Article(id=1308455485330453312, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308455410751525737, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0126, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1739203200000, receivedDateStr=2025-02-11, revisedDate=1743955200000, revisedDateStr=2025-04-07, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1789889697630, onlineDateStr=2026-09-20, pubDate=1754928000000, pubDateStr=2025-08-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1789889697630, onlineIssueDateStr=2026-09-20, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1789889697630, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1789889697630, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1308455410751525737, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2025', volume='60', issue='8', pageStart='2375', pageEnd='2648', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1754928000000', pubDateStr='2025-08-12', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1789889679849, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1789893542748, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1308471612978786380, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308455410751525737, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1308471612978786381, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1308455410751525737, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=2430, endPage=2439, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1308455485959598913, articleId=1308455485330453312, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Inflammation resolution and related therapeutic agents in cardiovascular diseases: research progress and future directions, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Cardiovascular diseases pose a serious threat to human life and health, with their incidence and mortality rates rapidly increasing in China in recent years. Inflammation resolution has become a key focus in cardiovascular research, and in-depth studies of this process have provided new insights into the potential mechanisms and treatments for cardiovascular diseases. Current research on inflammation resolution mechanisms primarily involves pro-resolution mediators, endogenous gases, and immune cells such as macrophages. Based on the important role of inflammation resolution in cardiovascular diseases and the potential therapeutic targets it may offer, this paper reviews the mechanisms of inflammation resolution, the research progress of inflammation resolution in cardiovascular diseases, and the current status of therapeutic strategies and drug research targeting inflammation resolution, with the aim of providing new treatment approaches for cardiovascular diseases.

, authors=Jin WANG, Ming XU*, authorsList=Jin WANG, Ming XU, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Ming XU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2025 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1308455488207745862, articleId=1308455485330453312, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=炎症消退及相关治疗药物在心血管疾病中的研究与前景, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

心血管疾病严重威胁人类生命健康, 近年来其在我国发病率和死亡率迅速增加。炎症消退已经成为心血管领域研究的重点, 对其深入的研究为心血管疾病的潜在机制和治疗方法提供了新的途径。现如今炎症消退的主要机制研究涉及促炎症消退介质、内源性气体及巨噬细胞等免疫细胞。基于炎症消退在心血管疾病中的重要作用以及可能提供的潜在治疗靶点, 本文对炎症消退的作用机制、炎症消退在心血管疾病中的研究进展, 以及近年来靶向炎症消退的治疗策略和药物研究现状进行综述, 期望为心血管疾病提供新的治疗思路。

, authors=王锦, 徐明*, authorsList=王锦, 徐明, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=徐明, authorNote=

作者贡献:

王锦负责文献资料收集和撰写; 徐明负责修改。

, correspAuthorsNote=
徐明, Tel: 15805195696, E-mail:
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MechanismNameEffect
Substances targeting SPMs for therapeutic effectsAspirinStimulates RvD1 production[71]
Chemerin-9ChemR23 receptor agonist[72]
Novel cyclopentane ureaFPR2 receptor small molecule agonist[73]
SPMs supplementElevated levels of SPMs in vivo[74, 75]
Blocking pro-inflammatory mediators treatmentZiltivekimabIL-6 inhibitor[76]
CanakinumabIL-1β inhibitor[77]
InfliximabTNF-α inhibitor[78]
DapagliflozinInhibition of IL-6 and IL-1β expression[79]
Targeting macrophage nanoparticles (erythrocyte membrane, leukocyte)Reduction of levels of IL-1β, TNF-α[80, 81]
Therapeutic drugs that regulate macrophage phenotypes and functionsMetforminInhibition of M1 macrophage polarization[82]
miR-21-3p inhibitorPromotion of M2 macrophage polarization[83]
C-type natriuretic peptideModulation of macrophage glucose metabolism and fatty acid metabolism[84, 85]
Trimetazidine
GlucocorticoidPromote the macrophage citric acid cycle[86]
), ArticleFig(id=1308499513027953370, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1308455485330453312, language=CN, label=Tab.1, caption=

Drugs that have therapeutic effects or potential therapeutic effects by targeting SPMs, pro-inflammatory mediators, macrophage phenotypes, and functions. IL-6: Interleukin-6; IL-1β: Interleukin-1β; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-α; FPR2: Formyl peptide receptor 2; RvD1: Resolvins D1

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
MechanismNameEffect
Substances targeting SPMs for therapeutic effectsAspirinStimulates RvD1 production[71]
Chemerin-9ChemR23 receptor agonist[72]
Novel cyclopentane ureaFPR2 receptor small molecule agonist[73]
SPMs supplementElevated levels of SPMs in vivo[74, 75]
Blocking pro-inflammatory mediators treatmentZiltivekimabIL-6 inhibitor[76]
CanakinumabIL-1β inhibitor[77]
InfliximabTNF-α inhibitor[78]
DapagliflozinInhibition of IL-6 and IL-1β expression[79]
Targeting macrophage nanoparticles (erythrocyte membrane, leukocyte)Reduction of levels of IL-1β, TNF-α[80, 81]
Therapeutic drugs that regulate macrophage phenotypes and functionsMetforminInhibition of M1 macrophage polarization[82]
miR-21-3p inhibitorPromotion of M2 macrophage polarization[83]
C-type natriuretic peptideModulation of macrophage glucose metabolism and fatty acid metabolism[84, 85]
Trimetazidine
GlucocorticoidPromote the macrophage citric acid cycle[86]
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炎症消退及相关治疗药物在心血管疾病中的研究与前景
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王锦 , 徐明 *
药学学报 | 综述 2025,60(8): 2430-2439
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药学学报 |综述 2025 , 60 (8) : 2430 -2439
炎症消退及相关治疗药物在心血管疾病中的研究与前景
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王锦, 徐明*
作者信息
  • 中国药科大学基础医学与临床药学学院, 江苏 南京 210009
通讯作者:
徐明, Tel: 15805195696, E-mail:
作者简介:

作者贡献:

王锦负责文献资料收集和撰写; 徐明负责修改。

Inflammation resolution and related therapeutic agents in cardiovascular diseases: research progress and future directions
Jin WANG, Ming XU*
Affiliations
  • School of Basic Medicine and Clinical Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
出版时间: 2025-08-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0126
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心血管疾病严重威胁人类生命健康, 近年来其在我国发病率和死亡率迅速增加。炎症消退已经成为心血管领域研究的重点, 对其深入的研究为心血管疾病的潜在机制和治疗方法提供了新的途径。现如今炎症消退的主要机制研究涉及促炎症消退介质、内源性气体及巨噬细胞等免疫细胞。基于炎症消退在心血管疾病中的重要作用以及可能提供的潜在治疗靶点, 本文对炎症消退的作用机制、炎症消退在心血管疾病中的研究进展, 以及近年来靶向炎症消退的治疗策略和药物研究现状进行综述, 期望为心血管疾病提供新的治疗思路。

心血管疾病  /  炎症消退  /  巨噬细胞  /  促炎症消退介质  /  胞葬作用

Cardiovascular diseases pose a serious threat to human life and health, with their incidence and mortality rates rapidly increasing in China in recent years. Inflammation resolution has become a key focus in cardiovascular research, and in-depth studies of this process have provided new insights into the potential mechanisms and treatments for cardiovascular diseases. Current research on inflammation resolution mechanisms primarily involves pro-resolution mediators, endogenous gases, and immune cells such as macrophages. Based on the important role of inflammation resolution in cardiovascular diseases and the potential therapeutic targets it may offer, this paper reviews the mechanisms of inflammation resolution, the research progress of inflammation resolution in cardiovascular diseases, and the current status of therapeutic strategies and drug research targeting inflammation resolution, with the aim of providing new treatment approaches for cardiovascular diseases.

cardiovascular disease  /  inflammation resolution  /  macrophage  /  pro-inflammatory resolution mediator  /  efferocytosis
王锦, 徐明. 炎症消退及相关治疗药物在心血管疾病中的研究与前景. 药学学报, 2025 , 60 (8) : 2430 -2439 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0126
Jin WANG, Ming XU. Inflammation resolution and related therapeutic agents in cardiovascular diseases: research progress and future directions[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2025 , 60 (8) : 2430 -2439 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2025-0126
心血管疾病(cardiovascular diseases, CVDs) 仍然是导致人类死亡的重要原因, 也是我国的一大致死因素[1]。随着人口老龄化和生活方式的改变, CVDs造成的负担逐渐增加, 如动脉粥样硬化性心血管疾病的负担增加、心衰患者死亡率增加、心脏瓣膜病发病率升高等[2]。CVDs进程中常常伴随着过度的炎症反应, 炎症反应本身是一个旨在保护宿主的正常生理过程, 是对人体或外界环境变化做出的防御反应。当人体受到病原体等的侵袭后, 白细胞会募集于病原体侵袭处并发挥清除作用, 同时释放促炎因子, 从而产生炎症反应。过度、持续的炎症被认为是导致和加剧CVDs的原因, 因此对过度炎症反应的抑制可能会成为心血管疾病治疗的一种手段。
炎症消退(inflammation resolution, IR) 是一个关键的内源性过程, 是体内降低炎症水平的重要途径, 可保护组织免受过度炎症的影响。IR过程的障碍是多种炎症性疾病进展的关键病理机制[3]。IR是一个高度协调的主动过程, 由专业的促消退介质(specialized pro-resolving mediators, SPMs)、免疫细胞和内源性气体等多种介质和细胞介导, 这些调节IR的介质和细胞在炎症反应的初始阶段就发挥作用, 为随后IR阶段做准备。IR能减少白细胞募集, 刺激吞噬细胞胞葬作用, 从而修复组织损伤和改善血液循环。在感染的情况下, IR也有助于病原体清除, 防止病原体或坏死细胞产生炎症因子, 降低体内炎症水平[3]。据报道, IR也是CVDs的一个重要机制, IR的缺陷会导致组织损伤进而引起如动脉粥样硬化(atherosclerosis, AS)、心衰(heart failure, HF) 等多种慢性炎症性疾病。基于IR在心血管疾病中的重要作用, 本文将首先对IR具体机制进行综述, 并梳理不同心血管疾病与IR之间的关系, 最后总结靶向IR进程治疗心血管疾病的药物研究现状, 期望为CVDs治疗提供新思路。
IR的抗炎机制并非直接抑制炎症因子的表达, 而是涉及细胞间相互作用、特殊的促IR介质、内源性气体等直接或间接地调控高水平的炎症(图1)。
SPMs是由ω-3和ω-6多不饱和脂肪酸生物合成的促炎症消退脂质介质[4, 5]。SPMs能够通过靶向免疫细胞表达的不同G蛋白偶联受体来充当促IR的生物作用, 包括刺激中性粒细胞凋亡、减弱内皮细胞活化、调节巨噬细胞表型和其胞葬作用等。解析素D (resolvins D, RvD)、解析素E (resolvins E, RvE)、保护素(protectins)、马瑞斯素(maresins) 和脂氧素(lipoxin, LX) 是SPMs家族的重要成员[6]。SPMs通过作用于其特定受体, 包括趋化素受体23 (chemerin receptor, ChemR23)、甲酰基肽受体2 (formyl peptide receptor 2, Alx/FPR2)、G蛋白偶联受体32 (G protein-coupled receptor 32, GPR32) 等调控相关IR通路。如LX通过激活巨噬细胞、成纤维细胞等膜上的Alx/FPR2信号转导通路, 进而增强细胞所产生的抗炎反应。RvD1可激活巨噬细胞膜上的GPR32, 增强巨噬细胞胞葬功能, 在AS中发挥组织保护作用[7, 8]。RvE1可以通过激活巨噬细胞上ChemR23来抑制细胞氧化应激和核苷酸结合寡聚结构域样受体蛋白3 (nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor protein 3, NLRP3) 炎症小体激活所产生的IR功能障碍, 进而发挥阻止AS斑块堆积、改善糖尿病和缺血性的认知障碍等心血管疾病的作用[9-11]。保护素通过增加GPR37的表达水平, 增强巨噬细胞的胞葬功能和抗炎因子IL-10、Arg1的分泌, 从而逆转炎症性疼痛; 马瑞斯素-1通过激活巨噬细胞和中性粒细胞等免疫细胞上的富含亮氨酸的G蛋白偶联受体和视黄醇相关孤儿受体α, 增强巨噬细胞胞葬功能和限制中性粒细胞在组织损伤处的募集, 从而发挥IR作用[12, 13]。
免疫浸润作为组织损伤后诱导高水平炎症重要事件, 其中关键细胞如巨噬细胞、T细胞、中性粒细胞等在IR进程中发挥着重要作用。
巨噬细胞是参与炎症反应的重要免疫细胞, 同时也是发挥IR作用的重要的效应细胞。巨噬细胞的功能与其分型密切相关, 一般分为M1 (促炎型) 和M2 (抗炎型) 两个表型。M1巨噬细胞能通过产生促炎细胞因子白介素-6 (interleukin-6, IL-6)、肿瘤坏死因子-α (tumor necrosis factor-α, TNF-α)、白介素-1β (interleukin-1β, IL-1β)、精氨酸激酶2 (arginase 2, Arg2) 等来触发细胞内死亡机制, 从而破坏邻近组织并抑制周围细胞的增殖, 产生持续的炎症反应。M2巨噬细胞则是通过释放白介素-10 (interleukin-10, IL-10)、精氨酸激酶1 (arginase 1, Arg1)、转化生长因子-β (transforming growth factor-β, TGF-β) 等抗炎细胞因子来促进细胞增殖和组织修复, 进而推动IR进程[14]。此外, 巨噬细胞能通过胞葬作用清除凋亡细胞和受损的细胞, 防止这些细胞坏死产生的促炎细胞因子损伤组织, 从而发挥促IR作用。研究表明, 巨噬细胞胞葬作用的缺陷会导致凋亡细胞的继发性坏死、质膜完整性丧失, 从而使细胞内容物释放到细胞外环境中引起强大的炎症反应[15]。此外, 纤溶酶原/纤溶酶比例增加可通过整合素αMβ2控制巨噬细胞迁移及M2型极化[16]。过量的ROS通过线粒体电子传递链和一系列酶促反应释放, 诱导氧化应激并对脂质、蛋白质和DNA等各种细胞生物分子造成氧化损伤, 同时会触发内质网应激并激活未折叠的蛋白质反应以启动或放大炎症反应, 从而加重组织损伤并诱导细胞凋亡, 巨噬细胞向M1极化[17]。
巨噬细胞功能和表型受其代谢途径的严格调节[18]。CVDs中的炎症消退异常往往伴随着糖酵解增强、脂质代谢异常和蛋白堆积。这些代谢物异常导致的细胞损伤会进一步产生线粒体相关损伤分子模式(damage-associated molecular patterns, DAMPs)。如ATP、mtDNA、ROS、心磷脂等线粒体DAMPs都会刺激细胞炎症通路, 激活NLRP3炎症小体, 导致caspase-1的募集和激活, 从而阻碍炎症消退进程[19]。值得注意的是, 一些去乙酰化酶如沉默信息调节因子2相关酶3 (silent information regulator 2 homolog 3, SIRT3) 的损伤能通过损伤线粒体细胞耗氧率和氧化还原功能障碍, 进一步导致促炎因子分泌增加、DAMPs、NLRP3炎性小体激活[20]。
线粒体损伤伴随着巨噬细胞糖酵解水平增强, 并通过低氧诱导因子-1α (hypoxia inducible factor-1α, HIF-1α)-糖酵解轴致使巨噬细胞向M1促炎表型极化。三羧酸循环代谢产物积累, 同样会导致巨噬细胞的M1极化。如柠檬酸盐的积累会导致一氧化氮的产生和电子传递链的失活[21]。同时, 另一种促炎代谢物琥珀酸积累则能够抑制脯氨酰羟化酶活性和促进活性氧的产生[22], 进而导致巨噬细胞的M1极化和炎症效应。葡萄糖-6-磷酸脱氢酶的高表达也会激活NF-κB信号通路, 引起细胞内氧化应激并诱导M1巨噬细胞极化。相比之下, M2巨噬细胞具有完整的三羧酸循环, 有氧条件下更加倾向于向M2型巨噬细胞极化。脂质代谢也是体内产能的一个重要途径。M2巨噬细胞依赖于脂肪酸氧化产物来促进线粒体的氧化磷酸化, 从而产生能量, 抑制巨噬细胞脂肪酸氧化过程会导致响应干扰素-γ和脂多糖刺激的M1激活, 损害IL-4介导的M2巨噬细胞IR反应[23]。
氨基酸是蛋白质的合成原料, 还参与调节代谢、信号转导和免疫应答。甘氨酸通过抑制巨噬细胞中NF-κB的激活阻碍炎症小体的组装、上调核因子-红细胞2相关因子2的表达消除活性氧, 来促进巨噬细胞IR功能[24]。苯丙氨酸通过抑制M1巨噬细胞上含半胱氨酸的天冬氨酸蛋白水解酶-1的激活和促炎细胞因子(如IL-1β) 的产生, 进而提高组织中炎症水平[25]。亮氨酸、谷氨酸则能通过激活巨噬细胞中雷帕霉素靶蛋白受体1导致巨噬细胞中线粒体功能失调和活性氧的积累, 诱导巨噬细胞凋亡, 进而使AS中巨噬细胞的坏死细胞难以被清除而引发高水平炎症[26, 27]。巨噬细胞的表型和功能还受多种氨基酸激酶、代谢酶调节, 如Arg1和Arg2一直被认为是巨噬细胞极化和炎症反应的重要代谢调节因子, 分别为M2、M1巨噬细胞的常见标志物。信号传导及转录激活蛋白6可通过激活巨噬细胞上的Arg1表达来增强巨噬细胞胞葬能力, 抑制促炎细胞因子IL-6和TNF-α的表达[28]。位于巨噬细胞线粒体中的Arg2在脂多糖的刺激下, 会使巨噬细胞中线粒体功能受损。伴随着HIF-1α和IL-1β的表达增加, 导致M1巨噬细胞的极化[29]。
T细胞参与的免疫反应主要由表达IL-17的Th17细胞和表达FOXP3的调节性T细胞(regulatory T, Treg) 介导。Treg细胞对其他免疫细胞的调控是IR反应的关键。Th17增多会导致黏膜和其他部位发生病理性炎症, Treg细胞可通过直接抑制Th17细胞的增殖来抑制IL-17驱动的过度炎症[30]。Treg细胞衍生的IL-13促进巨噬细胞分泌IL-10[31], 并增强巨噬细胞吞噬凋亡细胞的能力, 进而促进IR和组织修复[32]。
中性粒细胞、树突状细胞、自然杀伤细胞等同样也在IR过程中发挥重要作用。这些细胞能在SPMs的作用下, 直接或间接发挥调节IR作用[33]。当机体或局部组织器官受到病原体、脂多糖或细胞因子(TNF-α、IL-8) 作用后, 中性粒细胞被激活, 细胞内组蛋白被去乙酰化和/或被蛋白酶切割, 导致染色质结构松弛; 核膜破裂后DNA被释放出来与抗菌蛋白质(如髓过氧化物酶、弹性蛋白酶等) 结合, 形成网状中性粒细胞外陷阱, 通过捕获病原体促进IR和损伤恢复[34, 35]。同时也可以通过募集炎性巨噬细胞和树突细胞, 这些巨噬细胞和树突状细胞释放与慢性炎症相关的促炎因子, 如TNF-α、IL-23等加剧炎症损伤[36]。当前巨噬细胞和Treg细胞在IR中扮演重要角色, 但树突细胞、自然杀伤细胞等其他免疫细胞在IR中的作用仍需进一步研究。
NO、CO、H2S等内源性气体在IR过程中发挥着重要的作用。内源性CO由血红素在血红素加氧酶作用下产生, 一定浓度的CO能作为组织保护性气体发挥促IR作用[37]。CO通过抑制脂氧合酶的表达来调控SPMs生物合成, 这些SPMs的合成增加进一步限制中性粒细胞浸润、增强巨噬细胞胞葬能力, 促进IR进程[38]。H2S是由L-半胱氨酸通过多种氨基酸代谢酶催化下合成。H2S通过调节血管中促IR介质的水平, 进而抑制血管内皮中的白细胞浸润和趋附、清除促炎物质次氯酸, 发挥促IR作用。同时, H2S可抑制中性粒细胞中过氧化物酶活性和促进损伤中性粒细胞凋亡, 进而促进组织修复和抑制炎症[39]。NO已被证明具有促炎和抗炎特性[40]。NO是由L-精氨酸在一氧化氮合酶催化下产生, 一氧化氮合酶分为内皮型一氧化氮合酶(endothelial nitric oxide synthase, eNOS) 和诱导型一氧化氮合酶(inducible nitric oxide synthase, iNOS)。eNOS主要在内皮细胞中表达, 在eNOS催化下产生的低浓度NO具有血管保护作用, 能抑制炎性细胞在血管壁处的黏附和迁移。iNOS由促炎因子诱导而产生, 在iNOS催化下产生的高浓度NO造成过度的氧自由基在炎症损伤处积累, 促进大量白细胞迁移浸润到炎症组织, 提高炎症水平。并且高浓度的NO还会导致细胞代谢性缺氧, 无法利用氧气。使线粒体氧化磷酸化功能被破坏, 活性氧堆积, 进一步损伤IR相关细胞的抗炎功能[41]。
炎症消退在心血管疾病中发挥着重要的作用。据报道纤维化和钙化是心血管疾病的重要表现, 与炎症消退联系密切。对于AS来说, IR异常产生的高水平炎症会导致组织损伤加剧, 巨噬细胞胞葬功能的降低会导致坏死性凋亡细胞未能及时被清除和胆固醇的堆积, 从而促进斑块的纤维化、钙化及斑块破裂。在HF中, 由于巨噬细胞代谢障碍、SPMs及其受体的表达降低, 会使心脏纤维化和不良心脏重塑, 进一步加剧心衰后的心脏损伤。在瓣膜病中, 免疫浸润中发挥重要作用的巨噬细胞被证明影响主动脉瓣狭窄和二尖瓣黏液瘤疾病进程中的纤维化和钙化, 是通过巨噬细胞直接分泌细胞因子或间接调节瓣膜中的实质细胞发挥IR作用的。
AS是多种CVDs的病理基础, 其特征是由坏死核心、脂质、炎性细胞组成的AS斑块堆积(图2)。据报道, IR进程与AS的炎症水平和斑块进展密切相关, 而IR介质和促炎介质的不均衡则会加剧组织损伤和斑块发展[42]。坏死性凋亡细胞是导致AS斑块坏死核心的主要原因, 吞噬细胞通过胞葬作用及时清除凋亡细胞避免其坏死, 进而发挥IR作用。其中, 巨噬细胞的胞葬功能较为关键。然而, AS病变部位中的代谢环境促使被招募的巨噬细胞发生表型和功能改变。如进入组织后巨噬细胞首先发挥“清道夫”作用, 在吞噬AS组织中大量堆积的胆固醇后最终形成泡沫细胞, 超负荷的脂肪酸代谢通过多种途径促使巨噬细胞M1极化并分泌多种炎性因子阻碍组织中的IR过程, 进一步加剧AS的炎症状态[43]。研究表明, 斑块中的氨基酸和糖代谢同样对巨噬细胞的IR功能具有重要的调控作用。斑块中高水平的亮氨酸通过mTOR1信号传导引发巨噬细胞线粒体功能障碍和巨噬细胞凋亡, 最终加剧斑块氧化应激水平和炎症因子水平。AS病变部位中堆积的糖酵解产物和酶, 如琥珀酸盐、柠檬酸盐和葡萄糖-6-磷酸脱氢酶等也对巨噬细胞代谢重编程有重要调节作用。此外, 糖酵解的副产物甲基乙二醛(methylglyoxal, MGO) 能通过激活p38丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, p38 MAPK) 通路, 增强巨噬细胞的糖酵解过程, 从诱导巨噬细胞M1极化, 最终损伤巨噬细胞的IR功能[44]。
SPMs和Treg细胞能通过对巨噬细胞的直接或间接作用调节AS疾病过程。AS组织中RvE1的受体ChemR23的低表达会导致巨噬细胞的炎症表型极化、胞葬功能下降、氧化低密度脂蛋白(oxidized low-density lipoprotein, oxLDL) 摄取增加, 进一步导致AS斑块发展和坏死核心形成增加[45]。在抗炎型巨噬细胞中表达的SPMs受体GPR32, 在RvD1的激活下, 通过减少巨噬细胞促炎细胞因子(IL-1β、TNF-α、IL-6) 的分泌、巨噬细胞氧化低密度脂蛋白摄取还能限制中性粒细胞在斑块处募集, 从而发挥促IR作用。Treg细胞被证明可以通过促进AS中巨噬细胞的胞葬作用、抗炎细胞因子(如IL-10和TGF-β) 的释放来抑制炎症型巨噬细胞功能以及促进组织修复, 维持组织免疫稳态和增强免疫耐受性[46, 47]。在AS IR过程中, 巨噬细胞表达的SPMs受体还与Treg细胞水平呈正相关, 随着Treg细胞数目的增加, 在SPMs的响应下, 这些受体启动信号转导以增强巨噬细胞对凋亡细胞的吞噬作用, 减少促炎细胞因子的产生, 并增加抗炎细胞因子的产生。Treg细胞还可以直接促进AS小鼠中巨噬细胞合成RvD1和RvD6等促IR介质[48], 进一步推动AS中IR的过程。
炎症是公认的急、慢性HF的病理学特征, 调节炎症是治疗HF的重要策略。有研究报道, 有效的IR过程对HF病理过程中的炎症水平、心脏舒缩功能受损、心肌重塑等有改善作用, 其中SPMs及其相关受体和巨噬细胞的IR功能发挥了关键的作用。在HF过程中, RvD1可通过激活组织中吞噬细胞上的ALX/FPR2受体, 抑制组织损伤处中性粒细胞募集和促进巨噬细胞胞葬功能, 促进了HF中的IR进程[49]。12/15脂氧合酶(12/15 lipoxygenase, 12/15LOX) 在心肌梗死后的急性炎症反应期间协调必需IR介质的生物合成, 心脏中12/15LOX高表达会诱导促炎脂质介质12-(S)-羟基二十碳四烯酸分泌, 阻碍了心脏损伤处IR的进行。在12/15LOX敲除的HF小鼠中发现促炎脂质介质的合成减少、巨噬细胞IR功能增强、HF后心肌梗死过程的炎症水平降低, 从而提高了急性HF小鼠的生存率[50]。在由糖尿病引起的HF患者中发现LXA4表达降低, 提示这种SPMs表达减少可能是导致心衰的重要原因, 在LXA4敲除模型鼠表现出心脏炎症、心肌纤维化、心肌细胞凋亡和肥大、超声心动图显示左心室舒张功能障碍等早期心衰迹象验证了这一点。因此, 调控组织中的SPMs对治疗HF有重要意义。
巨噬细胞在HF过程中对IR发挥着重要作用。心脏中巨噬细胞分为两种, 一种是起源于胚胎卵黄囊长期驻留的巨噬细胞(CCR2-巨噬细胞), 另一种是响应炎症和组织损伤由循环单核细胞分化的巨噬细胞(CCR2+巨噬细胞)[51]。常驻巨噬细胞在健康心脏中的数量较少, 它们通常具有M2表型, 但研究表明, 这些驻留的巨噬细胞会随着年龄而逐渐被循环单核细胞分化而来的巨噬细胞取代, 即使在没有损伤的情况下也是如此[52, 53]。心脏中募集的由单核细胞来源的巨噬细胞部分分化为M1型巨噬细胞, 之后能响应组织环境变化向M2巨噬细胞极化或保持M1型巨噬细胞。若M1型的巨噬细胞比例增多, 其分泌的促炎细胞因子水平上升, 会提高HF心脏功能损伤程度和患者死亡率[54]。
心脏是代谢活跃的器官, 在HF之后会产生一系列代谢改变。代谢紊乱会重编程巨噬细胞本身的代谢, 从而促使巨噬细胞向着不利于组织损伤修复、IR的表型转化, 进一步导致心脏炎症水平升高、心肌纤维化和不良心脏重塑[55]。在HF过程中伴随着心脏组织代谢的变化, 这些变化同样对巨噬细胞表型和功能具有调控作用。如HF的心肌细胞线粒体损伤和缺氧引起的HIF-1α分泌增多, 导致组织糖酵解通量增加, 进一步促进诱导组织招募的巨噬细胞M1型极化[56]。丙酮酸激酶2能通过抑制LPS刺激的巨噬细胞中HIF-1α的生成, 从而降低了糖酵解的水平和炎症信号琥珀酸盐的积累, 最终使LPS刺激的M1型巨噬细胞转变为M2型, 促进IR进程[57, 58]。组织中过剩的脂肪酸的代谢产物L-棕榈酰肉碱还能通过促进巨噬细胞M1型极化和心肌细胞线粒体自噬, 使大鼠心肌破坏、炎性浸润增加和胶原纤维沉积, 加剧HF大鼠中的心肌损伤。
瓣膜被认为是“代谢活跃的组织”, 而不仅是一个不活跃或被动的瓣叶。瓣膜由瓣膜间质细胞(valve interstitial cells, VIC)、瓣膜内皮细胞(valve endothelial cell, VEC) 和细胞外基质(extracellular matrix, ECM) 交替组成。瓣膜病的治疗手段依赖于瓣膜置换手术, 术后可能会产生血栓[59]、年龄相关性的心内膜炎[60]、全身炎症[61]等症状。近年来, 研究表明, IR过程对瓣膜组织损伤修复有着关键的作用。
主动脉瓣狭窄是全球最普遍的心脏瓣膜疾病。人们普遍认为, 瓣膜狭窄的机制包括氧化应激、内皮功能障碍、脂质沉积、炎症、纤维化和钙化[62]。从瓣膜损伤开始, 会导致组织炎症水平升高, 进一步的纤维化和钙化会导致主动脉瓣狭窄的发生和进展[63]。初次在主动脉瓣狭窄中发现了免疫浸润现象后, 进一步的研究发现, 存在于成人和发育中的心脏瓣膜的多种类型免疫细胞约占瓣膜所有细胞的8%[64]。这些免疫细胞发挥着消除病原体、维持免疫稳态的重要作用。并且这些免疫细胞中至少有75%表达驻留和招募的巨噬细胞标志物, 说明了巨噬细胞谱系在心脏瓣膜发育、体内平衡和疾病中的重要性[65]。研究表明, 在严重主动脉瓣狭窄患者分离的瓣叶中观察到促炎性M1巨噬细胞的水平升高[66], 由M1巨噬细胞分泌的炎性因子TNF-α和IL-1β会导致IR过程的受损, 从而促使瓣膜间质细胞成骨样分化[67]。并且M1能促进VIC的增殖, 作为炎症诱导的瓣叶纤维化增厚和钙化的前提。M2巨噬细胞则与之相反, 能维持肌成纤维细胞活化, 但不促进瓣膜间质细胞的成骨细胞样分化。在主动脉狭窄处, 过度的炎症会激活自酰化酶(autotaxin), 从而导致VIC中纤维化和成骨分化因子的高表达, 促进瓣膜纤维化和钙化[68]。瓣膜组织中的RvE1能通过激活ChemR23受体, 促进巨噬细胞的M2极化, 降低炎症水平, 从而抑制瓣叶面积的减少和心脏最大血流速度的上升。抗炎因子IL-37可通过NF-κB通路抑制M1巨噬细胞极化从而降低促炎细胞因子表达, 还促进M2巨噬细胞表达物上调, 发挥IR作用[69], 在一定程度上减缓了瓣膜钙化的进行。
在二尖瓣黏液瘤中, 二尖瓣表现为瓣膜叶体增厚, 蛋白多糖和糖胺聚糖扩增, 异常胶原沉积, 并且伴有白细胞(CD45+) 细胞异常增多现象, 其中大部分是M1表型的巨噬细胞。患二尖瓣黏液瘤的小鼠二尖瓣同时表现出浸润和常驻巨噬细胞数目的显著增加, 以及趋化因子活性和炎性因子的分泌增加, 这些从循环中募集过来的促炎型巨噬细胞阻碍着IR进程的进行, 并集中在ECM紊乱的区域, 进一步推进着黏液瘤的发展[70]。靶向循环单核细胞促进IR可能会成为治疗黏液瘤性瓣膜病的新靶点。IR作为瓣膜损伤恢复的重要过程, 瓣膜中巨噬细胞的募集、表型、功能及一些SPMs被证明能通过影响IR来调控瓣膜病的进程。尽管IR在瓣膜病中发挥关键作用, 但是瓣膜组织中IR的具体机制还有待挖掘, 基于靶向IR治疗瓣膜病还面临着诸多问题。
按照作用机制总结了近年来具有靶向IR治疗心血管疾病或具有治疗潜力的药物。作用机制主要分为靶向SPMs、调控巨噬细胞表型和功能、阻断促炎介质等, 并补充了中药或其有效成分的治疗作用(表1)[71-86]。
自从SPMs发现以来, 在多种与慢性炎症及急性炎症相关的疾病中都具有一定治疗效果, 如AS、HF[87]等疾病。一些针对SPMs发挥IR的药物, 如阿司匹林能促进RvD1产生来诱导促血管生成中性粒细胞亚群的分化, 使这些中性粒细胞优先黏附于重塑血管附近, 促进有利的血管重塑和IR[71]。同时, 靶向SPMs受体的激动剂, 如ChemR23受体激动剂Chemerin-9能显著抑制人主动脉平滑肌细胞中TNF-α的表达以及该因子诱导的炎症型单核细胞的黏附[72]。FPR2的小分子激动剂新型环戊烷脲能够通过抑制人中性粒细胞黏附来抑制炎症过程[73]。此外, 直接通过补充SPMs进行治疗CVDs, 如心肌梗死小鼠补充RvD1限制了左心室中性粒细胞的募集, 并降低了M1巨噬细胞密度, 防止其在梗死区域积累与产生高水平炎症从而加剧心脏损伤。心肌梗死小鼠补充RvE1能抑制中性粒细胞组织浸润, 减少IL-8的产生并降低黏附受体的表面表达, 显著减少心肌梗死面积[74]。在AS的小鼠模型中, 补充RvD2的药物治疗阻止了AS进展, 促进巨噬细胞向修复型M2巨噬细胞极化, 并有助于斑块稳定性[75]。在AS和牙周炎的小鼠模型中, RvE1治疗通过降低C反应蛋白水平和减少促炎巨噬细胞浸润到血管内, 发挥疾病治疗作用。尽管SPMs对CVDs的治疗作用在多种动物模型上都得到验证, 但仍处于初步的研究中, SPMs的治疗效果、药物剂量和不良反应仍需更多研究来评估。
泽韦奇单抗(ziltivekimab) 是一种针对IL-6配体的人单克隆抗体, 可显著减少与动脉粥样硬化有关的炎症和血栓形成。2023年III期RESCUE试验结果表明, 泽韦奇会引起中性粒细胞-淋巴细胞比率变化, 它可能被用于监测泽韦奇的疗效。此外, 泽韦奇可能会破坏多种致动脉粥样硬化炎症途径, 包括由髓系细胞区室介导的途径[76]。卡纳单抗(canakinumab) 能通过抑制IL-1β来阻碍低度慢性炎症导致动脉粥样硬化血栓形成过程。2018年CANTOS随机对照试验中指出卡纳单抗在没有降脂的情况下显著降低了主要不良心血管事件发生率[77], 对心肌梗死后辅助治疗的潜在应用具有实际意义。英夫利昔单抗(infliximab) 往往通过抑制TNF-α来治疗类风湿性关节炎等疾病。但近年来的研究表明, 英夫利昔单抗能够改善心肌梗死诱导的炎症反应, 保持收缩力并限制不良结构重塑, 对心肌梗死具有一定的治疗潜力[78]。SGLT2抑制剂达格列净通过逆转HIF-2α信号通路, 抑制促炎因子IL-6、IL-1β表达, 从而减少心律失常性心肌病中的纤维化和炎症[79]。此外, 利用纳米颗粒(红细胞膜、白粒等) 靶向巨噬细胞递送雷帕霉素, 抑制小鼠NF-κB通路来抑制M1巨噬细胞增殖, 并降低关键促炎因子IL-1β和TNF-α等水平, 与直接使用雷帕霉素相比具有毒性小、靶向性好等特点[80, 81]。
已有研究表明, 多种药物能直接调节巨噬细胞表型、数目和功能, 促进巨噬细胞发挥IR作用。他汀类药物如用于2型糖尿病的西格列汀和利拉鲁肽、阿斯曲林或二甲双胍等, 已被证明可在口服给药后减少动脉粥样斑块处M1巨噬细胞数目, 降低体内炎症水平, 可用于治疗AS[82]。在HF中miR-21-3p抑制剂被证明能通过调控巨噬细胞极化状态和减少过度线粒体自噬促进IR进程, 来发挥心肌保护作用[83]。
巨噬细胞代谢重编程的目的是促进ATP的快速产生, 获得其在免疫反应中作用所需的能量和生物合成前体, 包括发挥胞葬作用和产生炎症介质。现如今暂无直接靶向巨噬细胞代谢的治疗药物, 但临床中的某些药物, 能通过调节特定组织或其他细胞的代谢间接地促进巨噬细胞的IR作用。在AS中, 增强损伤处C型利钠肽的生物活性可以通过促进HIF-1α的降解, 使巨噬细胞倾向于氧化磷酸化过程产生ATP, 下调巨噬细胞炎症反应, 具有动脉粥样保护作用[84]。治疗HF患者心绞痛的曲美他嗪可以通过抑制脂肪酸氧化直接调节心肌代谢, 促进M2抗炎巨噬细胞的极化[85]。这些控制糖酵解速率的更特异性化合物可能具有限制AS疾病发展的潜力。此外, 激素也能影响巨噬细胞的代谢重编程, 研究发现人体内重要的抗炎激素糖皮质激素除了能够直接抑制促炎基因的表达发挥抗炎作用之外, 通过15-LOX增加SPMs的形成来介导其IR作用, 并可以通过调节巨噬细胞的三羧酸循环过程影响IR[86], 对新型抗炎药的设计具有重大意义。
天然化合物人参皂甙Rb1和Rg3可以通过促进AS小鼠斑块处M2样巨噬细胞的极化, 减轻了AS斑块负荷[88]。甘草中的甘草甜素通过抑制高迁移率族box-1蛋白, 从而阻碍NLRP3炎症小体激活介导的泡沫细胞形成, 促进IR进程, 降低AS中的炎症因子分泌和斑块堆积[89]。丹参中的丹酚酸B通过结合并上调SIRT3, 能去乙酰化锰超氧化物歧化酶和抑制NLRP3炎症小体激活, 抑制氧化应激和炎症反应, 减少心肌梗死面积和ST段抬高, 并恢复心肌形态[90]。橙皮苷(hesperidin) 是一类具有抗炎症、氧化和凋亡的黄酮类物质。其通过减轻冠状动脉周围炎性浸润和组织纤维化、抑制炎性细胞因子和趋化因子表达以及减少血管内皮细胞凋亡, 显著减轻川崎病小鼠的冠状动脉损伤[91], 具有血管保护潜能。
IR在一系列心血管疾病中发挥着重要的作用, 无法及时消退的炎症构成了慢性炎症的基础。目前, 通过调节IR治疗心血管疾病的药物研究聚焦于SPMs及其相关受体、巨噬细胞表型和功能、阻断促炎介质。如补充RvD、RvE及其受体激动剂通过抑制巨噬细胞炎症因子的分泌、改善巨噬细胞胞葬功能来促进IR进程, 治疗AS和HF等心血管疾病。如泽韦奇单抗、卡那单抗等通过直接抑制促炎因子促进IR。服用西格列汀、利拉鲁肽、阿斯曲林和二甲双胍等他汀类药物改善小鼠体内巨噬细胞代谢环境, 增加巨噬细胞IR功能。曲美他嗪和糖皮质激素等通过调节巨噬细胞代谢重编程, 促进IR, 从而延缓相关心血管疾病进程。中药有效成分如人参皂苷、香草甜素等也通过各种方式促进IR, 保护组织。尽管相关治疗药物在多种CVDs动物模型表现出较好的治疗效果, 但是大部分靶向IR的治疗药物还处于动物实验或临床前研究中。但随着多组学技术、人工智能等的不断发展, 以及对心血管疾病中IR机制的不断深入研究, 靶向IR途径的药物或可为广大心血管疾病患者提供一种新的治疗手段。

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  • 接收时间:2025-02-11
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    中国药科大学基础医学与临床药学学院, 江苏 南京 210009

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