Article(id=1210516745031381329, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516741998907791, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0752, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1655654400000, receivedDateStr=2022-06-20, revisedDate=1659888000000, revisedDateStr=2022-08-08, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1766539282329, onlineDateStr=2025-12-24, pubDate=1665504000000, pubDateStr=2022-10-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1766539282329, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-24, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1766539282329, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766539282329, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1210516741998907791, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2022', volume='57', issue='10', pageStart='1', pageEnd='3258', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1766539281606, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766539576214, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1210517977762500872, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516741998907791, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1210517977762500873, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516741998907791, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=3146, endPage=3156, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1210516745975099737, articleId=1210516745031381329, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Recent advances in pharmacokinetic characteristics and physiological pharmacokinetic modeling of small interfering RNA (siRNA) drugs, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) are an emerging class of RNA interference (RNAi) therapeutics with unique pharmacokinetic properties. Five siRNA drugs based on two delivery systems have been approved, and an increasing number of siRNA drugs have already moved to the clinical study phase. Physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling is a useful tool and has been demonstrated to have wide ranging utility in drug development and regulatory review. However, PBPK modeling is still in its infancy in guiding the development of siRNA-based drugs in the context of its widespread use in small and large molecule areas. This article reviews the pharmacokinetic profiles of siRNA drugs, outlines the current state of PBPK model building in siRNA drug development, and describes the key parameters required for model building. This article provides insights into the future applications of PBPK models and for optimizing the key parameters when building the model for siRNA drug development.

, correspAuthors=Rui CHEN, Pei HU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2022 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Qian LI, Rui CHEN, Pei HU), CN=ArticleExt(id=1210516747245973888, articleId=1210516745031381329, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=小干扰RNA (siRNA) 药物药代动力学特征及生理药代动力学建模现状, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

小干扰RNA (small interfering RNA, siRNA) 是以RNA干扰(RNAi) 为基础的一类具有独特药代动力学特性和作用机制的药物, 目前已有5种基于两种递送系统的siRNA药物上市获批, 并且有越来越多的siRNA药物进入临床研究阶段。生理药代动力学(PBPK) 建模是一种辅助药物开发和决策的可靠的工具, 并且越来越被监管机构接受, PBPK模型在小分子和大分子领域广泛应用的背景下, 在指导siRNA类药物开发方面仍然处于起步阶段。本文结合siRNA类药物的药代动力学特征, 概述了siRNA类药物PBPK模型开发的现状及模型构建中所需的关键参数, 以期为今后PBPK模型在siRNA类药物研发中的应用, 及优化设计临床前试验获得关键数据提供一定的借鉴。

, correspAuthors=陈锐, 胡蓓, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*陈锐, Tel: 86-10-69154794, E-mail: ;
胡蓓, E-mail:
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Generic nameTrade nameCompanyTargetIndicationChemical modificationDelivery systemFDA approved time
PatisiranONPATTROAlnylamTransthyretin (TTR)Polyneuropathy of hereditary transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis (hATTR)2′-OMeaLNPsc2018
GivosiranGIVLAARIAlnylamAminolevulinate synthase 1 (ALAS1)Acute hepatic porphyria (AHP)PSb; 2′-OMea; 2′-FaGalNAcd2019
LumasiranOXLUMOAlnylamHydroxyacid oxidase 1 (HAO1)Primary hyperoxaluria type 1 (PH1)PSb; 2′-OMea; 2′-FaGalNAcd2020
InclisiranLEQVIOAlnylam, NovartisProprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9)Heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (HeFH) or clinical atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD)PSb; 2′-OMea; 2′-Fa; 2′-MOEaGalNAcd2021
VutrisiranAMVUTTRAAlnylamTransthyretin (TTR)Polyneuropathy of hereditary transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis (hATTR)PSb; 2′-OMea; 2′-FaGalNAcd2022
), ArticleFig(id=1210516751415112254, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516745031381329, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

FDA approved small interfering RNA (siRNA) drugs. aThe siRNA modification site is the 2′ position of ribose; bThe siRNA modification site is phosphate-backbone; cLNPs: Lipid nanoparticles; dGalNAc: N-Acetylgalactosamine. 2′-OMe: 2′-O-Methyl; 2′-F: 2′-Fluoro; 2′-MOE: 2′-O-Methoxyethyl; PS: Phosphorothioate

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Generic nameTrade nameCompanyTargetIndicationChemical modificationDelivery systemFDA approved time
PatisiranONPATTROAlnylamTransthyretin (TTR)Polyneuropathy of hereditary transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis (hATTR)2′-OMeaLNPsc2018
GivosiranGIVLAARIAlnylamAminolevulinate synthase 1 (ALAS1)Acute hepatic porphyria (AHP)PSb; 2′-OMea; 2′-FaGalNAcd2019
LumasiranOXLUMOAlnylamHydroxyacid oxidase 1 (HAO1)Primary hyperoxaluria type 1 (PH1)PSb; 2′-OMea; 2′-FaGalNAcd2020
InclisiranLEQVIOAlnylam, NovartisProprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9)Heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (HeFH) or clinical atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD)PSb; 2′-OMea; 2′-Fa; 2′-MOEaGalNAcd2021
VutrisiranAMVUTTRAAlnylamTransthyretin (TTR)Polyneuropathy of hereditary transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis (hATTR)PSb; 2′-OMea; 2′-FaGalNAcd2022
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ItemSmall moleculeAntibodysiRNA drug
Route of deliveryTypically oral, but inhalation, subcutaneous, intravenous, and other routes possibleMostly intravenous and subcutaneousIntravenous and subcutaneous
AbsorptionGastrointestinal degradation, enzymatic metabolism, transporters; capillary absorption near the site of administration; solubility, permeability of the drugLymphatic uptakeLymphatic uptake
DistributionPerfusion-limited, widely tissue distributing; blood flow rates; transporter-mediated uptake or efflux; physicochemical properties such as logP, pKa, plasma protein binding, blood-plasma ratio affect distributionPermeation/diffusion limitation, mainly confined to blood vessels; vascular reflection coefficient; convective transport across the vascular endothelium; target-mediated drug distribution; physicochemical properties such as molecular size, charge, and polarity affect distributionPermeation/diffusion limited, mainly in limited organs such as liver and kidney; ASGPG-mediated hepatic delivery (GalNAc-siRNA); macrophage endocytic uptake (siRNA delivered by LNPs); the charge and particle size of LNPs determine the distribution of siRNA delivered by LNPs
MetabolismCYP enzymes and non-CYP enzymesLysosomal degradation; receptor-mediated transcytosis; FcRn-mediated recycling avoid antibody degradationMetabolized by endo- or exonucleases
ExcretionRenal and biliary excretionLess renal clearanceRenal clearance through glomerular filtration
), ArticleFig(id=1210516751679353426, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516745031381329, language=CN, label=Table 2, caption=

Summary of the key ADME considerations for small molecules, antibodies and siRNA drugs when building physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model

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ItemSmall moleculeAntibodysiRNA drug
Route of deliveryTypically oral, but inhalation, subcutaneous, intravenous, and other routes possibleMostly intravenous and subcutaneousIntravenous and subcutaneous
AbsorptionGastrointestinal degradation, enzymatic metabolism, transporters; capillary absorption near the site of administration; solubility, permeability of the drugLymphatic uptakeLymphatic uptake
DistributionPerfusion-limited, widely tissue distributing; blood flow rates; transporter-mediated uptake or efflux; physicochemical properties such as logP, pKa, plasma protein binding, blood-plasma ratio affect distributionPermeation/diffusion limitation, mainly confined to blood vessels; vascular reflection coefficient; convective transport across the vascular endothelium; target-mediated drug distribution; physicochemical properties such as molecular size, charge, and polarity affect distributionPermeation/diffusion limited, mainly in limited organs such as liver and kidney; ASGPG-mediated hepatic delivery (GalNAc-siRNA); macrophage endocytic uptake (siRNA delivered by LNPs); the charge and particle size of LNPs determine the distribution of siRNA delivered by LNPs
MetabolismCYP enzymes and non-CYP enzymesLysosomal degradation; receptor-mediated transcytosis; FcRn-mediated recycling avoid antibody degradationMetabolized by endo- or exonucleases
ExcretionRenal and biliary excretionLess renal clearanceRenal clearance through glomerular filtration
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小干扰RNA (siRNA) 药物药代动力学特征及生理药代动力学建模现状
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李倩 , 陈锐 * , 胡蓓 *
药学学报 | 综述 2022,57(10): 3146-3156
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药学学报 | 综述 2022, 57(10): 3146-3156
小干扰RNA (siRNA) 药物药代动力学特征及生理药代动力学建模现状
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李倩, 陈锐* , 胡蓓*
作者信息
  • 中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院, 北京协和医院临床药理研究中心, 北京 100730

通讯作者:

*陈锐, Tel: 86-10-69154794, E-mail: ;
胡蓓, E-mail:
Recent advances in pharmacokinetic characteristics and physiological pharmacokinetic modeling of small interfering RNA (siRNA) drugs
Qian LI, Rui CHEN* , Pei HU*
Affiliations
  • Clinical Pharmacology Research Center, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100730, China
出版时间: 2022-10-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0752
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小干扰RNA (small interfering RNA, siRNA) 是以RNA干扰(RNAi) 为基础的一类具有独特药代动力学特性和作用机制的药物, 目前已有5种基于两种递送系统的siRNA药物上市获批, 并且有越来越多的siRNA药物进入临床研究阶段。生理药代动力学(PBPK) 建模是一种辅助药物开发和决策的可靠的工具, 并且越来越被监管机构接受, PBPK模型在小分子和大分子领域广泛应用的背景下, 在指导siRNA类药物开发方面仍然处于起步阶段。本文结合siRNA类药物的药代动力学特征, 概述了siRNA类药物PBPK模型开发的现状及模型构建中所需的关键参数, 以期为今后PBPK模型在siRNA类药物研发中的应用, 及优化设计临床前试验获得关键数据提供一定的借鉴。

RNA干扰  /  小干扰RNA  /  药代动力学  /  生理药代动力学  /  模型  /  关键参数

Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) are an emerging class of RNA interference (RNAi) therapeutics with unique pharmacokinetic properties. Five siRNA drugs based on two delivery systems have been approved, and an increasing number of siRNA drugs have already moved to the clinical study phase. Physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling is a useful tool and has been demonstrated to have wide ranging utility in drug development and regulatory review. However, PBPK modeling is still in its infancy in guiding the development of siRNA-based drugs in the context of its widespread use in small and large molecule areas. This article reviews the pharmacokinetic profiles of siRNA drugs, outlines the current state of PBPK model building in siRNA drug development, and describes the key parameters required for model building. This article provides insights into the future applications of PBPK models and for optimizing the key parameters when building the model for siRNA drug development.

RNA interference  /  small interfering RNA  /  pharmacokinetics  /  physiological pharmacokinetics  /  modeling  /  key parameter
李倩, 陈锐, 胡蓓. 小干扰RNA (siRNA) 药物药代动力学特征及生理药代动力学建模现状. 药学学报, 2022 , 57 (10) : 3146 -3156 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0752
Qian LI, Rui CHEN, Pei HU. Recent advances in pharmacokinetic characteristics and physiological pharmacokinetic modeling of small interfering RNA (siRNA) drugs[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2022 , 57 (10) : 3146 -3156 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0752
小干扰RNA (small interfering RNA, siRNA) 是天然存在于多种生物体或人工合成的、长度约为19~23个碱基对的双链RNA分子。siRNA已被证明可通过RNA干扰(RNAi) 机制, 有效下调人类细胞的基因表达[1]。鉴于影响人群的大多数疾病都涉及某种形式的基因调控异常, siRNA作为一种具有新型作用机制的药物极具吸引力, 在癌症、病毒感染、遗传和代谢紊乱等疾病的治疗中前景广阔[2]
2004年, 首个通过玻璃体注射靶向血管内皮生长因子(VEGF) mRNA的siRNA的药物进入临床试验, 用于治疗年龄相关性黄斑变性(AMD)[3]。近些年, 随着化学修饰和递送系统技术的发展, 极大地促进了siRNA药物的研发。自2018年首个siRNA药物获得FDA批准以来, 目前已有5款siRNA药物获批上市, 许多其他药物处于药物开发管道的晚期阶段[4-6]。与小分子或生物制品相比, siRNA药物在结构、化学性质、药物的吸收、分布、代谢和排泄(ADME) 特性等方面有自身的独特性[7]
基于生理药代动力学(PBPK) 建模是药物开发过程中的重要的工具, 它可以整合药物的理化性质、体内和体外实验数据和机体生理参数, 定量描述生理因素对药物的吸收、分布、代谢、排泄(ADME) 的影响。PBPK建模可以辅助解决多种药物开发过程中的关键问题, 包括早期研发阶段人体药代动力学(PK) 预测、不同年龄阶段外推、跨物种外推、体外到体内外推、不同人群的剂量选择、预测药物-药物相互作用(DDI) 等[1]。在2013~2019年FDA批准的新分子实体和治疗性生物制品中, 包含PBPK分析的监管申请的比例逐年增加[8], 说明PBPK建模方法在小分子和生物制品研发中的应用逐渐得到监管部门的认可。
PBPK模型在siRNAs药物研发中的应用仍然处于起步阶段, 模型结构选择及参数化过程还有许多需要面对的挑战。本文综述了siRNA类药物的发展历程、PK特征、siRNA药物研发中PBPK模型构建的现状, 并总结了模型构建中所需的关键参数, 以期为今后PBPK模型在siRNA类药物研发中的应用及合理设计临床前试验获得表征其PK特性的关键参数提供一定的借鉴。由于目前在研siRNA药物主要基于脂质纳米粒(LNPs) 和N-乙酰半乳糖胺(GalNAc)-siRNA缀合物递送系统, 因此本文主要针对这两大递送系统的siRNA药物进行综述。
RNAi概念的首次提出源于1998年Andrew Fire和Craig Mello针对线虫转录后基因沉默(PTGS) 的致病因子的研究中发表的一篇开创性论文[9], 产生这种RNAi效应的分子是长度为21或23个核苷酸组成的双链RNA, 被称为siRNA[10]。随后Elbashir等[11]将化学合成的siRNA引入哺乳动物细胞, 成功抑制了特定基因的表达。由于siRNA通过激活RNA诱导沉默复合物(RISC), 能够有效下调靶基因的表达, 使之迅速成为功能基因组学研究的有力工具[12], 并且被认为是许多疾病有前景的基因疗法, siRNA药物研发的热潮随之到来[13, 14]
在siRNA药物研发的早期阶段, 由于其稳定性、特异性和递送障碍使该类药物的研发受到阻碍。人们尝试对其进行化学修饰, 增加siRNA对体内核糖核酸酶和磷酸酶的稳定性, 改善较差的PK特性并且减少可能的脱靶效应。目前针对siRNA化学修饰方式进行了大量探索, 根据化学修饰的位点不同, 可分为磷酸骨架修饰、核糖修饰和碱基修饰三类修饰结构[14]。硫代磷酸酯(PS) 是针对磷酸骨架常用的化学修饰方式, PS修饰后能在一定程度上抵抗核酸酶的降解, 增加了siRNA的疏水性及对某些蛋白质亲和力, 因此半衰期有所延长。缺陷是会降低其对靶基因结合的亲和力, PS修饰程度高会增加化学毒性[15]。核糖修饰经常在核糖的2ʹ位置进行, 常用的修饰方式是2′端的羟基(2′-OH) 被甲氧基(2′-OMe)、甲氧乙基(2′-MOE)、氟(2′-F) 等取代[16]。这些修饰能提高与靶mRNA的亲和力, 增加对核酸酶的抵抗性, 从而提高了血浆的稳定性, 延长了药物作用时间。碱基修饰例如假尿嘧啶、2-硫尿嘧啶、N6 -甲基腺苷、5-甲基胞苷或其他尿嘧啶和胞苷残基的碱基类似物的取代可以降低免疫原性, 同时增加对核酸酶抗性, 但是碱基修饰策略仍处于研发阶段[14]
早期siRNA的化学修饰策略采用是2ʹ-OMe、2ʹ-F或PS进行部分或轻微的修饰。后来研究人员意识到siRNA的大量甚至全长修饰, 可能并不影响siRNA的活性, 并且可以显著增强siRNA的稳定性或生物相容性。因此, 出现了几种不同的化学修饰模板。所有的核糖交替用2ʹ-F和2ʹ-OMe修饰的模式称为标准化学模板(standard template chemistry, STC), 这种设计可使siRNA的效力(potency) 比未修饰的siRNA提高500倍以上[15, 17]; 第二种被称为增强稳定性化学(enhanced stability chemistry, ESC) 模板, 这种方式比标准模板化学修饰含有更多的2ʹ-OMe, 并在正义链的3ʹ末端和双链的5ʹ末端核苷酸合并了PS修饰。结合这两种修饰模板, 还有许多其他的修饰模式正在研究中[15, 18]
化学修饰能一定程度上增强siRNA药物的稳定性和免疫原性, 延长其半衰期。但是siRNA药物需要分布到靶组织, 通过跨膜转运进入细胞内, 再从内体逃逸进入细胞质才能发挥作用, 因此需要安全有效的递送系统。人们同样探索了许多不同生物材料的递送系统来改善siRNA生物分布的问题, 包括各种脂质体、siRNA缀合物、聚合物、多肽、外泌体、适配体、树突状分子等[19, 20]。这些递送系统多数处于研发阶段, 较为成熟的是脂质纳米粒(LNPs) 和N-乙酰半乳糖胺(GalNAc)-siRNA缀合物递送系统[21]
化学修饰和递送方面的进步促使siRNA药物的研发进展, 自RNAi机制发现近20年后, FDA于2018年批准了首个基于LNPs递送平台的siRNA药物ONPATTRO (patisiran), 用于治疗成人遗传性转甲状腺素(hATTR) 蛋白淀粉样变伴多发性神经病变[22]。随后, 又有4款基于GalNAc递送系统的siRNA药物获得FDA批准(表 1)。目前有多种治疗肝、肾和眼部适应症的候选药物正处于I、II和III期临床试验阶段, 多种利用肿瘤抗原的抗体片段作为递送系统的siRNA药物也在研发中[23-26], 针对中枢神经系统和其他非肝组织疾病的IND申报有望在未来2年内实现[10]
siRNA的长度约为7~8 nm, 直径约为2~3 nm, 分子质量约13~16 kDa, 其分子太大不能穿过细胞膜, 但又足以迅速被肾小球滤过清除, 使之难以分布到靶组织中[14, 27]。未修饰的siRNA具有与mRNA相似的化学性质, 可以被机体内广泛存在的核酸酶降解。并且具有高度水溶性和聚阴离子特性(~42个带负电荷的磷酸盐), 在血液循环中难以与血清蛋白结合, 静脉注射后快速通过肾脏滤过排泄, 血浆半衰期 < 10 min[28, 29]。因此, siRNA必须经过化学修饰和有效的递送系统, 改善siRNA的PK和生物分布特性[30, 31]
改变核糖或磷酸主链的化学结构可以显著提高对于核酸酶的稳定性, 但只有少数修饰有助于保持其RNAi机制的完整性, 最常用的siRNA修饰是有限数量的末端PS修饰, 以及散布在整个序列中的2′-OMe和/或2′-F修饰[32, 33]。2′-OMe修饰能增强siRNA对核酸酶的抵抗力并避免了先天免疫被激活, 但是由于对亲脂性的改善有限, 无法实现siRNA靶部位的递送。2′-O-MOE修饰后的空间位阻阻止了siRNA装载到RISC中, 并最终导致沉默活性减弱。PS修饰能够减少siRNA磷酸基团上的负电荷, 增加与血清蛋白的结合, 延长循环半衰期[29]。但是, 化学修饰仅可以适当地稳定siRNA, 高度的骨干修饰使siRNA无法激活RNAi机制, 因此需要额外的传递系统(基于脂质、聚合物和无机平台的纳米传递系统), 保护siRNA不被核酸酶降解并帮助跨靶细胞膜递送[34, 35]。目前已上市的siRNA是基于LNPs[36]和GalNAc缀合物两大递送系统[37, 38], 不同递送系统的siRNA药物PK行为和生物分布机制不同, 因此分别介绍两类递送系统的siRNA药物的PK特征。
LNPs递送系统具有优异的生物相容性、生物降解性, 毒性和免疫性较低, 并且易于大规模制备, 是药物递送合适的载体, 许多基于LNPs递送系统的药物已被批准[39]。RNAi现象发现后, 为了实现siRNA药物的递送, 该递送技术又进行不断地优化。包括对LNPs组成成分的优化、新型聚乙二醇(PEG) 脂质、可电离阳离子脂质、pH敏感型脂质体等[39]。采用LNPs为递送系统的siRNA, 通常静脉给药, 血浆中载脂蛋白E (ApoE) 吸附到LNPs颗粒表面, 被肝细胞表面上ApoE依赖的低密度脂蛋白受体(LDLR) 摄取, 有效地将siRNA传递到肝细胞[36], 首个siRNA药物patisiran正是基于LNPs递送系统, 通过LDLR途径将siRNA递送至肝细胞。Patisiran静脉输注后, 主要分布于肝脏, 血浆蛋白结合低(< 2.1%)。大部分被核酸酶代谢为不同长度的核苷酸, 不到1%的原形药物随尿液排出, 终末半衰期大约3天。暴露量呈线性和剂量成比例增加, 年龄、性别、种族、体重、轻/中度肾损伤及轻度肝损伤对PK暴露没有显著的影响[40]
LNPs组成(例如表面电荷、PEG脂质的含量和脂质链长度等) 对纳米颗粒细胞摄取和生物分布具有重要的影响。带正电荷的纳米颗粒与带负电荷的血清蛋白相互作用, 形成聚集物, 可以聚集在除肝脏之外的肺脏和脾脏中[30]。随着不同类型的PEG修饰纳米载体的发展, 可使纳米颗粒在血液中的停留时间增加[30], 调节LNPs中的PEG成分, 能显著减少肝脏和肾脏的积累, 增加siRNA向原发肿瘤积累或转移的可能性, 并且PEG化率不影响细胞内化能力和基因敲除特异性[36, 41]。LNPs的直径一般约50~80 nm, 其中可电离氨基脂类是一种关键成分, 有助于确保循环中LNPs在生理pH下具有中性表面电荷, 并促进靶细胞内化后内体逃逸[42]。调节LNPs粒径大小也可以影响其生物分布, 直径100~200 nm纳米载体可通过“增强的渗透性和保留效应(EPR)”靶向肿瘤组织[30, 43]。针对非肝脏疾病的siRNA药物均处于研发中, 针对其PK特征相关研究报道较少。
然而, 常用的LNPs配方复杂且昂贵, 可能具有毒性和免疫原性, Alnylam制药公司开发了更为安全有效的GalNAc缀合物递送系统。GalNAc是一种发现于受损的糖蛋白上的半乳糖的氨基糖衍生物, 这些糖蛋白从其悬垂的低聚糖中失去了唾液酸末端残基。肝脏通过在肝细胞表面高水平表达的唾液酸去糖蛋白受体(ASGPR) (105~106/细胞) 来清除体循环中的这些蛋白[10]。GalNAc缀合物递送系统利用其与ASGPR结合的特异性和亲和力, 成为肝细胞靶向传递的主要策略[44], FDA最近批准的吉佛西兰(GIVLAARI, givosiran)、OXLUMO (lumasiran)、因利司然(LEQVIO, inclisiran)、AMVUTTRA (vutrisiran) 四款siRNA药物均利用了该技术[37]
与LNPs递送系统相比, GalNAc缀合物递送系统具有制备简单和无毒的性质, 并且可以通过皮下注射实现有效递送。皮下注射后, GalNAc-siRNA在人体中的绝对生物利用度未被确定, 然而, lumasiran在大鼠质量平衡研究中在给药部位几乎完全吸收, 因此在人体中生物利用度也有望接近100%[45]。GalNAc-siRNA分布在有限数量的组织中, 包括肝脏、肾脏、肾皮质和淋巴结[46]。其血浆半衰期短, 通过ASGPR介导的循环到肝细胞的转运导致血浆PK的快速消除, 同时在肝脏中具有高暴露和长半衰期。例如, 因利司然在4~6 h达到最大血浆浓度, 48 h血浆中几乎检测不到药物。肝功能正常的受试者因利司然的肾脏清除率(CLR) 为6.59 L·h-1, 血浆总表观清除率(CL/F) 为37.6 L·h-1, 这表明大约82.5%的因利司然通过肝脏摄取而从血浆清除。肝功能损伤的患者CL/F降低, 暴露量(Cmax和AUC) 增加[47]。吉佛西兰在小鼠肝脏中的半衰期达120 h, 给药后672 h仍能检测到肝脏中药物含量。急性肝卟啉症(AHP) 患者皮下注射给药后, 约3 h达到最大峰浓度, 消除半衰期为6 h, 单次给药后7天观察到最大疗效, 并且疗效可维持至45天[46, 48]。Olpasiran (AMG890) 是另一种正在临床研究阶段的GalNAc-siRNA药物, 通过靶向LPA基因的mRNA降低血浆脂蛋白A [Lp(a)] 水平。在食蟹猴体内研究中, olpasiran给药后表现出血浆快速消除特征, 但是57天时仍然以高浓度存在于肝脏中, 肝脏和肾脏是主要的分布器官[49]。除了肝脏摄取导致的血浆清除外, 尿排泄是次要消除途径, 约占血浆清除率的7%~26%[46, 50]。GalNAc-siRNA的蛋白结合呈现浓度依赖性, 临床相关浓度下结合率在77%~90%之间[45, 51]
siRNA药物的血浆峰浓度和最大效应之间通常存在7~14天的滞后[52], 并且血浆动力学过程和靶组织中效应动力学过程在时间上不一致, 即短时间的血浆暴露可以在组织中产生长期的效应[1]。文献[51, 53, 54]报道, 大部分siRNA药物单次给药后约24~48 h, 血浆浓度达到定量下限, 但是对药效指标的影响持续了数十天到数月。对于siRNA药物PK和PD关系的另一个重要特征是与RISC结合的siRNA (RISC-siRNA) 浓度而不是游离血浆药物浓度与靶细胞中基因沉默效应更加相关。小鼠单次皮下注射siAT-2 (靶向抗凝血酶的GalNAc-siRNA) 的数据显示, 皮下给药后4~24 h肝脏中siRNA浓度达到峰值, 但在3~7天后才能观察到最大的RISC-siRNA浓度和靶mRNA沉默作用[54]。这种药效的延迟现象可能是由于肝脏摄取、内体运输、RISC-siRNA形成以及现有mRNA消除、后续蛋白翻译改变等一系列级联事件的迟滞所致[52]
由于siRNA药物特殊的作用机制及PK特征, 以及在细胞水平上发挥基因沉默作用的过程的复杂性, 对该类药物非临床到临床的转化、早期临床研究方案的设计、合适的剂量策略的制定提出了新的挑战。模型分析方法是阐明药物剂量-暴露-效应关系的有用的工具, 在小分子药物和生物制剂的不同临床研发阶段得到了广泛的应用。这些方法包括房室药代动力学(compartmental PK) 模型、群体药效动力学(population PK) 模型、PBPK模型等[55]。本文重点关注PBPK模型的构建在siRNA药物研发中的现状和挑战, 由于siRNA药物研究的历史相对较短, 目前上市批准的仅有5个siRNA药物, 相关的PK和PD建模报道很少, 因此也对目前群体PK/PD模型的应用现状做了介绍。
群体PK/PD模型通过拟合观测数据获得PK及PD参数, 模型结构和参数依赖于观测值, 是基于经验的建模方法。对于siRNA药物, 摄入靶细胞内的RISC-siRNA水平是药效更好的预测因子[37], 临床试验中难以获得靶细胞内的RISC-siRNA的浓度。在已上市获批的siRNA类药物的PK/PD模型构建中, 基于非临床肝脏siRNA及RISC-siRNA浓度与PD指标构建PK/PD模型, 通过异速缩放法预测人类肝脏siRNA及RISC-siRNA水平, 构建血浆PK与PD之间的关系[45, 46]; 或者忽略RISC-siRNA的浓度对于PD的直接影响, 采用效应室模型描述PD相对于血浆PK的延迟现象[52]; 另有直接采用简化的PK模型, 即仅包括一个肝脏房室, 链接Imax模型描述观察到的PK和PD之间的关系[51]
上述基于经验的群体PK/PD模型, 虽然已经获得监管部门的认可, 但是其应用的范围通常是汇集多个阶段的临床数据, 描述目标患者群体中PK和PD参数变化的协变量, 用于不同亚组患者的个性化剂量选择。群体PK/PD模型不能同时利用大量的药物和生理方面的已知的信息, 因此限制了预测类似药物的PK或推断不同生理条件下的PK的能力[56]。因此, 仅用群体PK/PD模型不能满足今后siRNA药物种属间外推、不同年龄阶段的外推、不同生理状态下外推等的研发需求。
由于PBPK模型有许多不同于群体PK/PD模型的应用, 包括进行不同年龄阶段外推、跨物种外推、体外到体内外推和预测DDI等, 在小分子药物和生物制剂研发过程中, PBPK模型用于新药申报的审批申请越来越多地被监管机构接受。但是siRNA类药物作为新兴领域, 其PBPK模型的应用鲜有相关的文献报道, 更没有被监管机构接受的案例。Ayyar等[57]于2021年发表了目前检索到的首个也是唯一一个GalNAc-siRNA的最小PBPK/PD (minimal PBPK/PD) 模型, 该模型利用多个临床前物种(小鼠、大鼠和猴子) 的PK/PD数据集逐步缩放, 最终成功预测了GalNAc-siRNA血浆PK和抗凝血酶(AT) 基因敲除效应。这一案例意味着PBPK模型在指导siRNA药物研发过程中的应用有了从无到有的进展。总体上, PBPK模型在引导siRNA类药物研发中的应用尚处于起步阶段, 相关文献报道十分有限, 因此本文基于Ayyar等[57]构建的PBPK模型, 结合小分子或抗体药物PBPK模型构建规律及siRNA药物独特ADME特征, 探讨siRNA药物PBPK模型构建的现状。
siRNA药物的PBPK模型构建需要将药物信息和生理学及器官水平的生物学信息结合, 实现药物在生物系统的机制性表征[58]。生理学信息独立于药物, 例如体积、组织组成、灌注血流率和淋巴流速。在某些情况下, 每个组织隔室可以进一步分为亚腔室, 如血浆、间质、细胞间隙和红细胞[57]
PBPK模型结构可以是包括所有组织器官的全身PBPK (whole-body PBPK) 模型, 此外PBPK模型具有一定的灵活性, 可以归集(lumping) 或对不同的组织器官进一步划分。适当的归集, 能够在保证基础动力学过程关键信息不被丢失的前提下, 将具有相似血流速率特征的“隔室”组织在一起, 从而减少腔室的数量, 降低全身PBPK模型的维度和复杂性[56, 59]
siRNA类药物与小分子及抗体药物相比具有不同的ADME过程, 三者的PBPK模型组织器官的划分不同, 并且考虑的ADME关键特征不同。表 2列举了小分子、抗体药物、siRNA药物在PBPK模型中需要考虑的ADME关键特征, 深入理解每种siRNA的ADME特性是建立PBPK模型的关键[60]
目前还没有关于LNPs递送系统的siRNA药物的PBPK模型文献报道。对于以LNPs为递送系统的其他药物, 由于大多数是静脉给药, 已发表的PBPK模型都是为静脉给药纳米颗粒开发的。LNPs的处置可能涉及被动扩散、单核巨噬细胞系统(MPS) 摄取、淋巴吸收、细胞内化和EPR效应等多种机制, 并且其动力学过程通常是组织特异性的。LNPs分布与粒径、电荷、组成相关, 在构建LNPs递送药物的PBPK模型时可以灵活地纳入肿瘤隔室或其他感兴趣的隔室[30]。另外LNPs在每个器官中的分布是不均匀的, 每个组织隔室可能需要分成两个或更多的亚细胞房室[60]。在亚细胞房室结构中, 需要清楚LNPs的摄取的机制, 内吞后的运输动力学过程, 药物从内体逃逸的效率等[61]。以LNPs为递送系统的siRNA类药物可以借鉴其他LNPs药物的模型结构, 并确定药物相关的模型参数。
以GalNAc为递送系统的siRNA通过ASGPR内吞直接靶向肝脏, 除肾脏、肝脏组织外, 其余组织分布有限, 因此仅包括主要分布器官的简化的PBPK模型就可以用于描述其关键动力学过程。Ayyar等[57]构建了首个GalNAc-siRNA的最小-PBPK/PD模型, 该模型描述了一系列动力学步骤, 来表征GalNAc-siRNA皮下注射后长期的靶基因沉默作用。主要包括: GalNAc-siRNA皮下注射后快速和广泛分布到肝脏; 通过GalNAc缀合物与肝细胞表面大量表达的ASGPR结合; 通过ASGPR介导的GalNAc-siRNA内吞作用内化; GalNAc-siRNA内体运输和ASGPR受体循环; siRNA从内体腔室逃逸到细胞质; siRNA结合细胞质RISC形成RISC-siRNA复合物; RISC-siRNA复合物刺激靶mRNA的自然降解速率, 最终抑制目标蛋白的产生(图 1)。该模型结构在参考文献[57]中有详细的描述。
在PBPK模型构建过程中, 需要整合不同种属的系统参数、药物特异性参数、给药途径和给药方案信息, 并依据对影响药物PK所有过程的深刻理解, 利用不同来源的数据将关键限速步骤参数化[62]。本文还总结了siRNA药物PBPK模型中重要的系统及药物特异性参数, 值得注意的是由于siRNA药物的建模经验有限, 对关键参数尤其是药物相关的参数的总结是建立在目前对该类药物ADME机制的理解上, 具有一定的不确定性。
PBPK模型中的系统参数独立于药物, 仅依赖于不同种属及特殊群体差异。例如典型的全身PBPK模型中包含药物吸收、分布、代谢、排泄的所有器官, 包括心脏、肺、大脑、胃、脾脏、胰腺、肠道、肝脏、肾脏、性腺、胸腺、脂肪组织、肌肉、骨骼和皮肤。这些组织由动脉和静脉血管相连, 每个组织都有相应的血流速率、体积、组织分配系数和渗透性[58]。这些参数可以通过文献可以获得, 并且已经嵌入到各种商业化的PBPK建模软件中[63, 64]
对于GalNAc缀合物或LNPs为递送系统的siRNA药物, 其生物分布具有靶向性, 因此仅包括感兴趣的器官的简化的PBPK模型可能比全身PBPK模型更适合[57]。模型中每个隔室还可以进一步分为亚隔室, 如血浆、间质、细胞间隙和细胞亚隔室, 这些亚隔室是PBPK模型中结构分化的最低水平[1, 58]。例如GalNAc-siRNA与靶受体ASGPR的结合可以定位在间质亚隔室; siRNA的细胞摄取、细胞内转运、溶酶体中的降解、基因沉默、ASGPR受体循环过程可以定位在细胞亚隔室[1]。LNPs为递送系统的siRNA, 分布受毛细管通透性限制, 具有吞噬细胞介导的非线性内吞过程, 因此亚房室结构除了毛细血管、组织间质液, 还包括吞噬细胞亚隔室[65]
在小分子药物PBPK模型中, 各种代谢酶和转运蛋白表达丰度及血浆蛋白浓度也属于系统生理参数, 但是siRNA代谢和转运机制不同于小分子药物, 因此需要考虑的生理参数不同。对于GalNAc-siRNA, 其分布到肝组织的动力学过程包括与肝细胞表面靶受体ASGPR结合和配体受体内化, 这一过程通常具有容量限制性, 受体饱和后药物进入靶组织的比例降低, 增加了循环暴露引起的不良反应。因此ASGPR表达丰度(R)、GalNAc与ASGPR的结合解离常数(Kon/Koff)、ASGPR周转速率(Rsyn/Rdeg) 及内化后受体循环速率常数(Krec) 是PBPK模型中重要的参数。在Ayyar等[57]构建的GalNAc-iRNA的PBPK模型中, 这些参数被认为是与GalNAc缀合物上链接的siRNA结构无关, 是独立于药物的系统参数[57, 66]
siRNA药物PBPK模型中所需要的药物理化参数也不同于小分子。小分子药物通常为胃肠道给药, 分布广泛, 其溶解性、渗透性及组织-血浆分配系数是吸收和分布过程中比较关注的参数。但是这些参数直接测定有困难, 实际研究中, 通常利用组织组成信息和化合物的物理化学特征, 利用模型的方法预测[58, 67]。这些理化参数包括分子质量(MW)、酸碱性(pKa/pKb)、亲脂性(logP)、血浆游离分数(fu) 等[62]。其中logP与MW一起用来计算药物的跨膜通透性, pKa用于计算药物溶解度的pH依赖变化[58], 基于Poulin-Theil或Rodgers-Rowland等公式[58, 68], 可通过logPfu预测组织-血浆分配系数。对于siRNA药物, 由于特殊的理化特征及递送系统对于生物分布的决定作用, 上述利用多种理化参数及公式计算siRNA类药物膜通透性及组织-血浆分配系数的方法的适用性尚不能确定, 各理化性质对PK及PD的影响也值得关注。
例如fu是所关注的组织中处于平衡状态时的游离药物的量, 药物与血清蛋白相互作用决定了血液中的游离药物浓度, 从而影响药物的PK和PD特性[69]。GalNAc-siRNA与血浆蛋白结合呈比例依赖性, 随浓度的增加蛋白结合率降低, 治疗剂量下的蛋白结合率为90%[46]。但是也有研究表明, GalNAc-siRNA不同于小分子药物, 其fu对PK和PD特性的影响较小[70], 虽然GalNAc-siRNA有较高的血浆蛋白结合率, 但是对PK/PD关系的构建影响甚微[7]
LNPs递送系统的siRNA药物在体内的处置与其结构复杂性相关。各种理化参数如LNPs的组成、颗粒大小、形状、电荷等都会影响LNPs与生物系统的相互作用, 且纳米颗粒的性质在体内会发生动态改变[71]。阳离子纳米颗粒更易被肝细胞摄取, 且带电的纳米颗粒可以吸附血清蛋白, 导致流体动力学尺寸增加和与巨噬细胞更强的相互作用[72]; 颗粒大小对生物分布的影响研究得较多, 但结果仍然是矛盾的[73], 靶向肿瘤的EPR效应的最佳粒径也没有达成共识[71]。因此, 将纳米颗粒理化性质-体内特征的关系集成到PBPK模型中存在很大不确定性。
siRNA通过转录和转录后水平抑制靶基因表达来调节各种生物过程, 因此需要内吞入细胞内, 经历一系列细胞内转运过程, 在细胞质内形成RISC-siRNA发挥作用, 且易在体内被分布广泛的核酸酶代谢[74]。根据上述作用机制, 在PBPK模型中还需要将以下过程参数化: siRNA药物内吞入细胞内体; siRNA从内体逃逸到细胞质; 形成RISC-siRNA; RISC-siRNA靶向mRNA裂解[1]
在上述动力学过程中, siRNA药物细胞内吞速率常数(Kint)、内吞后解离速率常数(Kcle)、内体逃逸到细胞质中的逃逸分数(fesc)、siRNA与RISC形成复合物的结合常数、RISC-siRNA裂解靶mRNA速率常数(Kcat) 以及siRNA的被核酸酶降解的速率常数(Kdeg) 都是药物特异性的常数, 与siRNA药物的起效延迟时间、效应维持时间等相关[57]
PBPK模型具有复杂的结构, 即使是简化的最小PBPK模型, PBPK模型中的参数数量通常也有几十个。尽管其中许多参数可以从文献中得到, 或在实验中测得, 但由于体外的实验环境可能和体内不同, 其真实值总是存在不确定性[68]。siRNA药物的ADME过程显著区别于小分子及抗体药物, 并且对其生物分布以及内化入细胞的一系列动力学过程的机制尚未完全阐明, 理化性质与体内分布及处置的关系也没有明确地建立[71]
对于PBPK模型中的各种动力学参数, 只有少数已经有文献报道或者可以通过实验方法直接获得。例如ASGPR的表达水平在多种文献中有报道, 并且在不同体外实验所用到的肝细胞系上的表达丰度也有诸多研究[38, 75, 76]; siRNA从内体的逃逸可以通过延时共聚焦荧光显微镜来可视化, 只有极少部分(1%~2%) 的siRNA从内体中释放, 并且逃逸过程是siRNA药物发挥作用的限速步骤, 但是逃逸的机制尚不清楚[61]
除此之外, 模型中大部分的动力学参数无法通过实验直接测定, 只能通过荧光或者放射性标记相应的siRNA, 追踪药物在体内的动态变化, 构建简单的动力学模型估算参数。例如, 将放射性标记的脱唾液酸糖蛋白(125I-ASOR) 在不同条件下与人肝癌细胞株HepG2孵育, 测定配体与HepG2表面ASGPR受体结合、摄取和内化的动力学过程, 并且构建简单的动力学模型估算ASGPR Krec[77], 再将体外模型估算出来的参数整合到GalNAc-siRNA的PBPK模型中[57]。但是由于体外实验采用的细胞系可能与体内肝细胞有不同的受体表达密度, 因此, 在获取ASGPR动力学相关参数时, 应当关注不同实验条件下获得的参数的不确定性。
上述参数的不确定性均会影响PBPK模型的预测结果的准确性。敏感性分析提供了一种定量的方法来研究参数的不确定性对模型输出的影响[78]。在siRNA类药物PBPK建模过程中, 最好采用局部或者全局的敏感性分析方法[79]识别对模型输出最具影响的参数, 了解参数的不确定性或生理参数的变异性对浓度时间曲线的影响程度, 提高PBPK模型在该类药物中可信度与准确性[80]
siRNA类药物作为新型治疗药物将在更多疾病领域发挥作用。尽管群体PK/PD的方法指导siRNA药物的研发已经被监管部门接受, 但是其应用局限在描述影响目标患者群体中PK和PD参数变化的协变量, 用于不同亚组患者的个性化剂量选择。PBPK模型在小分子和抗体药物的研发领域, 能够辅助决策临床研究不同阶段关键问题, 例如早期研发阶段人体PK预测、不同年龄阶段外推、跨种属外推、不同人群的剂量选择等。siRNA类药物研发过程中, 由于该类药物特殊的机制及研究经验的缺乏, 使得这些关键临床问题的解决充满了挑战, 因此未来PBPK工具对于指导siRNA类药物的研发非常重要。
siRNA类药物的PBPK建模处于起步阶段, 由于该类药物需要化学修饰并需要特殊的递送系统才具备成药性, 而不同递送系统的siRNA生物分布和处置过程具有复杂性和特殊性, 药物特异性理化性质与体内PK特征之间的关系也有较大不确定性, 模型关键参数的获得也需要积累大量的经验, 因此siRNA药物PBPK模型的构建和参数化过程非常具有挑战性。随着对siRNA类药物本身及体内PK及PD过程理解的不断深入, 相信PBPK模型将在siRNA药物研发领域发挥重要作用。
作者贡献: 李倩负责文献收集整理及文章初稿撰写; 陈锐、胡蓓负责文章选题和设计、初稿的审阅和修订。
利益冲突: 本文作者声明不存在任何与本稿件相关的利益冲突。
  • 中央高水平医院临床科研专项(2022-PUMCH-A-060)
  • 北京市金桥工程种子基金(ZZ20047)
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2022年第57卷第10期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0752
  • 接收时间:2022-06-20
  • 首发时间:2025-12-24
  • 出版时间:2022-10-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-06-20
  • 修回日期:2022-08-08
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中央高水平医院临床科研专项(2022-PUMCH-A-060)
北京市金桥工程种子基金(ZZ20047)
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    中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院, 北京协和医院临床药理研究中心, 北京 100730

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
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genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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