Article(id=1210516744666485161, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516741998907791, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0708, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1654617600000, receivedDateStr=2022-06-08, revisedDate=1656000000000, revisedDateStr=2022-06-24, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1766539282242, onlineDateStr=2025-12-24, pubDate=1665504000000, pubDateStr=2022-10-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1766539282242, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-24, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1766539282242, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766539282242, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1210516741998907791, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2022', volume='57', issue='10', pageStart='1', pageEnd='3258', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1766539281606, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766539576214, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1210517977762500872, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516741998907791, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1210517977762500873, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516741998907791, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=3124, endPage=3132, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1210516745916387772, articleId=1210516744666485161, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Research progress of the role of PPARγ in autoimmune diseases, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Autoimmune diseases (AID) are characterized by autoimmune disorder, as autologous tissue is attacked by the autoimmune system. It is reported that the imbalance of autoimmune tolerance and ingrained inflammatory response are the core events of AID undoubtedly. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) which belongs to the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily is a ligand activated transcription factor. PPARγ combines with retinoid X receptor (RXR) to form heterodimer. When PPARγ is activated, the complex regulates gene expression by binding to a specific peroxisome proliferator response element (PPRE). In addition, PPARγ has diversified biological functions, playing important roles in regulating metabolism, controling inflammation, modulating glucose and lipid metabolism, ameliorating atherosclerosis, anti-tumor, and regulating immune response. However, recently researches indicate that PPARγ participates in the pathogenesis of AID. PPARγ plays key roles in regulating activation and polarization of macrophages, function of dendritic cells, proliferation and differentiation of T cells, and modulation of the function of related stromal cells. This article summarizes the biological functions and signal transduction pathways of PPARγ and the protective effects of agonists of PPARγ on AID, aiming to provide theoretical support for the research of mechanism and prevention and treatment of AID.

, correspAuthors=Tian-tai ZHANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2022 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Yan YANG, Yu ZHOU, Ya-zi WEI, Tian-tai ZHANG), CN=ArticleExt(id=1210516746738471394, articleId=1210516744666485161, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=PPARγ在自身免疫性疾病中的研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

自身免疫性疾病(autoimmune diseases, AID) 是由于自身免疫系统攻击自身组织产生的疾病。研究表明, 自身免疫耐受的失衡及长期炎症反应无疑是AID发生的核心事件。过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体γ (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ, PPARγ) 属于核激素受体超家族, 是配体激活转录因子。PPARγ与维甲酸X受体(retinoid X receptor, RXR) 结合形成异源二聚体; 当PPAR被激活后, 该复合体通过与位于每个基因调控位点的特定的过氧化物酶体增殖物反应元件(PPAR response element, PPRE) 结合, 进而发挥调控基因表达的作用。PPARγ具有多种生物学功能, 在调节新陈代谢、控制炎症、调节糖脂代谢、改善动脉粥样硬化、抑制肿瘤和调节免疫过程中发挥重要作用。近几年研究表明, PPARγ参与多种AID的发病机制, 其可能涉及调节巨噬细胞的激活和极化, 调控树突状细胞功能, 介导T细胞的增殖和分化及调节相关基质细胞的功能。本文就PPARγ的生物学功能、信号转导途径和激动剂对AID的保护作用及相关机制进行总结, 旨在为相关疾病的机制研究和防治策略提供依据。

, correspAuthors=张天泰, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*张天泰, Tel / Fax: 86-10-50927385, E-mail:
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PPARγ在自身免疫性疾病中的研究进展
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杨艳 , 周禹 , 隗雅姿 , 张天泰 *
药学学报 | 综述 2022,57(10): 3124-3132
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药学学报 | 综述 2022, 57(10): 3124-3132
PPARγ在自身免疫性疾病中的研究进展
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杨艳, 周禹, 隗雅姿, 张天泰*
作者信息
  • 中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 北京 100050

通讯作者:

*张天泰, Tel / Fax: 86-10-50927385, E-mail:
Research progress of the role of PPARγ in autoimmune diseases
Yan YANG, Yu ZHOU, Ya-zi WEI, Tian-tai ZHANG*
Affiliations
  • Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
出版时间: 2022-10-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0708
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自身免疫性疾病(autoimmune diseases, AID) 是由于自身免疫系统攻击自身组织产生的疾病。研究表明, 自身免疫耐受的失衡及长期炎症反应无疑是AID发生的核心事件。过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体γ (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ, PPARγ) 属于核激素受体超家族, 是配体激活转录因子。PPARγ与维甲酸X受体(retinoid X receptor, RXR) 结合形成异源二聚体; 当PPAR被激活后, 该复合体通过与位于每个基因调控位点的特定的过氧化物酶体增殖物反应元件(PPAR response element, PPRE) 结合, 进而发挥调控基因表达的作用。PPARγ具有多种生物学功能, 在调节新陈代谢、控制炎症、调节糖脂代谢、改善动脉粥样硬化、抑制肿瘤和调节免疫过程中发挥重要作用。近几年研究表明, PPARγ参与多种AID的发病机制, 其可能涉及调节巨噬细胞的激活和极化, 调控树突状细胞功能, 介导T细胞的增殖和分化及调节相关基质细胞的功能。本文就PPARγ的生物学功能、信号转导途径和激动剂对AID的保护作用及相关机制进行总结, 旨在为相关疾病的机制研究和防治策略提供依据。

过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体γ  /  激动剂  /  自身免疫性疾病  /  免疫调节  /  T细胞  /  巨噬细胞

Autoimmune diseases (AID) are characterized by autoimmune disorder, as autologous tissue is attacked by the autoimmune system. It is reported that the imbalance of autoimmune tolerance and ingrained inflammatory response are the core events of AID undoubtedly. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) which belongs to the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily is a ligand activated transcription factor. PPARγ combines with retinoid X receptor (RXR) to form heterodimer. When PPARγ is activated, the complex regulates gene expression by binding to a specific peroxisome proliferator response element (PPRE). In addition, PPARγ has diversified biological functions, playing important roles in regulating metabolism, controling inflammation, modulating glucose and lipid metabolism, ameliorating atherosclerosis, anti-tumor, and regulating immune response. However, recently researches indicate that PPARγ participates in the pathogenesis of AID. PPARγ plays key roles in regulating activation and polarization of macrophages, function of dendritic cells, proliferation and differentiation of T cells, and modulation of the function of related stromal cells. This article summarizes the biological functions and signal transduction pathways of PPARγ and the protective effects of agonists of PPARγ on AID, aiming to provide theoretical support for the research of mechanism and prevention and treatment of AID.

peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ  /  agonist  /  autoimmune disease  /  immunoregulation  /  T cell  /  macrophage
杨艳, 周禹, 隗雅姿, 张天泰. PPARγ在自身免疫性疾病中的研究进展. 药学学报, 2022 , 57 (10) : 3124 -3132 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0708
Yan YANG, Yu ZHOU, Ya-zi WEI, Tian-tai ZHANG. Research progress of the role of PPARγ in autoimmune diseases[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2022 , 57 (10) : 3124 -3132 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0708
自身免疫性疾病(autoimmune diseases, AID) 是由于自身免疫系统攻击自身组织产生的疾病, 全球发病率大约3%~5%。其病理机制尚不明确, 但与环境因素(生活方式、饮食、药物和感染) 及遗传等有关[1], 常见的自身免疫性疾病有类风湿性关节炎(rheumatoid arthritis, RA)、炎症性肠病(inflammatory bowel disease, IBD)、系统性红斑狼疮(systemic lupus erythematosus, SLE)、多发性硬化(multiple sclerosis, MS)、系统性硬化(systemic sclerosis, SSc)、干燥综合征(sjogren's syndrome, SS) 和自身免疫性甲状腺疾病(autoimmune thyroid disease, AITD) 等。据报道, 自身免疫耐受的失衡及长期炎症反应无疑是AID发生的核心事件。过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体(peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors, PPAR) 参与多种涉及免疫系统调节的细胞(单核细胞/巨噬细胞、树突细胞和淋巴细胞) 的成熟和功能调节。因此, 以此为靶点研发AID的治疗药物具有重要的科学意义。
PPAR属于核激素受体超家族, 是配体激活转录因子。其存在3种由不同的基因编码的亚型, 即PPARα、PPARβ/δ和PPARγ。PPAR与维甲酸X受体(retinoid X receptor, RXR) 结合形成异源二聚体。当PPAR被激活后, 该复合体通过与位于每个基因调控位点的特定的过氧化物酶体增殖物反应元件(PPAR response element, PPRE) 结合, 进而发挥调控基因表达的作用[2]。尽管上述3种PPAR亚型在结构上高度相似, 但它们的配体及分布模式均存在显著的差异。目前, PPARγ亚型最受学者关注。PPARγ包含9个外显子, 通过启动不同启动子和选择性剪接产生多种PPARG剪接变体。PPARG1、PPARG3和PPARG4编码PPARγ1亚型, 主要表达于脂肪细胞、上皮细胞、单核/巨噬细胞、树突细胞和T淋巴细胞。PPARG2编码PPARγ2亚型, 主要表达于脂肪细胞、膀胱上皮细胞和T淋巴细胞。PPARg2Δ5亚型内源表达于脂肪组织, 由于外显子5跳跃突变缺乏整个配体结合区, 其表达水平与超重、肥胖或2型糖尿病患者体重质量指数呈正相关。其机制可能为PPARg2Δ5虽然缺乏配体结合区, 但仍保留结合RXRα的能力, 影响PPARγ转录激活, 影响与代谢有关的基因的表达, 抑制脂肪前体细胞分化为成熟脂肪细胞[3]
PPARγ由6个不同的蛋白结构域组成, 其中包括A/B结构域(转录激活域)、C结构域[DNA结合域(DNA binding domain, DBD)]、D结构域(铰链区) 和E/F结构域[配体结合域(ligand binding domain, LBD)]。其中, A/B结构域是不依赖配体的活性区, PPARγ活性可被该结构域中丝氨酸残基受丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinase, MAPK) 磷酸化所抑制。DBD在整个核受体超家族中是保守结构域, 通过与靶基因启动子区的PPRE结合, 从而调节靶基因的转录。D结构域是辅助因子结合的铰链域, PPARγ发挥转录调节功能需要共激活因子或共抑制因子的参与[4]。LBD由12个α-螺旋(H1~H12) 组成, 该区还包含招募辅助激活因子和释放辅助抑制因子所必需的第二功能激活区[5]。PPARγ能够识别多种不同配体, 并能够与配体灵活相互作用。在未结合配体时, PPARγ与辅助抑制因子结合, 辅助抑制因子招募组蛋白去乙酰化酶, 抑制靶基因转录。当PPARγ结合配体时, PPARγ构象则会发生相应的变化, PPARγ能够与RXRα形成异二聚体, 与靶基因启动子PPRE结合, 通过招募共激活蛋白如过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体γ辅活化子1α、CBP/P300、环磷酸腺苷(cyclic adenosine monophosphate, CAMP) 反应元件结合蛋白和类固醇受体共激活剂等, 从而促进靶基因转录[6] (图 1)。除此之外, PPARγ也可通过蛋白质翻译后修饰如磷酸化、乙酰化、O-乙酰葡糖胺糖基化和泛素化等调节其下游基因的转录。PPARγ发生蛋白质修饰后, 蛋白构象改变, 调节蛋白质相互作用, 改变受体和配体之间的亲和力[7]
PPARγ具有多种生物学功能, 在调节新陈代谢、控制炎症、改善动脉粥样硬化、抑制肿瘤和调节免疫过程中发挥重要作用。据报道, PPARγ可调节机体糖脂代谢稳态, 目前PPARγ已成为治疗2型糖尿病的重要靶点[8]。PPARγ激动剂可增加组织对胰岛素的敏感性, 改善胰岛素抵抗, 降低血糖, 促进脂肪细胞分化和减少脂质沉积。PPARγ调控与脂肪代谢相关的转运蛋白和脂肪酶的表达[9, 10]。此外, PPARγ还被证实是参与过敏性哮喘的多种细胞的重要调节因子。气道上皮细胞(airway epithelial cells, AECs) 中可见PPARγ表达, PPARγ激动剂通过抑制TNF-α和基质金属蛋白酶9 (matrix metalloproteinase 9, MMP-9) 的表达调节AECs细胞功能; 降低黏附分子血管细胞黏附分子-1 (vascular adhesion molecule 1, VCAM-1) 和细胞内细胞黏附分子-1 (intracellular adhesion molecule-1, ICAM-1) 及趋化因子CCL5和嗜酸性粒细胞趋化因子的表达, 抑制黏蛋白5AC基因转录抑制气道黏液来缓解过敏反应。此外, AECs特异性敲除PPARγ的小鼠哮喘加重; 在PPARγ敲除的AECs中, NF-κB信号通路过度活化, IL-25、IL-33和胸腺基质淋巴细胞生成素释放增加。PPARγ激动剂负性调节粒细胞的功能, 诱导中性粒细胞凋亡, 降低CD69表达, 抑制嗜酸性粒细胞衍生的神经毒素释放; 对Th2型细胞因子IL-4水平没有影响, 但显著抑制IL-5和IL-13的分泌[11]。据报道, PPARγ还参与动脉粥样硬化的发生发展。PPARγ通过调节细胞黏附分子(如VCAM-1和ICAM-1) 的表达, 抑制内皮细胞活化; 减少单核细胞趋化蛋白1、MMP-9和金属肽酶抑制剂1的产生, 抑制单核细胞跨内皮细胞迁移; 激活PPARγ-LXRα-ABCA1信号通路, 加速巨噬细胞胆固醇外流, 抑制泡沫细胞形成[12]; 改善心血管细胞的炎症反应, 抑制斑块的形成, 保持斑块的稳定性; 抑制Toll样受体4 (Toll-like receptor 4, TLR4) 介导的炎症来抑制血管平滑肌细胞的增殖和迁移, 最终减轻颈动脉损伤后的内膜增生[13]。除此之外, PPARγ对肿瘤的发生发展同样具有重要的调控作用, 激活的PPARγ可通过抑制Wnt/β-catenin、PI3K/Akt、信号转导和转录激活因子(signal transducers and activators of transduction, STAT) 和NF-κB等信号转导途径及调节脑和肌肉芳烃受体类核转位蛋白1等关键的昼夜节律基因来抑制肿瘤进展[14]。PPARγ还能够改变辅助性T细胞(T helper, Th) 1/Th2和Th17的平衡, 以及调节巨噬细胞和树突状细胞的反应和表型, 改善AID。
PPARγ配体包括内源性配体和外源性配体。常见的PPARγ天然/内源性配体有15-脱氧-Δ12, 14-前列腺素J2 (15d-PGJ2) 和多不饱和脂肪酸等。外源性配体为PPARγ的人工合成配体, 包括以下4个亚类: ①噻唑烷二酮家族(thiazolidinedione, TZD) 如罗格列酮、吡格列酮和曲格列酮; ②选择性PPARγ调节剂(selective PPARγ modulators, SPPARMs), 如部分PPARγ激动剂、PPARγ磷酸化抑制剂和TZDs衍生物[15]; ③双重PPARα/γ激动剂如莫格列扎和阿格列扎; ④泛PPARγ激动剂(PPARα/δ/γ激动剂) 如lanifibranor和chiglitazar[16]
RA是一种以对称性、多关节炎为特征的全身性自身免疫性疾病, 在全球的患病率高达1%[17], 其中女性患病率高于男性, 其致病过程可能与基因、环境因素和表观遗传学有关, 其主要特点为炎性细胞浸润、血管翳形成, 软骨和骨侵蚀, 最终导致关节严重畸形甚至活动功能丧失, 具有极高的致残率; 此外, RA病情迁延不愈, 极易反复, 其复发和高疾病活动度时心血管疾病、神经系统疾病风险显著增加; 给患者带来巨大的痛苦和严重的经济负担[18]。据报道, RA患者巨噬细胞中PPARγ的表达高于健康受试者, 且患者滑膜组织中PPARγ蛋白和mRNA表达水平与RA疾病活动评分(disease activity score, DAS28) 呈负相关。除此之外, 在全身性自身免疫性疾病中, PPARγ激动剂也可对心血管系统、关节或肾脏等靶器官起到保护作用。目前已有临床研究结果显示, 服用吡格列酮的RA患者在疾病活动度、胰岛素抵抗、血管功能和降低C反应蛋白(C-reactive protein, CRP) 水平方面均得到了显著改善, 且安全性较好[19]。此外, PPARγ的天然配体15d-PGJ2通过降低NF-κB受体激活剂配体(receptor activator of NF-κB ligand, RANKL) 诱导的单核细胞趋化蛋白1、破骨细胞相关联的活化T细胞核因子1蛋白、c-fos、p65和c-Jun的表达, 减少破骨细胞分化, 抑制骨重吸收, 促进骨髓脂肪生成, 抑制成骨细胞增生, 抑制骨代谢, 从而抑制RA[20]。滑膜成纤维细胞(synovial fibroblasts, FLS) 和巨噬细胞在RA发生发展过程中起着关键作用, PPARγ在此两种细胞中均有表达。RA患者滑膜中存在FLS在骨和软骨血管膜中的异常迁移、增殖和激活。巨噬细胞是人体重要的固有免疫细胞之一, 可通过释放多种细胞因子进而活化获得性免疫, 继而参与炎性反应, 维持内环境稳态。巨噬细胞具有一定的可塑性, 根据环境刺激不同, 可以分为经典活化巨噬细胞M1型和替代活化巨噬细胞M2型。M1型巨噬细胞参与各类病原体的清除, 但是一旦M1型巨噬细胞产生过多会加重机体炎症。此时, M2型巨噬细胞数目随之增加, 发挥促进损伤修复、细胞增殖和组织重塑等作用从而消除炎症, 恢复机体平衡。Marder等[19]通过蛋白质免疫印迹法和免疫组化法发现, RA患者和佐剂诱导的关节炎(adjuvant-induced arthritis, AIA) 大鼠的FLS中PPARγ的水平显著降低。据报道, 上调PPARγ表达可显著抑制AIA大鼠FLS的迁移和增殖。PPARγ的配体诱导滑膜细胞凋亡, 阻断FLS中NF-κB信号通路。在巨噬细胞中, PPARγ调节其极化、成熟、表观遗传学和代谢[21]。在LPS诱导的M1巨噬细胞中, PPARγ基因缺失的巨噬细胞上清中IL-6、IL-2、IL-1和TNF-α (M1型巨噬细胞的标志细胞因子) 水平显著升高[22]。与野生型巨噬细胞相比, PPARγ条件敲除小鼠骨髓来源的巨噬细胞中, M2型巨噬细胞的标志物精氨酸酶1 (arginase 1, Arg1) 活性显著降低, 提示PPARγ调控巨噬细胞M2型极化。此外, PPARγ活性除受到转录水平调控外, 还受到多种翻译后修饰所调控, 如乙酰化、磷酸化和小类泛素化修饰(small ubiquitin-related modifier materialized, SUMO) 等[23]。实验证实, 在小鼠原代腹腔巨噬细胞、小鼠巨噬细胞系RAW264.7和小鼠胚胎成纤维细胞中均检测到PPARγ的内源性SUMO化修饰。IL-4刺激巨噬细胞时, PPARγ第77位赖氨酸的SUMO化修饰水平显著下调促进Arg1转录, 促进巨噬细胞向M2型极化[24]。此外, mTOR-semaphorin 6D (semaphorin 6D, Sema6D)-PPARγ轴和PPAR结合蛋白MED1也在促进巨噬细胞向M2型巨噬细胞的极化过程中起着重要作用[25]。抑制mTOR蛋白或敲除Sema6D基因使PPARγ表达减少和脂质代谢重编程受损, 从而抑制巨噬细胞向抗炎表型极化。mTOR激活后上调Sema6D, 并与Sema6D胞质区域的SH3结构域中的富含脯氨酸的区域(PXXP) 的结合位点结合, 随后复合体与参与PPARγ转录的酪氨酸激酶c-Abl结合, 促进PPARγ表达, 从而促进巨噬细胞向M2型巨噬细胞极化。
除此之外, PPARγ在T细胞的分化中亦发挥着重要作用。T细胞是主要来源于骨髓或胚肝淋巴样干细胞分化发育的祖细胞。目前研究较多的是CD4辅助性T细胞。根据表达的标志性细胞因子和转录因子的不同, CD4辅助性T细胞主要分为以下几个亚型: Th1、Th2、Th17、Tfh、Th9、Th22和Tr1[26]。PPARγ在调节T细胞增殖和上述Th细胞的分化中起着重要的作用[27]。PPARγ激动剂吡格列酮(20 μmol·L-1) 显著抑制小鼠Naïve CD4+ T细胞向Th1、Th2和Th17细胞分化, 降低细胞上清中IFN-γ、IL-4、IL-13和IL-17的水平。与此报道一致, 新型TZD类似物TM17显著降低RA患者外周血单核细胞(peripheral blood mononuclear cell, PBMC) 中IL-22、IFN-γ和IL-17水平[28]。此外, 据报道, 部分天然产物亦可作为PPARγ激动剂通过抑制Th17细胞分化发挥改善RA的作用[29]。IFN-γ的表达受到多种转录调控, 包括染色质重塑、DNA甲基化、T-bet、NFAT、NF-κB、STAT4、AP-1和CREB/ATF。活化的PPARγ可以通过与CREB绑定蛋白(CREB binding protein, CBP)/p300结合, 抑制AP-1的活性, 从而降低IFN-γ水平[30]。与此报道一致, PPARγ拮抗剂GW9662促进T细胞IFN-γ表达。此外, IL-4为Th2细胞分泌的细胞因子, 可以促进T细胞中PPARγ的表达和单核细胞中12/15脂氧合酶的表达。而12/15脂氧合酶可促使花生四烯酸转化成包括PPARγ天然配体13-HODE在内的多种代谢产物。13-HODE可以被邻近的T细胞摄取, 激活T细胞中PPARγ。活化的PPARγ可减少T细胞分泌IFN-γ, 抑制Th1细胞分化[31]。此外, PPARγ缺失使Th2型细胞介导的免疫反应受损[32, 33]。CD4+ T细胞中PPARγ缺失, 使生长刺激表达基因2蛋白(growth stimulation expressed gene 2, ST2)、IL-5和IL-13表达减少, 而PPARγ天然激动剂15d-PGJ2和合成激动剂吡格列酮可以诱导ST2表达[34]。基于转座酶和高通量测序的染色质分析技术和染色质免疫沉淀测序结果显示, 在Th2细胞的开放染色质区域, PPARγ存在多个关键的靶基因, 如AP1、Ets1、Runx1、Gata3、Stat5、IL5和IL-13[33, 35]。此外, PPARγ通过抑制TGF-β/IL-6诱导的RORγt的表达选择性抑制Th17细胞分化[36]。有趣的是, 研究表明PPARγ对Th17细胞分化的抑制存在性别和种属差异。在人PBMCs分离的CD4+ T细胞中, PPARγ沉默增加IL-17A的表达。这种现象只出现在女性健康受试者T细胞中。与此同时, PPARγ的配体罗格列酮仅抑制女性受试者CD4+ T细胞中IL-17A的产生, 对男性受试者CD4+ T细胞上清中IL-17A的水平没有显著影响[37]。而这种性别差异在小鼠中并未发现, 无论在雄性还是雌性小鼠CD4+ T细胞中, PPARγ激动剂均可抑制Th17细胞分化[38]。此外, PPARγ对Tfh亦有影响, RA患者体内Tfh细胞增多, 促进B细胞活化, 分泌大量自身抗体。CD4-PPARγKO小鼠Bcl-6+CXCR5+ Tfh和GL-7+CD95+GC B细胞数目与野生型小鼠相比明显增多; 吡格列酮(10 mg·kg-1) 腹腔注射连续6天显著降低小鼠脾脏Bcl-6+ CXCR5+ Tfh数目, 提示PPARγ活化抑制Tfh细胞产生[39]
此外, B淋巴细胞和树突状细胞(dendritic cell, DC) 与RA的发生发展关联亦十分密切。RA中B细胞功能和数目异常。在RA患者中, 可以发现自身反应性B细胞过度激活, 进而促进参与RA发病机制的类风湿因子和抗瓜氨酸蛋白抗体的分泌及调节性B细胞数目减少, 造成免疫失耐受。据报道, B细胞PPARγ特异性敲除小鼠与野生型小鼠相比, CD19+CDS+CD1dhi Breg细胞和CD19+ B细胞IL-10分泌明显减少, 凋亡数目增多, 而CD19+CD5+CD1dlow细胞亚群IL-10表达无显著差异; 提示PPARγ敲除后小鼠免疫调节功能下降。此外, DC是抗原提呈功能最强的抗原提呈细胞, 其种类和功能具有多样性, 直接参与免疫应答过程, 从而直接参与RA的发病过程。据报道, 在DC分化过程中, PPARγ影响共刺激分子CD80和CD86及DC特征性标记物CD1a的表达。PPARγ激动剂降低LPS或CD40配体激活的DC中IL-12的水平, 降低参与Th1细胞募集的趋化因子IP-10和RANTES分泌, 降低共刺激分子CD86、CD83、CD80和CD40表达; 提示PPARγ抑制DC成熟和降低DC的免疫原性[40, 41]。据报道, 在DC的成熟过程中, p50、RelB、c-Rel、ERK1/2、JNK和p38 MAPK发挥着重要的作用; PPARγ激动剂通过阻断NF-κB和MAPK信号通路抑制DC成熟[42]。此外, DC中PPARγ激活抑制EBI1配体趋化因子和趋化因子受体CCR7的表达, 抑制DC向淋巴结迁移[43]。罗格列酮处理的单核细胞来源的DC中CD1d mRNA和蛋白表达增加(图 2)。
IBD是一种异质性的胃肠道免疫紊乱的疾病, 主要包括2种临床表型, 溃疡性结肠炎(ulcerative colitis, UC) 和克罗恩病(Crohn's disease, CD)。UC是一种主要累及结肠黏膜表面, 以连续的方式影响直肠的慢性疾病, CD则是以非连续的方式影响整个胃肠道并常伴有并发症(脓肿、瘘管和狭窄) 的疾病, 发病机制可能涉及遗传易感性、肠道免疫系统失调、环境因素、上皮细胞损坏和异常的黏膜免疫反应等多种因素。研究发现, PPARγ参与IBD发病过程且在结肠组织中高表达。IBD患者中TLR4表达增加激活NF-κB和MAPK信号通路使上皮细胞PPARγ表达受损导致结肠炎症产生。与健康受试者相比, UC和CD患者结肠组织中PPARγ mRNA表达减少。研究表明, PPARγ激动剂抑制转录因子NF-κB活化进而减少促炎因子TNF-α和IL-6产生; 以PPARγ依赖的方式促进微生物清除及减少腹腔巨噬细胞活性氧产生进而改善IBD[44, 45]。上皮细胞PPARγ特异性敲除小鼠更易被葡聚糖硫酸钠诱导, 表现出的炎症反应更强。此外, PPARγ还可参与先天性免疫过程中抗菌响应, 调节结肠中β-防御素的表达, 如mDefB10和DEFB1。从PPARγ+/-小鼠的结肠黏膜中提取的阳离子肽对脆弱类杆菌、粪肠球菌和白色念珠菌的杀灭效果较从野生型小鼠的结肠黏膜中提取的阳离子肽弱, 表明PPARγ具有抗微生物作用[46]。PPARγ活化后促进结肠上皮细胞β氧化过程限制肠道内含氧水平, 抑制病原性肠杆菌的扩增, 调控肠道稳态。
SLE是一种自身免疫性疾病, SLE患者细胞和体液免疫功能失调、自身抗体过度产生, 导致多种组织器官如肾、皮肤、关节及中枢神经系统严重受损。SLE具体发病因素尚不明确, 但与免疫耐受丧失和B细胞过度活化可能有关[47]。活动期SLE患者外周血单核细胞中CD40/CD40L信号通路活化, PPARγ mRNA的表达增加, 增加的PPARγ反过来负性调控CD40/CD40L信号通路。此外, TLR2/Sirt1/PPARγ信号通路在SLE的发病过程中起着重要作用, 提示PPARγ参与SLE发病机制[48, 49]。研究表明, 携带PPARγ rs1805192基因型的人群SLE发病率较低, 且在SLE患者中PPARγ rs1805192和PPARγ rs10865710基因位点之间存在交互作用[50]。PPARγ激动剂吡格列酮和罗格列酮对MRL/lpr小鼠SLE的早期预防有一定作用[51]。吡格列酮(1 μmol·L-1) 显著抑制CD4+ T细胞中T细胞相关基因LCK、CD40LG、CD27、ITK、TXK、TP53和FOXQ1等表达[52]。此外, PPARγ激动剂罗格列酮还可通过诱导脂联素产生减少SLE模型小鼠自身抗体的产生, 预防动脉粥样硬化和肾脏疾病[53]。罗格列酮联合地塞米松还能诱导SLE患者的单核来源的DC向耐受表型分化[54]
MS是一种慢性中枢神经系统脱髓鞘的自身免疫性疾病, 其特征为中枢神经系统白质炎性脱髓鞘病变。由于自身反应性脑抗原特异性T细胞被激活而产生炎症性攻击, 引起轴突髓鞘破坏和神经功能破坏并伴随神经元死亡及硬化斑块的形成, 逐渐导致肢体功能丧失[55]。MS的发病机制不明, 遗传、感染和免疫因素可能参与其中。近年来, 关于PPARγ可作为MS的治疗靶点的报道层出不穷。在多发性硬化脱髓鞘过程中, PPARγ的表达水平显著下调[56, 57]。中枢神经系统PPARγ缺失或PPARγ拮抗剂则会进一步加重实验性自身免疫性脑脊髓炎(experimental autoimmune encephalomyelit, EAE) 模型的临床症状。在MS少突胶质细胞中, PPARγ可减轻炎症并允许髓鞘再生。PPARγ激动剂吡格列酮、齐格列酮和非TZD类PPARγ激动剂GW347845均能抑制T细胞增殖, 诱导T细胞凋亡, 减少TNF-α和IFN-γ分泌及减少Bcl-2的表达[58]。在EAE模型小鼠中, 中枢神经系统CD4+ T细胞过度浸润, PPARγ过表达或PPARγ激动剂可显著抑制CD4+ T细胞分泌IFN-γ和IL-17, 抑制其向Th1细胞和Th17细胞分化[57, 59]。PPARγ激动剂吡格列酮还可显著抑制B淋巴细胞的增殖和上调Treg细胞的数量。此外, 多种信号转导通路及调节蛋白参与MS的病理生理过程。Wnt/β-catenin信号转导途径具有高度保守性, 可以与其他多种信号通路发生广泛的对话影响神经系统的功能, 此通路可能也参与了MS的病理过程, 其中β-catenin蛋白是信号通路的关键调节点。而β-catenin蛋白是PPARγ的靶基因, PPARγ激动剂发挥抑制MS的机制可能为PPARγ活化后经典的Wnt/β-catenin信号途径被抑制, 最终导致少突胶质细胞前体细胞的增殖及分化功能抑制, 从而抑制MS[60]。据报道, 一些天然产物可以通过激活PPARγ发挥改善MS的症状。如辣木籽素通过激活PPARγ抑制β-catenin信号通路及降低IL-1β和COX-2的表达从而抑制神经炎症, 显著改善小鼠EAE症状[61]; 熊果酸可以通过激活PPARγ/CREB信号转导通路发挥促进少突胶质细胞分化和髓鞘形成及抗炎的双重作用改善MS[62]
SSc又称硬皮病, 其主要临床特征为血管损伤、皮肤增厚硬化及多器官纤维化, 严重的导致内脏器官衰竭, 对患者的生活质量和生命安全造成了极大的影响。SSc的病因非常复杂, 可能与环境因素、基因、成纤维细胞功能异常、免疫和血管功能失代偿有关[63]。目前其治疗手段仍然以免疫抑制剂为基础, 但疗效一般, 近年来研究表明PPARγ功能受损可能参与了SSc的发展进程[64]。全基因组关联分析研究显示, PPARγ SNP (rs10865710) 与SSc密切相关[65, 66]。PPARγ能够在正常真皮成纤维细胞中表达, 抑制PPARγ激活可以抑制肌成纤维细胞分化, 其机制可能为PPARγ激活后抑制Smad信号通路从而抑制TGF-β诱导的胶原mRNA表达[67]。天然的PPARγ配体15d-PGJ2, 可以减轻博莱霉素诱导的SSc小鼠皮肤硬化, 降低结缔组织生长因子和TGF-β的表达水平[68]。人工合成的PPARγ激动剂2-氰基-3, 12-二氧代齐墩果-1, 9-二烯-28-酸可以减轻SSc小鼠的皮肤炎症、抑制真皮纤维化和减少皮下脂肪萎缩[69]
SS是一种以泪腺、颌下腺和唾液腺为主要损伤部位并累及全身外分泌腺功能异常的自身免疫性疾病。SS在中国的患病率为0.29%~0.77%, 并呈上升趋势, 且90%以上为女性患者。该病以淋巴细胞浸润为主要特征, 表现为腺体分泌减少、眼、口干燥症状[70]。据报道, SS患者唾液腺组织中PPARγ的表达水平显著降低, 其表达水平与疾病严重程度成负相关[71]。动物实验研究表明, PPARγ激动剂罗格列酮(40 mg·kg-1) 每2天给药一次, 连续给药8周, 显著抑制SS动物模型非肥胖型糖尿病(non obese diabetes mellitus, NOD) 小鼠唇腺腺体破坏和单核细胞浸润, 降低NOD小鼠唇腺组织炎性因子mRNA的表达, 及促进Th2型细胞因子分泌[72]。PPARγ激动剂改善SS的作用机制可能为: ①抑制唾液腺上皮细胞p-p65的核转位, 上调抑制性分子IκBα水平进而抑制NF-κB信号通路; ②抑制IL-1β产生及抑制TLR3诱导的细胞凋亡; ③减少TNF-α诱导的唾液腺上皮细胞细胞间黏附分子1、死亡受体Fas/CD95、CD40和HLA-I产生[73]; ④促进AMPK磷酸化上调脂联素来调节唾液腺上皮细胞的能量代谢, 改善内质网应激, 从而抑制上皮细胞凋亡[74]
AITD是以自身抗体升高导致甲状腺组织损伤为特点的多基因遗传的器官特异性自身免疫性疾病, 包括桥本甲状腺炎和毒性弥漫性甲状腺肿(又称Graves病) 等。AITD的全球患病率为13.4%, 女性患病率是男性的5~10倍。AITD可导致不孕、早产、流产及婴儿大脑发育受损, 此外还与冠心病、脑缺血、心房颤动等疾病密切相关。目前其发病机制尚不明确, 可能与环境、表观遗传和自身免疫等有关[75]。其中CD4+ T细胞和B细胞相互作用, 分泌大量抗体, 是AITD发病的关键。过多的抗体导致甲状腺激素分泌过多及甲状腺内大量淋巴细胞浸润, 最终导致甲状腺组织破坏。据报道, PPARγ可能在Graves病的发病过程中发挥重要作用, PPARγ rs1801282基因与Graves病易感性密切相关[76]。活动性Graves病患者结缔组织中的PPARγ水平明显高于正常受试者。体外实验亦表明, 与正常成肌细胞相比, PPARγ在Graves病成肌细胞中表达水平明显上调[77]。吡格列酮显著下调Graves病患者成肌细胞中TNF-α诱导的TGF-β、透明质酸和透明质酸合成酶3的表达水平, 明显抑制内皮细胞趋化因子受体3和趋化因子CXC配体9 (chemokine CXC ligand 9, CXCL9) 及甲状腺细胞CXCL10和CXCL11的分泌[78]
尽管, 目前研究尚不能清楚解释PPARγ激动剂抑制AID的作用机制。但是越来越多的证据表明PPARγ这个靶点在AID的病理过程中的作用十分关键, 因此, 以此为靶点研发AID的治疗药物具有重要的科学意义。PPARγ激动剂或许可作为AID标准治疗的辅助手段之一, 尤其是针对合并糖尿病、肥胖症或糖代谢紊乱的AID患者。
作者贡献: 杨艳完成综述撰写和部分文献查阅; 周禹和隗雅姿完成部分文献查阅工作; 张天泰修改综述。
利益冲突: 作者声明没有利益冲突。
  • 国家重点研发计划(2020YFA0908004)
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(81703781)
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(81973338)
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2022年第57卷第10期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0708
  • 接收时间:2022-06-08
  • 首发时间:2025-12-24
  • 出版时间:2022-10-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-06-08
  • 修回日期:2022-06-24
基金
国家重点研发计划(2020YFA0908004)
国家自然科学基金资助项目(81703781)
国家自然科学基金资助项目(81973338)
作者信息
    中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 北京 100050

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*张天泰, Tel / Fax: 86-10-50927385, E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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