDEVs有望克服传统药物递送系统的缺陷, 为下一代智能药物递送平台的构建开辟全新路径。

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2026年第61卷第1期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0734
  • 接收时间:2025-06-27
  • 首发时间:2026-09-21
  • 出版时间:2026-01-12
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  • 收稿日期:2025-06-27
  • 修回日期:2025-07-24
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    1浙江中医药大学药学院, 浙江 杭州 311402
    2浙江中医药大学中医药科学院, 浙江 杭州 310053

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)
属
Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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