Article(id=1308467641027416948, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308467640138227885, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0342, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1743091200000, receivedDateStr=2025-03-28, revisedDate=1747238400000, revisedDateStr=2025-05-15, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1789892595774, onlineDateStr=2026-09-20, pubDate=1760198400000, pubDateStr=2025-10-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1789892595774, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-09-20, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1789892595774, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1789892595774, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1308467640138227885, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2025', volume='60', issue='10', pageStart='2913', pageEnd='3262', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1760198400000', pubDateStr='2025-10-12', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1789892595562, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1789893273356, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1308470483071033443, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308467640138227885, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1308470483071033444, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308467640138227885, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=2933, endPage=2943, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1308467641258103669, articleId=1308467641027416948, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Research progress on the relationship between macrophage lipid droplet load and inflammatory phenotype, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Macrophages, as the main effector cells of innate immune response, exist in all tissues in the body, has become a new target of immunotherapy because of their high plasticity. Lipid droplets are storage organelles related to fat metabolism and energy homeostasis, but they are not simple lipid reservoirs, but multi-functional organelles with active metabolism. Recent studies have found that lipid droplets, as a hub integrating metabolism and inflammation, play a central role in the regulation of macrophage inflammatory phenotype. This article reviews the relationship and regulation mechanism between macrophage inflammatory phenotype and lipid droplet loading. Based on the regulation and main mechanism analysis of lipid droplet loading on macrophage inflammatory phenotype in atherosclerosis, tumor, tuberculosis and other inflammatory diseases, it discusses the therapeutic potential of regulating targeted lipid droplet loaded macrophages in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

, authors=Lu GAN, Ran DENG*, Xiao-yue ZHANG, Rui-han WEI, authorsList=Lu GAN, Ran DENG, Xiao-yue ZHANG, Rui-han WEI, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Ran DENG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2025 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1308467642159879034, articleId=1308467641027416948, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=巨噬细胞脂滴负载与炎症表型关系研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

巨噬细胞作为先天性免疫反应主要效应细胞, 存在于体内所有组织, 因其高度可塑性已成为免疫治疗新靶点。脂滴是脂质代谢及能量稳态中心的存储细胞器, 但其并非简单脂质贮存库, 而是代谢活跃的多功能细胞器。近来研究发现脂滴作为整合代谢和炎症枢纽, 在巨噬细胞炎症表型调控中发挥核心作用。本文对巨噬细胞炎症表型和脂滴负载的联系与调控机制加以综述, 基于动脉粥样硬化、肿瘤、结核病等多种炎症性疾病中脂滴负载对巨噬细胞炎症表型的调控和主要机制分析, 探讨调控靶向脂滴负载的巨噬细胞在炎症性疾病治疗中的治疗潜力。

, authors=干露, 邓然*, 张晓月, 魏芮晗, authorsList=干露, 邓然, 张晓月, 魏芮晗, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=邓然, authorNote=

作者贡献:

干露负责文章撰写及文章修改润色; 邓然提供文章的方向和思路及文章修改; 张晓月、魏芮晗负责文章撰写及图片绘制。

, correspAuthorsNote=
邓然, Tel: 18158861810, E-mail:
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Mediators Inflamm, 2021, 2021: 5595520., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null)], funds=null, companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1308499641403015782, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308467641027416948, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1308499641411404391, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308467641027416948, companyId=1308499641403015782, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=School of Integrated Traditional and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei 230012, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1308499641419793000, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308467641027416948, companyId=1308499641403015782, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=安徽中医药大学中西医结合学院, 安徽 合肥 230012)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1308499645119169159, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308467641027416948, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=YUzkFFv0Z1OtFPuT/6iTKQ==, figureFileBig=EuBvsm04T8WJUd+z7cTp9w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308499645190472328, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308467641027416948, language=CN, label=Fig.1, caption=Macrophage polarization typing and inflammatory diseases. Macrophages polarize into different types (M1 and M2) under the stimulation of various microenvironments, with key inducing factors, changes in biological processes during polarization, functional characteristics, and related diseases. M1 are activated by IFN-γ, LPS, etc., which activate pathways such as NF-κB, highly express markers such as CD86 and iNOS, and secrete pro-inflammatory factors (such as IL-6, TNF-α), participating in pro-inflammatory and anti-tumor responses. M2 secrete anti-inflammatory factors (such as IL-10, TGF-β) under the stimulation of IL-4, IL-10, etc., promoting tissue repair and immune regulation. The imbalance of macrophage polarization plays a key role in the occurrence and development of atherosclerosis, tumors, and tuberculosis. NF-κB: Nuclear factor kappa-B; IFN-γ: Interferon-γ; LPS: Lipopolysaccharide; IL: Interleukin; TNF-α: Tumour necrosis factor-α; TGF-β: Transforming growth factor-β; iNOS: Inducible nitric oxide synthase; FAO: Fatty acid oxidation, figureFileSmall=YUzkFFv0Z1OtFPuT/6iTKQ==, figureFileBig=EuBvsm04T8WJUd+z7cTp9w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308499645421159049, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308467641027416948, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=YQL4QLbLoCnclZ60EILROg==, figureFileBig=f/mdYumVXJA7xjkYGChkFQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308499645484073610, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308467641027416948, language=CN, label=Fig.2, caption=Key metabolic pathways in M1 type macrophages (A), and key metabolic pathways in M2 macrophages (B). A: After LXR interacts with DNA, it inhibits the expression of LDLR through IdoI, thereby suppressing macrophage foamization. The reverse transport of cholesterol is mediated by ABCA1 and ABCG1 to be excreted outside the macrophages, thereby inhibiting macrophage foamization and the formation of AS. PPARγ promotes the uptake of lipids by CD36, affecting the foamization process. At the same time, PPARγ regulates LXR and ABCA1 to affect the lipid metabolism of macrophages. TLR ligands activate the NF-κB pathway, increasing the expression of SREBP-1a, promoting lipid synthesis, the generation of inflammatory cytokines, and the production of anti-inflammatory lipids. The uptake of glucose by macrophages generates acetyl coenzyme A intracellularly. Acetyl coenzyme A enters the mitochondria and promotes lipid synthesis through the TCA cycle; B: In M2 macrophages, STAT6 is activated in response to IL-4. It promotes fatty acid oxidation through pathways such as fatty acid oxidation (such as CPT1), mitochondrial biogenesis (such as PPARγ), and lipid transport (such as CD36). Fatty acids enter the macrophages via lipoproteins and undergo a series of reactions to form fatty acid acyl-CoA. Fatty acid acyl-CoA is then transported into the mitochondria under the mediation of CPT and undergoes FAO. Studies have shown that the M2 polarization of macrophages is closely related to FAO. LDLR: Low density lipoprotein receptor; ABCA1: ATP-binding cassette transporter A1; ABCG1: ATP-binding cassette transporter G1; AS: Atherosclerosis; TLR: Toll-like receptors; STAT6: Signal transducer and activator of transcription 6; CPT1: Carnitine palmitoyl transferase 1, figureFileSmall=YQL4QLbLoCnclZ60EILROg==, figureFileBig=f/mdYumVXJA7xjkYGChkFQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1308499645559571083, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308467641027416948, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
DiseaseMechanismTreatment
AtherosclerosisWhen the LDL or cholesterol lipid absorbed by macrophages exceeds their phagocytic clearance capacity, it will lead to a large number of accumulated necrosis and lipid release of foam cells, and eventually form plaque necrosis coresBy regulating macrophage polarization for prevention and targeted therapy of AS, for example, curcumin achieves anti-AS effects by upregulating PPARγ expression
TumorThe effects of lipid droplets on tumors mainly involve cytotoxic stress, ER homeostasis disorders, oxidative and hunger related stress, promoting the proliferation and migration of cancer cellsThe combination therapy of targeted lipid metabolism therapy and targeted immunity may enhance the efficacy of immunotherapy
TuberculosisMtb utilizes lipid droplets and cholesterol on the cell membrane to supply itself and maintain the cell wall. M1 macrophages secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species, inhibiting the growth of Mtb, while M2 macrophages promote tissue repair and bacterial persistence, facilitating immune escape of pathogensBy regulating the polarization of macrophages and enhancing the host immune response through lipid droplets, the growth of Mtb is inhibited, such as PLIN-2 C terminal inhibitors
), ArticleFig(id=1308499645622485644, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308467641027416948, language=CN, label=Tab.1, caption=

Regulation of macrophage lipid droplets in the treatment of disease progression

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
DiseaseMechanismTreatment
AtherosclerosisWhen the LDL or cholesterol lipid absorbed by macrophages exceeds their phagocytic clearance capacity, it will lead to a large number of accumulated necrosis and lipid release of foam cells, and eventually form plaque necrosis coresBy regulating macrophage polarization for prevention and targeted therapy of AS, for example, curcumin achieves anti-AS effects by upregulating PPARγ expression
TumorThe effects of lipid droplets on tumors mainly involve cytotoxic stress, ER homeostasis disorders, oxidative and hunger related stress, promoting the proliferation and migration of cancer cellsThe combination therapy of targeted lipid metabolism therapy and targeted immunity may enhance the efficacy of immunotherapy
TuberculosisMtb utilizes lipid droplets and cholesterol on the cell membrane to supply itself and maintain the cell wall. M1 macrophages secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species, inhibiting the growth of Mtb, while M2 macrophages promote tissue repair and bacterial persistence, facilitating immune escape of pathogensBy regulating the polarization of macrophages and enhancing the host immune response through lipid droplets, the growth of Mtb is inhibited, such as PLIN-2 C terminal inhibitors
), ArticleFig(id=1308499645874143885, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308467641027416948, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
DiseaseRelated modelMacrophage phenotypePathwayReference
AtherosclerosisApoE-/- rats
Ldr-/- rats
Macrophages tend towards M1 polarizationPPAR/CMA pathway[31-35]
TumorC57BL/6 rats
BALB/c rats
Macrophages tend towards M2 polarizationIKK/NF-κB pathway
miR-2110/HDAC2/PLIN1 axis
AMPK/ULK1/autophagy pathway
[3, 36-40]
TuberculosisLTBI ratsMacrophages tend towards M2 polarizationPPARγ pathway[41-43]
), ArticleFig(id=1308499645987390094, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308467641027416948, language=CN, label=Tab.2, caption=

Summary of macrophage polarization characteristics and related molecular pathways in different disease models

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
DiseaseRelated modelMacrophage phenotypePathwayReference
AtherosclerosisApoE-/- rats
Ldr-/- rats
Macrophages tend towards M1 polarizationPPAR/CMA pathway[31-35]
TumorC57BL/6 rats
BALB/c rats
Macrophages tend towards M2 polarizationIKK/NF-κB pathway
miR-2110/HDAC2/PLIN1 axis
AMPK/ULK1/autophagy pathway
[3, 36-40]
TuberculosisLTBI ratsMacrophages tend towards M2 polarizationPPARγ pathway[41-43]
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巨噬细胞脂滴负载与炎症表型关系研究进展
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干露 , 邓然 * , 张晓月 , 魏芮晗
药学学报 | 综述 2025,60(10): 2933-2943
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药学学报 |综述 2025 , 60 (10) : 2933 -2943
巨噬细胞脂滴负载与炎症表型关系研究进展
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干露, 邓然* , 张晓月, 魏芮晗
作者信息
  • 安徽中医药大学中西医结合学院, 安徽 合肥 230012
通讯作者:
邓然, Tel: 18158861810, E-mail:
作者简介:

作者贡献:

干露负责文章撰写及文章修改润色; 邓然提供文章的方向和思路及文章修改; 张晓月、魏芮晗负责文章撰写及图片绘制。

Research progress on the relationship between macrophage lipid droplet load and inflammatory phenotype
Lu GAN, Ran DENG* , Xiao-yue ZHANG, Rui-han WEI
Affiliations
  • School of Integrated Traditional and Western Medicine, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei 230012, China
出版时间: 2025-10-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0342
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巨噬细胞作为先天性免疫反应主要效应细胞, 存在于体内所有组织, 因其高度可塑性已成为免疫治疗新靶点。脂滴是脂质代谢及能量稳态中心的存储细胞器, 但其并非简单脂质贮存库, 而是代谢活跃的多功能细胞器。近来研究发现脂滴作为整合代谢和炎症枢纽, 在巨噬细胞炎症表型调控中发挥核心作用。本文对巨噬细胞炎症表型和脂滴负载的联系与调控机制加以综述, 基于动脉粥样硬化、肿瘤、结核病等多种炎症性疾病中脂滴负载对巨噬细胞炎症表型的调控和主要机制分析, 探讨调控靶向脂滴负载的巨噬细胞在炎症性疾病治疗中的治疗潜力。

巨噬细胞极化  /  脂解  /  脂滴合成  /  炎症表型  /  炎症性疾病

Macrophages, as the main effector cells of innate immune response, exist in all tissues in the body, has become a new target of immunotherapy because of their high plasticity. Lipid droplets are storage organelles related to fat metabolism and energy homeostasis, but they are not simple lipid reservoirs, but multi-functional organelles with active metabolism. Recent studies have found that lipid droplets, as a hub integrating metabolism and inflammation, play a central role in the regulation of macrophage inflammatory phenotype. This article reviews the relationship and regulation mechanism between macrophage inflammatory phenotype and lipid droplet loading. Based on the regulation and main mechanism analysis of lipid droplet loading on macrophage inflammatory phenotype in atherosclerosis, tumor, tuberculosis and other inflammatory diseases, it discusses the therapeutic potential of regulating targeted lipid droplet loaded macrophages in the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

macrophage polarization  /  lipolysis  /  lipid droplet synthesis  /  inflammatory phenotype  /  inflammatory disease
干露, 邓然, 张晓月, 魏芮晗. 巨噬细胞脂滴负载与炎症表型关系研究进展. 药学学报, 2025 , 60 (10) : 2933 -2943 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0342
Lu GAN, Ran DENG, Xiao-yue ZHANG, Rui-han WEI. Research progress on the relationship between macrophage lipid droplet load and inflammatory phenotype[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2025 , 60 (10) : 2933 -2943 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0342
作为先天免疫系统的重要组成部分, 巨噬细胞广泛存在于机体几乎每个组织中, 并执行呈递抗原、吞噬及分泌细胞因子等基本功能, 是机体对病原体反应、炎症调节和组织再生的主要参与者[1]。巨噬细胞因其具有高度可塑性和异质性, 可在特定微环境下发生极化, 通过改变其表型以适应不同功能的需求。不同极化表型的巨噬细胞不仅在形态特征和分子表达模式上存在差异, 其免疫功能也大相径庭。按照分泌细胞因子和表型的不同巨噬细胞主要分为两类: 经典活化巨噬细胞(M1型), 以分泌炎症介质发挥促炎和抗肿瘤为特征; 选择性活化巨噬细胞(M2型), 释放大量抗炎细胞因子来调节炎症、修复组织和维持体内平衡。因此, 巨噬细胞表型变化的研究对多种炎症性疾病的治疗有着不可或缺的现实意义。
近来证实代谢重编程是巨噬细胞表型转换的物质基础, 巨噬细胞可适应周围环境变化, 这表明代谢相关变化可能会调节巨噬细胞丰度和炎症表型。巨噬细胞M1型极化依赖糖酵解代谢, 通过增加糖酵解和重塑三羧酸循环, 减少线粒体氧化磷酸化, 促进中间产物和活性氧生成, 从而增强巨噬细胞的炎症反应和旁分泌信号, 白介素(interleukin, IL)-10的转录激活因子(signal transducer and activator of transcription, STAT) 3信号通路在抑制炎症相关基因表达和促进巨噬细胞去激活中起关键作用。而巨噬细胞M2型极化则优先转向氧化磷酸化和脂肪酸氧化供能[2], 研究证实IL-4诱导M2型巨噬细胞极化与氧化磷酸化转换和细胞代谢变化有关, 其中过氧化物酶体增殖体激活受体(peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor, PPAR) γ信号增加是M2型巨噬细胞极化的关键调节因子。因此, 巨噬细胞代谢重编程对巨噬细胞炎症表型转化至关重要[3], 通过操纵巨噬细胞代谢类型调控其表型分化有助于开发新的炎症性疾病治疗策略[4]。
脂滴是唯一由磷脂单分子层包裹着疏水中性脂质核心组成的细胞器, 存在于几乎所有类型真核细胞中。脂滴核心是中性脂质, 其疏水成分主要为甘油三酯, 核心外包裹着单层磷脂分子, 其间镶嵌着多种蛋白, 这些蛋白对于脂滴的代谢具有重要作用, 称为脂滴相关蛋白。细胞摄取或从头合成脂肪酸后, 脂滴就会从内质网中萌生。作为一个复杂、高度动态的多功能细胞器, 脂滴在生物合成和消耗[通过脂肪酶介导酶水解(脂解) 或通过选择性自噬形式(噬脂)] 之间交替进行。许多生物在胞内储存脂质以产生代谢能量, 以防能量来源不足。但脂滴并非只是简单脂质储存库, 也是胞内和胞间脂肪酸运输重要节点。脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide, LPS) 介导M1型巨噬细胞极化, 在胞内脂滴中积聚甘油三酯, 这些负载脂滴的巨噬细胞通过多种机制支持动脉粥样硬化、肿瘤、结核病等炎症性疾病进展, 包括调控巨噬细胞的吞噬作用和脂质介导因子(如白细胞三烯和前列腺素) 的产生[5]。
本文综述了脂滴如何提供重要的能量来源, 并帮助维持细胞中的脂质和多功能平台, 以及调节各种巨噬细胞功能的信号分子。研究巨噬细胞炎症表型与脂滴间联系亟为必要, 在未来有望通过靶向负载脂滴巨噬细胞来调节巨噬细胞表型以期发挥治疗各类炎症性疾病的作用(图1)。
巨噬细胞能够摄取循环中乳糜微粒残余物和极低密度脂蛋白, 从而获取脂肪酸, 经过一系列酶催化, 在内质网中通过二酰基甘油酰基转移酶(diacylglycerol acyltransferase, DGAT) 1/2酯化, 并最终储存在脂滴中。巨噬细胞还具备从头脂肪生成能力, 利用乙酰辅酶A转谷酰基乙酸裂解酶(acetyl-CoA lyase, ACLY)、乙酰辅酶A羧化酶(acetyl-CoA carboxylase, ACC) 和脂肪酸合酶(fatty acid synthase, FAS) 的活性将柠檬酸盐转化为乙酰辅酶A、丙二酰辅酶A和棕榈酸, 进而通过DGAT1/2酯化并储存在脂滴中[6]。此外, 巨噬细胞通过自噬途径将脂滴及其内部成分降解, 并分泌脂肪酶、胆固醇酯转移蛋白等关键效应分子, 动态调控脂滴合成、降解及循环脂质间的交换过程。因此, 脂滴动态变化对于维持巨噬细胞能量平衡和炎症表型至关重要。
在感染或促炎信号如LPS或干扰素(interferon, IFN)-γ诱导下, 巨噬细胞极化为M1表型。M1型巨噬细胞活化的核心代谢特征表现为线粒体功能重塑和脂代谢重编程。具体表现为脂肪酸氧化(fatty acid oxidation, FAO) 和氧化磷酸化受到抑制, 同时三羧酸循环发生代谢分流: 柠檬酸被用于脂肪酸合成, 乌头酸参与衣康酸生成。此外, M1型巨噬细胞通过提高脂肪酸摄取能力及上调DGAT1/2表达, 促进甘油三酯合成, 形成有利于脂质蓄积的代谢微环境[7]。存储甘油三酯的脂滴在M1型巨噬细胞功能方面发挥重要作用, 其在体内主要发挥抗原呈递功能, 具有促炎、清除病原微生物、抗肿瘤等作用。
近来研究证实, M1型巨噬细胞倾向于将多余的脂肪酸以三酰甘油和胆固醇酯的形式储存在脂滴中, 脂滴合成增强促使巨噬细胞极化为M1型。在LPS刺激toll样受体(toll-like receptor, TLR)-4诱导下, M1型巨噬细胞利用ATP柠檬酸裂解酶、ACC和FAS的活性将柠檬酸盐转化为乙酰辅酶A、丙二酰辅酶A和棕榈酸, 进而通过DGAT1/2酯化并储存在脂滴中。DGAT1/2在M1型巨噬细胞极化中起着关键作用, 巨噬细胞中DGAT1/2表达缺失使甘油三酯合成和脂滴形成减少, 炎症能力受损, 这与IL-1β、IL-6和前列腺素(prostaglandin, PG) E2等炎症介质产生以及吞噬能力下降有关。脂肪酸合酶(fatty acid synthase, FASN) 已被证明是M1型巨噬细胞极化的必要条件。在高脂饮食喂养小鼠中, 肝巨噬细胞富含脂滴, 脂肪合成基因FASN、DGAT1/2和硬脂酰辅酶A去饱和酶-1显著上调, FASN缺失阻止小鼠M1型巨噬细胞的募集和炎症反应, 这些脂滴合成相关蛋白的增加对于维持M1型巨噬细胞的能量平衡和细胞功能至关重要。
此外, LPS通过诱导M1型巨噬细胞极化, 使胞内脂滴积累, 这一现象与脂肪甘油三酯脂肪酶(adipose triglyceride lipase, ATGL) 介导的脂解减少相关。机制上, LPS通过低氧诱导脂滴相关蛋白促进巨噬细胞中甘油三酯积累, 增强ATGL蛋白酶体降解来降低ATGL蛋白水平, 进而导致ATGL介导脂解减少。ATGL介导脂解作用减弱后, 巨噬细胞炎症反应减轻, 并伴有PGE2和IL-6产生减少[8]。同时, 脂肪酸氧化在M1型巨噬细胞中通常受到限制, 脂肪酸合成或摄取以及甘油三酯合成也显著增强。这些过程共同导致M1型巨噬细胞中脂滴的积累。综上所述, 脂滴合成增加及分解减少在M1型巨噬细胞极化中具有重要意义。
脂质积累或抗炎刺激(如IL-4、IL-13) 诱导巨噬细胞向M2型转化, 这种转化包括糖酵解减少、FAO增强、脂肪酸摄入量增加及脂滴中甘油三酯水解增加, 环氧化酶(cyclo-oxygenase, COX)-1产生增加、COX-2产生减少及胆固醇外排增加。同时, M2型巨噬细胞还会释放抗炎介质如IL-10、转化生长因子-β、精氨酸酶-1 (arginase1, Arg-1) 等, 具有抑制炎症、免疫调节及促进肿瘤的形成和发展的作用。
M2型巨噬细胞将脂肪酸引导至再酯化和β-氧化。M2型巨噬细胞依赖线粒体氧化磷酸化和FAO产生ATP, 用于驱动吞噬作用、脂肪酸再酯化和无效底物循环。来自脂解的脂肪酸在线粒体膜上转化为酰基肉碱, 然后被线粒体吸收并进行β-氧化分解。脂滴在ATGL、单酰基甘油脂肪酶、激素敏感性脂肪酶等催化下分解并释放出结合脂肪酸[9]。ATGL可促进脂解, 并增加氧化组织中线粒体脂肪酸氧化, 激素敏感性脂肪酶(hormone sensitive lipase, HSL) 被磷酸化后迁移到脂质沉积物的表面以促进甘油二酯分解, 这些脂解相关蛋白在M2型巨噬细胞的极化过程中表达均上调。研究证实, 葡萄糖调节蛋白78表达与M2型巨噬细胞极化呈正相关, 从机制上讲, 位于巨噬细胞脂滴中的葡萄糖调节蛋白78通过与ATGL相互作用抑制其泛素化来提高其蛋白质稳定性。ATGL的增加促进脂解及花生四烯酸的产生。过量的花生四烯酸与PPARγ相互作用, 促进其活化, 从而介导M2型巨噬细胞极化[10]。脂滴包被蛋白家族(perilipins, PLINs)-5有助于脂滴和线粒体的紧密接触, 从而促进脂肪酸从脂滴转移到线粒体, 进行β-氧化产生能量。
此外, FAO与M2极化状态有关。研究证实IL-4诱导M2型巨噬细胞中FAO水平上升, 脂肪酸摄取增加, IL-4信号激活信号传导和转录激活因子STAT6, 从而增加线粒体生物起源FAO和调节基因的表达, 如CD36 (传输脂肪酸进入细胞)、肉碱棕榈酰转移酶1 (传输脂肪酸入线粒体) 和PPARγ (调节线粒体生物发生的许多转录因子的转录共激活因子) 等。PPARγ是FAO的关键调节因子, 触发核内脂肪酸氧化相关基因的转录。在机制上, PPARγ和增殖物激活受体共激活物-1β共同激活M2型巨噬细胞中的氧化程序。PPARγ可感知脂肪酸变化, 并且已被证明在油酸和IL-4刺激下介导M2特征基因的转录。此外, STAT6和过氧化物酶体增殖体激活受体γ共激活因子-1β (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1β, PGC-1β) 形成一个前馈环, 增强和维持氧化代谢, 增强选择性活化。支持这种代谢编程的脂肪酸来源似乎是脂蛋白通过CD36摄取, 然后在溶酶体中进行脂解。在IL-4激活的巨噬细胞中, FAO和脂肪酸的合成与氧化代谢和ATP生产有关。FAO氧化代谢可支持IL-4激活的巨噬细胞的多种机制, 包括能量供应机制和代谢物调控网络, 促进巨噬细胞替代功能、纤维化和组织修复等。
脂质组学研究已阐明脂质合成对巨噬细胞向M1型炎症表型极化的重要性。在选择性TLR-4刺激下, 巨噬细胞用于恢复甘油脂、甘油磷脂和丙烯醛, 增加二十烷、鞘脂和甾醇的合成。
此外, 脂滴可积累花生四烯酸, 这表明脂滴能够有效地启动细胞内信号通路, 是脂质炎症介质产生的重要场所。在炎症情况下, 脂滴作为类二十烷形成酶的区室化位点, 胞质型磷脂酶A2从脂滴磷脂单层中释放花生四烯酸[11], PGE2和白三烯分别由COX和脂氧合酶(lipoxygenase, LOX) 释放的花生四烯酸合成。此外, 在麻风分枝杆菌的感染下, 其诱导的脂滴生物发生与PGE2和IL-10的增加相关[12]。因此, 储存在M1型巨噬细胞中的脂质可以用作合成炎症分子的前体, 并促进炎症因子的形成。
在感染、炎症或组织损伤期间, 巨噬细胞跟随趋化信号迁移到受损的组织/炎症部位, 巨噬细胞基于质膜融合和裂变的动态变化, 特异性识别、摄取和消除病原体或凋亡细胞, 并参与维持免疫功能以调节组织稳态。脂质合成提供了维持肌动蛋白细胞骨架网络和质膜之间的联系所必需的脂质, 从而提高吞噬水平。脂滴通过提供磷脂库来支持巨噬细胞吞噬作用, 这些磷脂可在膜膨胀过程中迅速被动员。其机制涉及脂滴在ATGL以及比较基因识别-58的作用下, 巨噬细胞依赖TLR-4刺激哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白复合物1, 影响脂质合成。研究发现, 固醇调节元件结合蛋白-1α (sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1α, SREBP-1α) 和哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白复合体1缺陷时, 脂质合成减少, 膜脂筏与肌动蛋白细胞骨架之间的相互作用减弱, 巨噬细胞吞噬作用被阻断[13]。同时, 巨噬细胞通过吞噬作用释放宿主细胞中的脂质又会对巨噬细胞功能产生影响。在吞噬作用发挥时, 膜上ATP结合盒转运蛋白激活, 促进胆固醇外流, 此过程称为胆固醇逆向转运[14]。
M1型巨噬细胞通过增强有氧糖酵解途径获取ATP, 这一过程伴随着葡萄糖摄取能力的提升, 但其三羧酸(tricarboxylic acid, TCA) 循环功能相对受限。相比之下, M2型巨噬细胞维持着完整的TCA循环功能, 并借助FAO促进线粒体氧化磷酸化[15]。FAO在巨噬细胞活化过程中发挥重要作用, 其代谢产物乙酰辅酶A不仅参与TCA循环生成柠檬酸, 还可通过柠檬酸穿梭机制转运至胞质, 在ATP-柠檬酸裂解酶催化下重新生成乙酰辅酶A, 进而转化为丙二酰辅酶A。值得注意的是, 丙二酰辅酶A能够诱导M1型巨噬细胞中甘油醛-3-磷酸脱氢酶的丙二酰化修饰, 增强其糖酵解活性及IL-1β和IL-6炎症因子的产生[16]。IL-4激活转录因子STAT6, 从而增加FAO和线粒体生物学中的基因表达。CD36通过动态棕榈酰化将脂肪酸转运至细胞内[17]; 肉碱棕榈酰转移酶-1将脂肪酸(fatty acid, FA) 转运至线粒体, 使其发生FAO; PPARγ诱导线粒体生物发生。多种途径协同, 为巨噬细胞活化提供能量。因此可通过抑制FAO来阻碍M2巨噬细胞活化。
研究发现, 在STAT6基因缺陷时, PGC-1β表达失效, 这提示了氧化代谢和炎症之间的联系。在依托莫西的抑制作用(氧化磷酸化) 下发现Arg-1 (巨噬细胞抗炎标志) 活性降低。同时, IL-4可以诱导编码精氨酸和甘露糖受体的相关基因的激活表达[18]。
干扰素刺激基因是与脂滴有关, 涉及免疫系统的鸟苷三磷酸酶(guanosine triphosphatase, GTP酶) 家族成员。干扰素诱导GTP酶家族成员, 避免相关蛋白脱靶激活, 从而保护自身结构。在吞噬分枝杆菌的细胞中发现, 与免疫相关的GTP酶结合吞噬体中的脂质以调节巨噬细胞的吞噬功能[19]。
在干扰素的刺激下, 脂肪酸和胆固醇合成增加, 细胞脂质代谢发生改变。同时, 干扰素也与氧化磷酸化有关。部分病毒抑制蛋白、内质网相关蛋白、干扰素诱导蛋白在脂滴上富集或通过脂滴发挥功能, 这些蛋白在未受干扰素刺激的正常细胞中表达水平通常较低[20]。当病毒侵袭时, 它和巨噬细胞中胆固醇的代谢及其产物促进干扰素分泌来放大免疫和抗病毒作用。如7-脱氢胆固醇(胆固醇合成的中间态, 可被其还原酶转化成胆固醇) 被发现通过增强干扰素激活剂(如环鸟苷酸-腺苷酸合成酶、干扰素基因刺激蛋白、干扰素调节因子-3) 以及促进干扰素产生来推动抗病毒进程。同样的, 胆固醇代谢产物25-羟基胆固醇也被证明在水泡性口炎病毒感染中抑制膜融合以阻碍病毒侵入宿主细胞[21]。
PPARγ是一种配体依赖性转录因子, 在免疫细胞、肝脏中广泛表达, 与脂质等外源性配体结合被激活, 与另一种核受体类视黄醇X受体(retinoid X receptor, RXR) 形成异二聚体随后转移到核内激活靶基因转录, 在脂质代谢、炎症反应和细胞分化等多个方面发挥着关键作用。由于其广泛生物活性, PPARγ引起研究者广泛关注和研究。
PPARγ在巨噬细胞中具有抗炎作用, 其缺失会导致下游靶基因(如PLIN2、CD36) 表达下降, 损害脂滴形成和脂质代谢, 进而可能加剧炎症反应。PPARγ影响M2极化, 主要在转录水平促进脂肪酸ω氧化和线粒体生成, 与PGC-1β偶联, 直接调节Arg-1产生。巨噬细胞中PPARγ敲除抑制M2型巨噬细胞的极化, 并降低Arg-1的产生。此外, 研究证实PPARγ转录激活脂解基因ATGL表达, 从而增加脂解作用。此外, 脂滴相关蛋白Cidea和Cidec双敲除通过激活ATGL增加游离脂肪酸, 进而激活PPARα及其下游过氧化物酶体和线粒体通路, 协同PPARγ实现脂代谢的动态平衡。细胞死亡诱导DFFA样效应子(cell death-inducing DFFA-like effector, CIDE)-ATGL-PPAR通路调节脂滴、过氧化物酶体和线粒体之间协调, 脂滴作为胞内重要细胞器, 其代谢变化可改变细胞代谢状态, 并通过增加线粒体和过氧化物酶体的功能来实现脂肪酸水解-释放-氧化过程[22]。
细胞因子如IL-4、IL-13、IL-10等可通过促进PPARγ表达来触发M2型巨噬细胞极化标志物表达, 阻断TLR-4、核因子κB (nuclear factor kappa-B, NF-κB) 和COX-2等转录因子与靶基因启动子中同源位点结合, 抑制M1型巨噬细胞极化及促炎因子[如肿瘤坏死因子α (tumour necrosis factor-α, TNF-α)和IL-6] 表达, 从而改善炎症反应, 这与STAT6磷酸化后结合启动子上结合位点, 使PPARγ表达增加, 抑制c-Jun氨基末端激酶(c-Jun N-terminal kinase, JNK) 的激活有关。Janus激酶(Janus kinase, JAK)/STAT通路是调控巨噬细胞M1和M2极化的开关, 其极化方向取决于细胞因子所激活STAT亚型。STAT3/6/PPARγ途径可调节许多M2型标志物生成, 为巨噬细胞成熟的关键环节之一。干扰素-γ (interferon-γ, IFN-γ) 与其受体结合后激活JAK, 诱导STAT1磷酸化, 从而使M1型巨噬细胞极化。而PPARγ在NF-κB通路中则抑制NF-κB表达及其磷酸化而调控巨噬细胞向M2极化。
综上所述, PPARγ激活是调节M2型巨噬细胞极化中心环节, PPARγ激活后, 一方面调节脂解相关基因表达, 另一方面激活JAK/STAT, 抑制NF-κB信号通路, 减少促炎细胞因子分泌, 促使巨噬细胞向M2型极化。因此通过上调PPARγ表达, 提高脂解、脂肪酸氧化及氧化磷酸化过程, 可调控机体全身代谢, 为代谢性疾病的防治提供新思路。
肝X受体(liver X-activated receptors, LXRs) 是细胞核受体超家族成员之一, 有LXRα和LXRβ两种亚型。LXRα主要表达于肝脏、肾脏、巨噬细胞和脂肪组织等, 具有组织特异性, LXRβ则普遍表达。作为脂质代谢主要调节器, LXRs参与脂质合成和脂肪酸储存, 脂解和FAO调控, 此外, 其还在炎症和免疫反应调控中发挥关键作用。鉴于LXRs在代谢、炎症和免疫调控中具有复杂而多面作用, 对代谢性疾病和免疫相关疾病的治疗具有重要意义。
研究发现, 在巨噬细胞中激活LXRs减少LPS诱导IL-6、COX-2等促炎细胞因子产生及M1型巨噬细胞极化, 相反LXRα/β基因被敲除后失去对LPS促炎反应的抑制作用。进一步研究发现, LXRs的抗炎作用是通过反式阻遏作用抑制NF-κB信号通路, 继而抑制其调控的靶基因的表达。机制上, LXRs激活主要通过拮抗NF-κB、活化蛋白1介导炎症因子转录上调, 促进巨噬细胞向M2型极化, 其抑制可导致巨噬细胞炎性小体活化增强, 促进抗炎和促纤维化表型[23]。此外, 还与激活LXRs抑制干扰素基因刺激蛋白(stimulator of interferon genes, STING) 信号传导有关。STING信号被精确调节以诱导脂质代谢、维持免疫稳态并避免不良炎症。环鸟苷酸腺苷酸合成酶(cyclic GMP-AMP synthase, cGAS)-STING途径作为主要的DNA传感先天免疫途径, 具有引发强IFN应答的能力。DNA与cGAS的结合变构触发其催化活性并导致产生环磷酸腺苷(cyclic adenosine monophosphate, cGAMP), 驱动Ⅰ型干扰素的产生, 同时激活IκB激酶(inhibitor of kappa B kinase, IKK), 触发NF-κB抑制剂IκBα的磷酸化, 加速NF-κB进入细胞核, 增强某些炎症细胞因子的产生。LXRα和LXRβ在小分子T0901317或GW3965的刺激下传导信号, 其脂质代谢诱导cGAMP特异性核酸酶鞘磷脂磷酸二酯酶酸样3A (acid sphingomyelinase-like phosphodiesterase 3A, SMPDL3A) 表达, SMPDL3A选择性降解cGAMP以限制STING过度介导的先天免疫[24]。
激活LXRα导致甘油三酯生成升高, 脂滴合成增多, 而选择性激动LXRβ可减少这种作用。这是因为LXRα和LXRβ在DNA结合和配体结合领域的氨基酸序列大致相似, 但与共调控因子相互作用方面存在差异。LXRα更倾向于与抑制因子交互作用, 而LXRβ与共激活因子的相互作用则更强。
SREBP有3种亚型: SREBP-1a、SREBP-1c和SREBP-2。SREBP-1是一种重要的脂肪生成转录调节因子, 作为一种结合内质网的无活性前体被合成, 其中SREBP-1c是参与调控脂肪酸、甘油三酯和胆固醇合成的转录因子, 可激活其下游靶基因, 增强多种参与脂肪酸从头合成的基因表达, 如FASN和ACC-1。当细胞胆固醇水平超过阈值浓度时, SREBP裂解激活蛋白(SREBP cleavage-activating protein, SCAP)/SREBP复合物与胰岛素诱导基因(insulin-induced genes, Insigs) 结合, Insigs将SCAP/SREBP复合物保留在内质网中。当细胞胆固醇水平下降到阈值以下时, SCAP/SREBP复合物从Insigs释放并从内质网移动到高尔基体, 释放出具有转录活性的SREBP-1, 经高尔基体中的蛋白酶加工, 穿梭至细胞核调控脂肪生成基因表达[25]。迄今为止, 所有SREBP同种型都使用相同的Insigs/SCAP机制进行固醇介导的裂解调节[26]。
SREBP-1a与调控经典活化的M1型巨噬细胞脂肪生成和吞噬作用有关。LPS通过TLR-4信号通路诱导M1巨噬细胞反应, 显著增强其脂肪合成能力和吞噬活性。然而, 当SREBP-1a在骨髓源性巨噬细胞中缺失时, 脂肪生成和吞噬作用均减少。TLR-4信号活化可上调SREBP-1表达, 促进具有抗炎特性的脂肪酸生成, 进而抑制NF-κB介导的炎症级联反应, SREBP-1的缺失会导致炎症反应的消退受损。此外, SREBP-1在巨噬细胞的替代激活中起重要作用。研究发现, SREBP-1被Th2细胞的细胞因子IL-4激活, 会触发脂肪从头合成程序, 脂肪酸合成增加, 使巨噬细胞向M1型极化, 促进巨噬细胞的替代激活[27]。当培养基中添加外源脂肪酸(油酸; C18∶1) 时, 缺失的SREBP-1导致的吞噬活性降低得以恢复。同样, LPS和棕榈酸盐(C16∶0) 均增加RAW 264.7细胞中FAS活性。这些发现证实, SREBP-1介导的脂肪生成途径对维持巨噬细胞正常脂质代谢和生理功能具有决定性作用。
SREBP-1缺失会延迟炎症消退并损害组织修复能力, 可见其在巨噬细胞功能中的重要性[28]。综上所述, SREBP一方面通过Insigs/SCAP机制调控脂质代谢, 另一方面SREBP激活可触发脂肪从头合成程序, 使巨噬细胞向M1型极化, 因此抑制SREBP的表达使巨噬细胞向抗炎型发展有助于治疗炎症性疾病。
花生四烯酸通过COX和LOX代谢为PGE2和白三烯, PGE2通过激活cAMP-PKA激活NF-κB, 驱动IL-6、TNF-α表达, 白三烯则通过BLT1受体激活MAPK/EPK从而增强NF-κB转录活性[29]。花生四烯酸衍生的氧化脂质(如11-羟基二十碳四烯酸) 可促进核苷酸结合寡聚化结构域样受体蛋白3 (NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3, NLRP3) 炎症小体组装, 释放促炎因子IL-1β和IL-18使巨噬细胞向M1型极化[30]。乙酰辅酶A通过组蛋白乙酰转移酶乙酰化STAT6, 推动STAT6与IL-4结合, 促进Arg-1等基因表达。乙酰辅酶A进入三羧酸循环生成柠檬酸, 协同STAT6使巨噬细胞向M2型极化(图2)。
巨噬细胞脂滴的异常积累驱动多种疾病进展, 如动脉粥样硬化、肿瘤、结核病等, 靶向其代谢或功能可提供潜在治疗策略(表1)。
动脉粥样硬化(atherosclerosis, AS) 是一种涉及先天和适应性免疫系统的慢性代谢性疾病。研究发现巨噬细胞是参与AS发病机制的主要免疫细胞, 近来研究发现AS疾病进展和稳定性取决于浸润巨噬细胞数量、极化状态及不同类型巨噬细胞群体的比例。M1型巨噬细胞可通过脂质积累转化为泡沫细胞, 这是AS形成的关键步骤, 表现为炎症和糖酵解代谢水平升高[31]。相比之下, M2型巨噬细胞可防止斑块形成, 减少炎症和氧化磷酸化。因此, 减少M1型巨噬细胞极化、增加脂解和防止泡沫细胞形成是临床治疗AS的潜在靶点。
近来研究发现, 位于脂滴表面的PLINs通过调节巨噬细胞内脂滴形成和分解代谢调控其表型极化。巨噬细胞极性、胞质脂滴大小与PLINs表达水平之间存在关联。PLINs在脂滴及其周围起着结构作用, 并通过选择性将关键的脂肪生成和脂肪分解酶募集到脂滴来调节脂滴代谢。
PLIN2主要在动脉斑块中表达, 与巨噬细胞M1型炎症表型有关。在PLIN2敲除的巨噬细胞中, 脂质含量及脂滴大小和数量降低, 而ATGL依赖性脂解增加, 细胞供能从葡萄糖向FAO转变。在脂解之前, PLIN2会通过分子伴侣介导的自噬(chaperone-mediated autophagy, CMA) 途径从脂滴表面被去除。这一过程涉及CMA伴侣热休克同源蛋白70 (heat shock cognate 70 kDa protein, HSC70) 识别PLIN2的KFERQ基序, 随后磷酸化导致其从脂滴上分离, 并被引导至CMA活性溶酶体中。HSC70与酶体相关膜蛋白2A (lysosome-associated membrane protein 2A, LAMP2A) 相互作用, 使PLIN2展开并通过溶酶体蛋白酶进行降解[32]。PLIN2从脂滴表面移除, 脂滴便开始水解。机制上, PLIN2可防止ATGL进入脂滴表面, 从而保护脂滴免受脂解。PLIN2起着防止脂解的屏障作用, 但这种屏蔽效应具体分子基础尚不清楚。
PLIN1及PLIN5的表达与斑块稳定性和巨噬细胞M2型抗炎表型密切相关, 巨噬细胞中过表达PLIN1/5可抑制巨噬细胞M1型极化及脂质积累, 对载脂蛋白E敲除小鼠中AS进展具有保护作用[33]。PLIN1及PLIN5均可被蛋白激酶A (protein kinase A, PKA) 磷酸化, PLIN1和PLIN5直接与ATGL及HSL相互作用, 通过调节脂肪酶向脂滴的募集以及介导脂滴与线粒体的相互作用调控脂解过程。机制上, PLIN5作为脂解屏障, 通过将比较基因识别蛋白58 (comparative gene identification-58, CGI58) 隔离在脂滴上来防止不受控制的脂解, 从而防止其与ATGL相互作用。PKA的磷酸化可能充当PLIN5脂解屏障和促脂解功能之间的开关。
PPARγ作为脂肪酸传感器, 已成为AS极具潜力的治疗靶点。激活PPARγ能有效抑制巨噬细胞炎症, 促进M1型巨噬细胞向M2型巨噬细胞转化[34]。激活PPARγ可通过抑制脂肪酸转运蛋白1, 减少巨噬细胞中总游离脂肪酸和脂滴积累。PPARγ还参与调节胆固醇流出基因的表达, 通过激活LXRα, 调节AS斑块中的脂质积累。此外, PLINs受PPARγ直接转录控制, 研究证实PLINs通过转录激活和凝胶转移试验被鉴定为PPARγ靶点[35]。综上所述, PPARγ可能成为研究脂滴代谢与巨噬细胞极化相互作用及其对AS影响的重要靶点。
肿瘤相关巨噬细胞是浸润在肿瘤组织中的巨噬细胞, 在肿瘤微环境中发生不同性质的活化, 即分化为M1型和M2型。临床数据显示, 肿瘤内肿瘤相关巨噬细胞密度越高, 患者预后越差。M1型巨噬细胞产生大量促炎细胞因子诱导T细胞介导免疫反应, 释放细胞毒性分子[如一氧化氮和活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS) 等] 和发挥吞噬功能直接杀伤肿瘤细胞, 发挥抗肿瘤作用。增强FAO则通过STAT6磷酸化促进Mrc-1、Tgm-2、Arg-1等表达以维持巨噬细胞M2样表型。M2型巨噬细胞促进精氨酸水解, 影响T细胞和自然杀伤细胞活化和增殖, 进而引发机体免疫抑制, 其还能分泌IL-10、TGF-β等细胞因子, 不仅刺激肿瘤发生和增殖转移, 还促进肿瘤区域血管生成, 为肿瘤生长和播散提供丰富供血和营养[36]。
近期研究表明, 脂滴在各种癌症类型巨噬细胞中富集, 负载脂滴巨噬细胞内脂质发生增加, 脂解活性降低。巨噬细胞受肿瘤细胞影响改变自身脂质成分, 并从环境中摄入脂质, 形成富含脂滴的巨噬细胞。脂肪酸转位酶CD36表达升高及脂质摄取增加也是肿瘤相关巨噬细胞分化和功能所必需, CD36表达增加与肿瘤相关巨噬细胞促肿瘤功能相关, 通过CD36受体大量摄取肿瘤释放游离脂肪酸, 进行FAO供能用于抗炎M2表型的维持。而负载脂滴的巨噬细胞会分泌趋化因子(C-C基元)配体20 [chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 20, CCL20], 从而募集CCR6+调节性T细胞(regulatory T cells, Treg), 导致抗肿瘤免疫应答受损。靶向催化脂滴合成DGAT1/2可抑制负载脂滴巨噬细胞形成, 显著减少Treg募集, 延缓肿瘤生长[37]。肿瘤相关巨噬细胞中COX-2酶通过FAO产生的前体合成PGE2, PGE2不仅促进肿瘤细胞的增殖和转移, 还抑制T细胞活性[38]。此外, 在肿瘤相关巨噬细胞中检测到脂解相关蛋白单酰基甘油脂肪酶(monoglyceride lipase, MGLL) 低表达, MGLL过表达阻止肿瘤相关巨噬细胞中脂质积累, 刺激促炎性细胞因子的产生和M1极化, 表现出良好抗肿瘤活性。以上研究证实, 脂滴生物合成和脂解在促进肿瘤相关巨噬细胞免疫抑制功能中具有重要作用, 突出靶向负载脂滴巨噬细胞在癌症治疗中的潜力。
PLINs也与肿瘤相关巨噬细胞等密切相关。PLIN2与PLIN3在肿瘤微环境中促进巨噬细胞向M2型极化, 与炎症因子协同增强免疫抑制。PLIN2在各种恶性肿瘤中表达升高, 如乳腺癌、结直肠癌等, 其表达与肿瘤侵袭性潜力和恶性程度有很大关系[39]。在缺氧肿瘤微环境中, PLIN2抑制肝癌细胞中AMPK/ULK1/自噬途径活性来调节缺氧诱导因子1α (hypoxia-inducible factor 1-α, HIF-1α), 从而促进肝细胞癌细胞增殖[40]。近来研究发现, PLIN3作为诊断标志在肾细胞癌组织和细胞系中表达升高, 且可用于区分癌组织和正常肾组织。此外, PLIN3升高预示无病生存期和总生存期较差, 也可作为预后生物学标志。
巨噬细胞利用脂代谢重编程提供能量并促进或抑制肿瘤的进展, 发挥双重调节作用。这一发现为开发新型联合治疗策略提供理论依据: 通过同时靶向脂质代谢治疗和靶向免疫的联合治疗或可增强免疫治疗效果。研究表明, 将自噬调节剂(如诱导剂雷帕霉素和抑制剂羟氯喹) 与程序性细胞死亡蛋白1 (programmed cell death protein 1, PD-1) 阻断剂联合使用, 可有效抑制M2型巨噬细胞分化, 上调肿瘤细胞和巨噬细胞表面CD47的表达水平, 从而增强抗肿瘤效应[3]。但是由于肿瘤微环境特异性, 实体瘤内药物渗透受限, 同一瘤内的不同区域PLINs表达差异较大, 现有PPARγ激动剂对肿瘤的治疗也有一定局限性。
结核病是由结核分枝杆菌(Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mtb) 引起的传染病, 主要涉及细菌入侵、宿主免疫反应及细菌与宿主间相互作用。巨噬细胞是Mtb在人体内免疫防御与病理损伤的双重核心细胞, 同时也是获得性抗结核免疫的主要效应细胞, 但其不能有效杀伤和清除寄生在胞内的Mtb。Mtb引发巨噬细胞明显变化, 导致脂滴的形成, 诱导泡沫巨噬细胞形成是Mtb实现长期潜伏感染重要途径, 脂滴是胞内Mtb主要营养来源, 以此来逃避免疫反应和抗菌药物攻击[41]。
感染早期, Mtb通过分泌早期分泌抗原靶6 (early secreted antigenic target 6 kDa, ESAT6) 等效应分子重编程宿主脂质代谢, 诱导脂滴形成并积累中性脂质。随后, 菌体分解脂滴中甘油三酯和胆固醇酯, 释放游离脂肪酸和胆固醇被多途径利用: 作为FAO底物合成ATP维持Mtb在巨噬细胞内长期存活; 作为酰基引物参与聚酮脂合成; 或整合到菌体磷脂及三酰基甘油中, 不仅为病原体提供能量和生物合成原料, 同时逃避宿主免疫反应。同时, Mtb通过多种机制(阻断溶酶体酶向吞噬体的易位, 抑制吞噬体内Ca2+和H+的积累) 抑制吞噬体的成熟和酸化以提高其在巨噬细胞内的存活率。在Mtb感染的小鼠中, 研究人员利用ACC-2抑制剂与异烟肼联合使用改善了感染情况并抑制Mtb传播[42]。因此, 靶向性调控巨噬细胞脂质摄入, 阻止或逆转巨噬细胞泡沫化改变对结核病防控将有积极指导意义。
免疫介导巨噬细胞脂质稳态背后的机制主要涉及PPARγ的感染依赖性激活。在缺失PPARγ巨噬细胞中, Mtb感染诱导泡沫巨噬细胞形成的水平大大降低。Mtb感染后, 通过PPARγ等通路, 巨噬细胞PLIN2表达上调3~5倍, Mtb感染可凭借TLR2依赖方式增加PPARγ在感染细胞中表达, 这些信号通路激活导致巨噬细胞内脂滴积聚[43]。
通过调控巨噬细胞极化状态及靶向脂滴代谢增强宿主免疫反应, 可有效抑制Mtb生长。具体策略包括: ①开发特异性靶向PLIN2 C端与ATGL相互作用域的肽类拮抗剂; ②在感染部位选择性下调PLIN2表达。这些干预手段可避免对PLIN1/3功能的非特异性影响, 实现精准免疫调控。现有PPARγ激动剂虽能抑制PLIN2表达, 减少脂滴积累, 但同时上调CD36促进Mtb胆固醇摄取, 总之, PPARγ在巨噬细胞与脂肪组织中双向作用难以区分, 见表2[3, 31-43]。
近期研究证据表明, 巨噬细胞M1和M2型活化状态存在差异, 但也有重叠效应, 这需要动态地理解巨噬细胞活化过程。M1型和M2型并非相互排斥, 在疾病状态下二者往往是共存的。这种混合表型的功能倾向(促炎或抗炎) 取决于活化与抑制信号的平衡, 及局部组织微环境的调控。因此, 在研究巨噬细胞极化时, 不能简单地将它们视为完全不同细胞群体, 需要更深入地研究M1型和M2型极化的作用机制, 考虑它们动态复杂性。这些信号间相互作用极具复杂性, 需要进一步体内和体外研究来揭示。通过综合考虑这些因素, 可更准确地理解巨噬细胞在炎症型疾病中作用, 并为相关疾病的治疗提供新的思路和方法。
由于PPAR激动剂具有重要代谢调节作用和良好的药用性, 许多PPAR激动剂已被合成用于治疗代谢性疾病。如选择性PPARα激动剂贝特酸盐与他汀类药物联合, 治疗AS性高血脂和高甘油三酯血症; 噻唑烷二酮是有效的PPARγ激活剂, 被用作胰岛素增敏剂来治疗2型糖尿病。先前的显著成效不仅推动了PPAR激动剂的发展, 也引发了新型PPAR调节剂的研制, 包括选择性PPARβ/δ激活剂、双PPAR激动剂和泛PPAR激动剂。除了血脂异常和2型糖尿病, PPAR激动剂对代谢综合征的其他方面也有深远的影响, 如糖尿病并发症、非酒精性脂肪性肝病, 以及神经退行性疾病、癌症和炎症性疾病在内的非代谢疾病。因此, PPAR激动剂在多种疾病和并发症中的研究已引起大多数人的兴趣。
基于上述研究发现, 通过调节巨噬细胞极化预防和靶向治疗AS, 如姜黄素通过上调M1型巨噬细胞中PPARγ的表达, 进而正向调控CD36和ATP结合盒转运蛋白亚家族A成员1的表达水平, 这一机制不仅有助于维持细胞内胆固醇稳态, 同时显著增强其抗AS的生物学效应。值得注意的是, 靶向脂滴代谢的治疗方法可能因脱靶效应而受限, 脂滴作为多功能细胞器, 参与全身脂质稳态, 靶向干预可能抑制脂解从而引发肝脏毒性、肾上腺皮质脂滴减少进而影响类固醇激素合成而导致内分泌紊乱、能量代谢失衡等潜在不良反应。
未来的研究需要从分子机制、技术创新、临床试验3个维度突破, 重编程脂滴代谢靶向脂滴负载的巨噬细胞及其炎症反应有望成为治疗的重要突破口。以下是未来研究的重点方向: ①特异性干预脂滴代谢。可通过调控酶活性如开发小分子抑制剂/激活剂选择性靶向DGAT1/2 (合成) 或ATGL/HSL (水解) 治疗各类疾病; 或利用碱基编辑技术调控硬脂酰-CoA去饱和酶1, 降低饱和脂肪酸, 减轻脂毒性等。②设计智能响应微环境系统。如设计可在缺氧环境下释放HIF-1α抑制剂的缺氧响应性药物, 靶向肿瘤或缺血组织中的促炎巨噬细胞[44]。③人为进行RNA干扰。已有研究证实, miR-708可通过抑制NF-κB和花生四烯酸途径负性调节TNF-α/IL-1β信号, 达到抗炎的治疗效果[45]。将来, 随着科技的进步和研究的深入, 有望实现这些愿景。

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2025年第60卷第10期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0342
  • 接收时间:2025-03-28
  • 首发时间:2026-09-20
  • 出版时间:2025-10-12
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  • 收稿日期:2025-03-28
  • 修回日期:2025-05-15
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    安徽中医药大学中西医结合学院, 安徽 合肥 230012

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数
科
Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)
属
Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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