Article(id=1210516744284803494, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516741998907791, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0669, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1653926400000, receivedDateStr=2022-05-31, revisedDate=1655395200000, revisedDateStr=2022-06-17, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1766539282150, onlineDateStr=2025-12-24, pubDate=1665504000000, pubDateStr=2022-10-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1766539282150, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-24, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1766539282150, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766539282150, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1210516741998907791, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2022', volume='57', issue='10', pageStart='1', pageEnd='3258', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1766539281606, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766539576214, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1210517977762500872, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516741998907791, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1210517977762500873, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516741998907791, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=2932, endPage=2948, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1210516746855911914, articleId=1210516744284803494, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Advances on Keap1-Nrf2 protein-protein interaction inhibitors and degraders, columnId=1210516743097815441, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Special Reports Ⅰ: New Targets, New Strategies for Drug Discovery and Advances in Antiviral Drug Research, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Oxidative stress is a redox imbalance in the body, which is one of the important factors leading to tissue damage and diseases. The nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-Kelch like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) signaling pathway is not only an important defense system against oxidative damage, but also one of the key signaling pathways of the antioxidant capacity. Numerous studies have shown that targeting the Keap1-Nrf2 signaling pathway to activate Nrf2 has become an effective strategy for the treatment of oxidative stress and related diseases. Using small molecules to directly block the Keap1-Nrf2 protein-protein interaction (PPI) is one of the important directions for activating Nrf2 and exerting the cytoprotective effect, which can avoid the potential side effects of covalent modification of Nrf2. On the other hand, the Keap1 is an efficient E3 ubiquitin ligase that has been used in the design of proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs). This review summarizes the research progresses of Keap1-Nrf2 protein interaction inhibitors and degraders based on the Keap1 E3 ubiquitination system in recent years.

, correspAuthors=Chun-lin ZHUANG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2022 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Jian-yu YAN, Guo-dong LIU, Zhen-yuan MIAO, Chun-lin ZHUANG), CN=ArticleExt(id=1210516755672338581, articleId=1210516744284803494, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=Keap1-Nrf2蛋白相互作用小分子抑制剂及降解剂研究进展, columnId=1210516743232033171, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=专题报道Ⅰ:药物发现的新靶标、新策略与抗病毒药物研究, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

氧化应激是机体内一种氧化还原失衡状态, 是导致组织损伤和疾病发生的重要因素之一。核因子E2相关因子2 (nuclear factor E2-related factor 2, Nrf2)-Kelch样环氧氯丙烷相关蛋白1 (Kelch like ECH-associated protein 1, Keap1) 信号通路不仅是抵御氧化应激损伤的重要防御系统, 也是增强机体抗氧化能力的关键信号通路之一。大量研究表明, 靶向Keap1-Nrf2信号通路并激活Nrf2已经成为治疗氧化应激和相关疾病的有效策略。运用小分子直接阻断Keap1-Nrf2蛋白-蛋白相互作用(protein-protein interaction, PPI) 是激活Nrf2并且发挥保护作用的重要方向之一, 可以避免共价修饰激活Nrf2的潜在不良反应。另一方面, Keap1作为新型E3泛素化酶工具, 已被用于蛋白水解靶向嵌合体(proteolysis targeting chimeras, PROTACs) 的设计。本文综述了近年来Keap1-Nrf2蛋白相互作用抑制剂和基于Keap1 E3泛素化系统的降解剂的研究进展。

, correspAuthors=庄春林, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*庄春林, Tel: 86-21-81871204, E-mail:
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Compd. Structure Activity Ref.
42 IC50 (2D-FIDA) = 118 μmol·L-1 [15]
43 EC50 (FP) = 9.8 μmol·L-1 [53]
44 Kd (FA) = 2.9 μmol·L-1 [34]
45 Kd (FA) = 10.4 μmol·L-1 [34]
46 / [54]
47 EC2 (SPR) = 1.36 μmol·L-1 [55]
48 IC50 = 22 nmol·L-1 Kd = 58.4 nmol·L-1 [56]
49 Kd (FP) = 5.1 μmol·L-1 Kd (SPR) = 48.1 μmol·L-1 [57]
50 EC50 = 1.46 μmol·L-1 [58]
51 IC50 (FP) = 258 nmol·L-1 Kd (SPR) = 114 nmol·L-1 [59]
52 IC50 (FP) = 2.7 μmol·L-1 Kd (SPR) = 158 nmol·L-1 [59]
53 IC50 (FP) = 1.09 μmol·L-1 Kd (ITC) = 0.71 μmol·L-1 [60]
), ArticleFig(id=1210516764325188204, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516744284803494, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

Other Keap1-Nrf2 protein-protein interaction small molecule inhibitors

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Compd. Structure Activity Ref.
42 IC50 (2D-FIDA) = 118 μmol·L-1 [15]
43 EC50 (FP) = 9.8 μmol·L-1 [53]
44 Kd (FA) = 2.9 μmol·L-1 [34]
45 Kd (FA) = 10.4 μmol·L-1 [34]
46 / [54]
47 EC2 (SPR) = 1.36 μmol·L-1 [55]
48 IC50 = 22 nmol·L-1 Kd = 58.4 nmol·L-1 [56]
49 Kd (FP) = 5.1 μmol·L-1 Kd (SPR) = 48.1 μmol·L-1 [57]
50 EC50 = 1.46 μmol·L-1 [58]
51 IC50 (FP) = 258 nmol·L-1 Kd (SPR) = 114 nmol·L-1 [59]
52 IC50 (FP) = 2.7 μmol·L-1 Kd (SPR) = 158 nmol·L-1 [59]
53 IC50 (FP) = 1.09 μmol·L-1 Kd (ITC) = 0.71 μmol·L-1 [60]
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Keap1-Nrf2蛋白相互作用小分子抑制剂及降解剂研究进展
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闫健羽 , 刘国栋 , 缪震元 , 庄春林 *
药学学报 | 专题报道Ⅰ:药物发现的新靶标、新策略与抗病毒药物研究 2022,57(10): 2932-2948
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药学学报 | 专题报道Ⅰ:药物发现的新靶标、新策略与抗病毒药物研究 2022, 57(10): 2932-2948
Keap1-Nrf2蛋白相互作用小分子抑制剂及降解剂研究进展
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闫健羽, 刘国栋, 缪震元, 庄春林*
作者信息
  • 中国人民解放军海军军医大学药学系, 上海 200433

通讯作者:

*庄春林, Tel: 86-21-81871204, E-mail:
Advances on Keap1-Nrf2 protein-protein interaction inhibitors and degraders
Jian-yu YAN, Guo-dong LIU, Zhen-yuan MIAO, Chun-lin ZHUANG*
Affiliations
  • School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
出版时间: 2022-10-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0669
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氧化应激是机体内一种氧化还原失衡状态, 是导致组织损伤和疾病发生的重要因素之一。核因子E2相关因子2 (nuclear factor E2-related factor 2, Nrf2)-Kelch样环氧氯丙烷相关蛋白1 (Kelch like ECH-associated protein 1, Keap1) 信号通路不仅是抵御氧化应激损伤的重要防御系统, 也是增强机体抗氧化能力的关键信号通路之一。大量研究表明, 靶向Keap1-Nrf2信号通路并激活Nrf2已经成为治疗氧化应激和相关疾病的有效策略。运用小分子直接阻断Keap1-Nrf2蛋白-蛋白相互作用(protein-protein interaction, PPI) 是激活Nrf2并且发挥保护作用的重要方向之一, 可以避免共价修饰激活Nrf2的潜在不良反应。另一方面, Keap1作为新型E3泛素化酶工具, 已被用于蛋白水解靶向嵌合体(proteolysis targeting chimeras, PROTACs) 的设计。本文综述了近年来Keap1-Nrf2蛋白相互作用抑制剂和基于Keap1 E3泛素化系统的降解剂的研究进展。

氧化应激  /  核因子E2相关因子2  /  Kelch样环氧氯丙烷相关蛋白1  /  蛋白-蛋白相互作用  /  蛋白水解靶向嵌合体

Oxidative stress is a redox imbalance in the body, which is one of the important factors leading to tissue damage and diseases. The nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)-Kelch like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) signaling pathway is not only an important defense system against oxidative damage, but also one of the key signaling pathways of the antioxidant capacity. Numerous studies have shown that targeting the Keap1-Nrf2 signaling pathway to activate Nrf2 has become an effective strategy for the treatment of oxidative stress and related diseases. Using small molecules to directly block the Keap1-Nrf2 protein-protein interaction (PPI) is one of the important directions for activating Nrf2 and exerting the cytoprotective effect, which can avoid the potential side effects of covalent modification of Nrf2. On the other hand, the Keap1 is an efficient E3 ubiquitin ligase that has been used in the design of proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs). This review summarizes the research progresses of Keap1-Nrf2 protein interaction inhibitors and degraders based on the Keap1 E3 ubiquitination system in recent years.

oxidative stress  /  nuclear factor E2-related factor 2  /  Kelch like ECH-associated protein 1  /  protein-protein interaction  /  proteolysis targeting chimeras
闫健羽, 刘国栋, 缪震元, 庄春林. Keap1-Nrf2蛋白相互作用小分子抑制剂及降解剂研究进展. 药学学报, 2022 , 57 (10) : 2932 -2948 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0669
Jian-yu YAN, Guo-dong LIU, Zhen-yuan MIAO, Chun-lin ZHUANG. Advances on Keap1-Nrf2 protein-protein interaction inhibitors and degraders[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2022 , 57 (10) : 2932 -2948 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0669
氧化应激是机体内一种氧化还原失衡状态, 是导致组织损伤和疾病发生的重要因素之一, 与多种疾病密切相关, 如神经性疾病、慢性肾脏疾病、阻塞性肺疾病、动脉粥样硬化和癌症等[1, 2]。大量研究已经发现靶向Kelch样环氧氯丙烷相关蛋白-1 (Kelch like ECH-associated protein 1, Keap1)-核因子E2相关因子2 (nuclear factor E2-related factor 2, Nrf2)-抗氧化反应元件(antioxidant redox element, ARE) 信号通路激活Nrf2可以对各种应激和炎症相关疾病发挥保护作用[3]。激活Nrf2主要有共价激活和非共价激活两种方式[4]。Nrf2共价激活剂主要是通过与Keap1的半胱氨酸残基(如: Cys151、Cys257、Cys273、Cys288、Cys297、Cys434、Cys613) 发生共价相互作用, 致使Keap1构象发生改变, 从而解离并激活Nrf2而发挥细胞保护作用[5]。最为成功的Nrf2共价激活剂富马酸二甲酯(dimethyl fumarate, DMF) 在临床实践中用于治疗银屑病和复发性多发性硬化症[6]。然而, Nrf2共价激活剂对Keap1及细胞中普遍存在的富含半胱氨酸的其他靶点没有选择性, 这种非特异性结合可能增加临床开发中的风险[7]。巴多索隆(bardoxolone, CDDO) 类似物是一种典型的亲电性Nrf2激活剂, 其甲基修饰物甲基巴多索隆(bardoxolone methyl, CDDO-Me) 曾获美国食品药品管理局(Food and Drug Administration, FDA) 授予孤儿药资格, 用于治疗亚伯氏症和常染色体显性遗传性多囊肾病; 但该药物在Ⅲ期临床试验中表现出致心衰的不良反应曾一度失败[8]。一项新的Ⅲ期临床试验剔除心衰的患者后, 与安慰剂组相比, CDDO-Me治疗亚伯氏症(遗传性肾炎) 导致的慢性肾病患者在第100周和第104周通过估算的肾小球滤过率(estimated glomerular filtration rate, eGFR) 观察到肾功能有统计学上的显著改善[9], 上市申请已于2021年被FDA受理。另一种激活Nrf2的方式是非共价阻断Keap1-Nrf2蛋白-蛋白相互作用(protein-protein interaction, PPI), 释放Nrf2而达到激活Nrf2的效果, 这种激活方式有别于共价激活, 因此, 具有更高安全性和有效性, 引起了药物化学工作者极大的关注[10-12]。各种类型Keap1-Nrf2抑制剂被陆续报道, 并且探索了Keap1-Nrf2抑制剂的治疗潜力[13, 14]。另一方面, Keap1 Cullin 3 E3连接酶复合物是一种非常有效的E3泛素化系统, 已被用于蛋白水解靶向嵌合体(proteolysis targeting chimeras, PROTACs) 的设计。本文综述了近几年Keap1-Nrf2蛋白相互作用抑制剂和基于Keap1 E3泛素化系统的降解剂的研究进展。
Marcotte等[15]通过筛选26万多个化合物发现首个以萘环为母核的Keap1-Nrf2抑制剂1, 其对蛋白相互作用的抑制活性(荧光偏振法, fluorescence polarization, FP) IC50 = 2.7 μmol·L-1。姜正羽课题组[16]在化合物1的基础上进行分子对接决定因素分析, 并基于此进一步结构优化, 在其磺酰胺基的氮上引入亚甲基羧酸得到化合物2。化合物2是更有效的Keap1-Nrf2抑制剂, 相对于1抑制活性提高了约200倍(IC50 = 28.6 nmol·L-1), 并且靶点亲和力也大幅提高(Kd = 3.59 nmol·L-1)。根据分子动力学模拟和自由能计算[16], Keap1的结合腔可分为P1、P2、P3、P4、P5五个空腔口袋(图 1), Nrf2因子ETGE肽中, 肽主链与P3口袋结合, 残基GLU-79与P1形成氢键和盐桥, 残基GLU-82与P2产生静电和极性相互作用, 残基ASP-77与位于P1、P2的ARG-415同时与两个口袋结合, 残基LEU-76、GLU-78、THR-80和PHE-83与疏水子袋P4、P5结合。抑制剂1中, 萘环占据了P3口袋以稳定结合构象, 与磺胺连接的两个甲氧基取代苯环以适当的构象占据P4和P5口袋, 化合物1由于氨基上氢只能与口袋内水形成氢键, 没有能够与P1和P2口袋结合的取代基而表现出较低的活性, 而化合物2的两个氨基被羧基取代, 占据P1和P2口袋, 形成了较强的极性相互作用, 因此表现出更强的活性。
由于化合物2较低的pKa及双侧羧基的存在, 对于细胞膜通透性和药物吸收是不利的, 其水溶性仅为388 μg·mL-1 (pH = 7.4)。为了进一步改善化合物2的类药性质, 利用对乙酰氨基替代对甲氧基得到的化合物3[17], 进一步提升了蛋白相互作用的抑制活性(IC50 = 14.4 nmol·L-1), 并且提高了其水溶性(5 000 μg·mL-1, pH = 7.4)。随后, Lu等[18]基于生物电子等排原理将羧酸用四氮唑取代得到化合物4, 使其在保持原抑制活性的基础上透膜性得到提升。2021年, Abed等[19]通过构效关系研究获得了类似物5, IC50值为7.2 nmol·L-1。该团队对化合物的3个区域进行构效关系总结, 磺酰胺基必须直接连接在萘环上才具有活性, 化合物5-1和化合物5-2碳链的引入导致构象发生变化, 影响了化合物与Keap1 Kelch结构域的结合; 1, 4-苯并二氧六环、2H-1-苯并吡喃、1, 2-亚甲二氧基苯和2, 3-二氢苯并呋喃等环状基团连接在P4、P5的磺酰基侧链上可增强抑制剂的耐受性; P1、P2的羧酸用四氮唑取代或在P4、P5引入氯原子可以增强抑制剂的活性。该类化合物毒性较低, 化合物5-3~5-7和化合物5在浓度高达50 µmol·L-1时, 均对人肝癌HepG2细胞和小鼠脑BV-2小胶质细胞未表现出明显的细胞毒性(图 2)。
Winkel等[20]报道了首个单侧萘磺酰胺类小分子抑制剂6 (图 3), 该类化合物只有一个磺酰胺基团, 另一个取代基是吡咯烷-3-羧酸, 该化合物6不能完全占据Keap1结合腔, 等温滴定量热法(isothermal titration calorimetry, ITC) 测定化合物对Keap1 Kelch结构域亲和力Kd仅为6 μmol·L-1。与化合物6类似, 化合物7是首个氨基酸取代的萘磺酰胺类小分子抑制剂[21], 其IC50= 43 nmol·L-1, 并且对于对乙酰氨基酚诱导的肝损伤有明显的保护作用, 该类小分子的发现丰富了Keap1-Nrf2小分子抑制剂化学结构类型。
Moore课题组[22]基于骨架跃迁策略, 将化合物2的萘环替换成异喹啉环得到全新抑制剂8 (IC50 = 63 nmol·L-1) (图 4), 保持了其抑制活性。为了解决脂溶性和细胞膜通透性等问题, 基于生物电子等排将分子中一侧乙酸基替换成三氟乙基得到化合物9[23], 其IC50 = 73 nmol·L-1, LogD7.4由-1.5增大至0.5, 半衰期t1/2由104 min增加至136 min, 一定程度上增加了化合物的亲脂性及代谢稳定性, 从而改善了细胞膜通透性, 增强了细胞活性。为了进一步探索氟原子对化合物活性、亲脂性和代谢稳定性的影响, 将占据P4、P5口袋的甲氧基替换为一个或两个氟原子, 结果表明, 化合物9-19-29的代谢稳定性更好, 半衰期t1/2均大于180 min, 但脂溶性变化不大, 且活性相比于9有所下降。
化合物10 (图 5) 是基于前药修饰策略设计得到的一类小分子抑制剂[24], 利用噻唑烷酮基团替代Keap1-Nrf2抑制剂中的关键羧基药效团开发得到过氧化氢响应性前药。ITC实验测得化合物10与Keap1的结合力Kd值为53.7 nmol·L-1, 生物膜层干涉(biolayer interferometry, BLI) 技术测得其与Keap1的结合力Kd值为28.5 nmol·L-1, 且解离曲线表明该化合物是长效化合物。通过前药修饰提高了母体药物的理化性质和细胞膜通透性, 并表现出合适的口服药代动力学特性, 生物利用度为68.1%, 表现出较好的体内抗炎效率, 用过量的对乙酰氨基酚诱导小鼠急性肝损伤后, 当化合物10的剂量为10 mg·kg-1时, 能够显著降低急性肝损伤及IL-1β、IL-6和TNF-α等炎症因子水平。因此, 这种前药修饰方法不仅为改善化合物类药性质提供了新的解决方案, 也为治疗高水平过氧化氢引起的慢性炎症疾病提供了重要选择。
Hu课题组[25]考虑到该类分子的代谢稳定性问题, 他们基于骨架跃迁策略将化合物2的萘环简化为一个苯环, 并且在双侧亚甲基羧基取代上引入甲基, 得到1, 2-二取代二甲苯衍生物11, 相比于化合物2活性略有下降, 其IC50= 150 nmol·L-1, 该化合物在人肝微粒体中表现出良好的代谢稳定性(2孵育90 min后剩余56.9%; 11孵育90 min后剩余98.2%), 为下一步该类抑制剂的成药性设计提供了一个新的方案。
分子对称性对化合物性能和溶解度有显著影响, 一般来说, 与结构相似但对称性较低的分子相比, 对称分子具有较高的熔点和较低的溶解度[26]。本课题组将对称分子化合物2一侧的对甲氧基替换为氨基得到不对称化合物, 将不利于血脑屏障通透性的双羧酸基团替换成酰胺得到抑制剂NXPZ-2 (12), 并首次证明了该类抑制剂对小鼠学习记忆、空间记忆等认知功能有明显的改善作用[27]。通过分子杂交策略, 将天然Nrf2共价激活剂莱菔硫烷[28, 29], 引入到萘磺胺类小分子中, 得到了一类全新的双功能不对称小分子抑制剂13[30], 在体内外均表现出优异的抗炎、抗急性肺损伤活性及较低的体内毒性。最近, 本课题组获得了Keap1 Kelch结构域与化合物12的晶体复合物结构(PDB: 7XM2), 并通过基于结构的基团添加策略在溶剂暴露区域引入溶解性哌嗪基团, 获得不对称萘磺酰胺抑制剂14, 该化合物可显著抑制脂多糖诱导的腹腔巨噬细胞中活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS) 和一氧化氮(nitric oxide, NO) 的产生, 以及促炎细胞因子TNF-α的表达。在体内, 化合物14通过触发Nrf2核易位来减轻脂多糖诱导的小鼠急性肺损伤模型炎症[31]。与12相比水溶性有所改善, 在酸性条件下溶解性大幅度提高, 特别是, 在保持活性的基础上化合物14的生物利用度(bioavailability, F)达到19.86%, 是已经报道的同类抑制剂中生物利用度最高的小分子。
化合物15是Moore课题组[32]基于化合物2发展的新型单萘磺酰胺衍生物, 其一侧的氮原子被取代为碳原子, 羧基侧链也被去除, 这类新分子仍然保持了较好的结合亲和力和活性(IC50= 151 nmol·L-1)。2020年, 姜正羽课题组[33]报道了一系列2-氧代-2-苯乙酸取代萘磺酰胺衍生物, 活性最优的抑制剂16对Keap1的Kd为24 nmol·L-1, Keap1-Nrf2相互作用抑制活性IC50为75 nmol·L-1。本课题组通过分级虚拟筛选得到一类萘磺酰胺Keap1-Nrf2抑制剂17, 荧光各向异性实验(fluorescence anisotropy, FA) 测得其Kd = 2.9 μmol·L-1, 并研究了其初步的构效关系。通过在磺酰胺的氮原子上引入羧酸基团, 进一步提高了Keap1结合亲和力, 可以更好地激活Nrf2。表面等离子共振(surface plasmon resonance, SPR) 实验测得化合物18的靶点亲和力Kd = 453 nmol·L-1 [34, 35], 该类分子具有较好体内抗炎活性。
Lee等[36]通过对Keap1 Kelch结构域与抑制剂共晶结构的分析, 设计合成了一系列位于苯或萘核C-2位置不同取代的1, 4-双(芳基磺酰胺) 苯或萘-N, N′-乙酰乙酸类衍生物。其中, 化合物19是最有效的抑制剂, FP实验IC50为64.5 nmol·L-1, 荧光共振能量转移(time-resolved fluorescence resonance energy transfer, TR-FRET) 实验IC50为14.2 nmol·L-1。分子对接研究解释了其抑制活性, 4-氟苯基与萘核心部分处于对侧位置, 由于P3核心口袋与萘母核的强相互作用, 导致C-2取代基被迫向P5口袋投射, 使得4-氟苯基片段对非极性P5口袋的疏水作用得到了增强。新的2-O-萘结构的研究为结构多样性优化提供了额外的位点。类似地, Wells课题组[37]基于配体结构的药物设计获得了新型取代苯基双磺酰胺结构, 该类化合物在Keap1 Kelch结构域表现出亚微摩尔的亲和力, 其中, 化合物20 (IC50 = 575 nmol·L-1) 活性最优。与其他Keap1 PPI小分子抑制剂不同的是, 化合物20的氧代苄基与相邻磺酰胺侧链的4-甲氧基苯基形成较强的π-π堆积作用, 稳定了20的构象, 占据了Kelch中心通道, 为进一步优化提供了结构基础。2017年, Yasuda等[38]在15.5万多种小分子化合物库中筛选发现了苯并吲哚类化合物21具有明显抑制Keap1-Nrf2的活性, IC50 = 0.2 μmol·L-1。在人肝微粒体中的代谢稳定性是化合物1的8倍以上(1孵育30 min后剩余9.3%; 21孵育30 min后剩余81%)。
Hu等[39, 40]通过高通量筛选首次报道了1, 2, 3, 4-四氢异喹啉类的Keap1-Nrf2小分子抑制剂22 (消旋体) (图 6), 其IC50 (FP) = 3 μmol·L-1, Kd (SPR)= 1.9 μmol·L-1。手性拆分得到化合物23 (LH601A), 其IC50 (FP) = 1.3 μmol·L-1, Kd = 1.0 μmol·L-1, 比其他异构体至少高100倍。在化合物23的苯环5位引入甲基得到化合物24[41], 对Keap1-Nrf2抑制活性略有所提升(IC50 = 0.75 vs 1.3 μmol·L-1)。Ontoria等[42]对四氢异喹啉类分子进行了进一步结构优化, 主要对其环己基酸及苯环5位进行优化, 利用天然配体的肽库获得了非酸性化合物25, FP测得其IC50 = 2.5 μmol·L-1, 与Keap1复合物的共晶结构显示, 环丁基上的甲酰基与P2口袋的范德华力增强, 提示该部位也可能改善抑制剂和蛋白质结合能力。
2020年, Ma等[43]结合虚拟筛选技术和U2OS细胞中Nrf2核易位筛选得活性化合物26 (图 7), 与Keap1蛋白的结合力Kd (SPR) = 56 nmol·L-1, 可较好诱导Nrf2发生核易位(EC50 = 0.95 μmol·L-1), 进而发挥保护作用。将抑制剂26的苯并三唑甲基替换为乙基得到化合物27, Keap1 Kelch与化合物27共晶表明, 其保持了3种重要的相互作用: 四氢异喹啉环与ARG-415的阳离子-π相互作用、苯并三唑与TYR-525的π-π堆积作用、酰胺基与SER602的氢键相互作用。此外, 化合物27中的苯并三唑也与SER-555和GLN-530具有氢键相互作用。最重要的是, 化合物27中的羧酸取代了水分子占据了P1口袋, 与ARG-483形成了较强的相互作用。酰胺苯环不与TYR-334相互作用, 但具有向PHE-557和TYR-552扩展的空间, 因此在苯环上引入不同的取代基, 化合物28的活性及亲和力进一步提升, EC50Kd分别为0.36 μmol·L-1和0.7 nmol·L-1。化合物28具有可观的口服药代动力学性质, 给予大鼠5 mg·kg-1给药剂量后, 曲线下面积(area under curve, AUC) 为2 720 ng·h·mL-1, 血浆清除率(plasma clearance, CL) 为958 ng·mL-1, 血药浓度达峰时间(time of maximum concentration, Tmax) 为0.92 h, 生物利用度为20%。在体内实验中, 不论给予该化合物10 mg·kg-1还是50 mg·kg-1的剂量, 在给药2 h后, 肾脏中的HMOX1、CBR3、NQO1和OSGIN1表达增多, 脑组织中OSGIN1表达增多, 但并不会增加NQO1的表达。
2015年, Bertrand等[44]报道了一系列1, 4-二苯基-1, 2, 3-三唑类化合物(图 8)。当R为羧酸时, 化合物29在体外FP实验中最优, EC50为5 μmol·L-1; 但基于细胞NQO1实验发现24 h后诱导NQO1酶活性增加两倍所需的浓度(CD值) 大于10 μmol·L-1。当R为甲基或卤素(30~32) 时, 表现出更好的细胞活性(CD < 2 μmol·L-1)。这类结构与Keap1可逆结合, 在体外和细胞中抑制Keap1-Nrf2蛋白-蛋白相互作用, 并上调Nrf2基因的表达。其中, 化合物30可明显抑制小鼠皮层神经中Aβ引起的神经毒性, 可以作为神经退行性疾病的潜在治疗药物[45]
2016年, Davies和Heightman等[46, 47]基于片段的药物设计方法报道了一种新型三唑苯丙酸类Keap1-Nrf2抑制剂。他们首先利用X射线晶体衍射筛选出关键片段, 通过进一步的片段生长策略得到了化合物33 (IC50 = 61 μmol·L-1)。在化合物33氯苯基的3位引入烷基苯磺酰胺片段, 以增强与氨基酸残基的π-π堆积相互作用, 化合物34的活性得到大幅度提升(IC50 = 0.27 μmol·L-1)。最后, 为了使目标分子能够以稳定构象与靶点结合, 通过苯磺酰胺的环化反应形成了七元磺酰胺杂环, 其中, 化合物35活性最优, 其IC50 (FP) = 15 nmol·L-1, Kd (SPR) = 1.3 nmol·L-1。体内活性方面, 化合物35可以激活慢性阻塞性肺病模型中支气管上皮细胞中的Nrf2通路, 从而诱导靶基因表达, 提高抗氧化活性, 减轻炎症反应, 但口服生物利用度不是很理想(F = 7%)。
2017年, Kazantsev等[48]通过筛选发现具有4-苯基-1, 2, 4-三唑骨架的化合物36能激活细胞Nrf2-ARE通路, 在后续SAR研究中发现另一含有三唑-3-硫醇骨架的化合物37也具有类似活性, 它们与Keap1 Kelch结构域的Kd值分别为22.8和16.5 μmol·L-1
2019年, Astex[49]和葛兰素史克[50]制药公司申请了两个系列的化合物专利, 都含有苯并吡唑骨架, 其中化合物3839显示Keap1-Nrf2高抑制活性和较高的细胞效价(图 9)。FP法测得两个化合物IC50值介于10和100 nmol·L-1之间, TR-FRET法测得化合物38的IC50值小于10 nmol·L-1; 在人正常肺上皮细胞BEAS-2B中用四甲基偶氮唑盐比色法(NQO1 MTT实验) 测得化合物39的EC50值为79 nmol·L-1
最近, Norton等[51]基于片段药物设计获得了一类新的吡唑羧酸类化合物40, 该化合物与Keap1具有高亲和力, 其Kd = 2.5 nmol·L-1, 并在BEAS-2B细胞模型中上调Nrf2依赖的基因表达, 细胞NQO1 MTT实验测得EC50值为43 nmol·L-1。Pallesen等[52]对现有抑制剂进行了片段的解构重建(fragment-based deconstruction reconstruction, FBDR), 设计合成了一类吡唑羧酸类抑制剂。他们将6类已知的小分子Keap1-Nrf2 PPI抑制剂分解为77个片段, 并在4个正交分析实验中进行了测试, 最终得到活性最好的化合物41, Ki值为40 nmol·L-1
Marcotte等[15]用二维荧光强度分布分析(two-dimentional fluorescence intensity distribution analysis, 2D-FIDA) 进行了高通量筛选获得化合物42 (表 1[15, 34, 53-60]), 其活性较差, 仅为IC50 = 118 μmol·L-1。2014年, Sun等[53]虚拟筛选发现了含脲衍生物43活性较好, EC50 (FP) 为9.8 μmol·L-1。本课题组通过分级虚拟筛选及荧光各向异性分析发现了两类Nrf2-Keap1 PPI抑制剂[34], 化合物4445, 但其活性一般, 与Keap1蛋白结合的IC50值处于亚微摩尔范围, 没有开展后续研究。Satoh等[54]公开了活性化合物46和Keap1 Kelch结构域共结晶, 但没有披露其后续的研究结果。Shimozono等[55]报道的化合物47是一种潜在的Keap1-Nrf2 PPI抑制剂, 在荧光素酶NQO1 ARE报告基因检测中, 其呈现剂量依赖性激活Nrf2。SPR实验中, 诱导荧光素酶活性提高至两倍的浓度EC2为1.36 μmol·L-1
姜正羽课题组[56]通过系统构效关系的研究发现一类以吲哚啉为母核的Keap1-Nrf2抑制剂, 化合物48是该系列中最有效的抑制剂, 体外Keap1抑制活性IC50 = 22 nmol·L-1; 在H9c2心肌细胞中可有效激活Nrf2, 并且呈剂量依赖性上调Nrf2相关基因和蛋白水平, 并且在体内外对脂多糖诱导的H9c2心肌细胞损伤均有保护作用。
本课题组从合成化合物文库中鉴定出了一种新的Keap1-Nrf2蛋白-蛋白相互作用抑制剂49[57]。该化合物通过FP实验测得靶点亲和力Kd为5.1 μmol·L-1, SPR实验测得Kd = 48.1 μmol·L-1。在体外诱导Nrf2核易位, 进而导致Nrf2靶基因HO-1和NQO1的水平升高。同时, 该化合物抑制了LPS诱导的H9c2心肌细胞中ROS的产生和促炎细胞因子TNF-α、IL-1β和IL-6的mRNA水平, 体内可发挥较好的抗小鼠脓毒性心肌病的作用。
2020年, Kim等[58]通过虚拟筛选的方法寻找能够干扰Keap1-Nrf2相互作用的新型抑制剂50, EC50 =1.46 μmol·L-1, 其可以作为治疗帕金森病的一种有效方法。Gorgulla等[59]利用VirtualFlow平台有效地筛选了超过10亿种化合物超大型库, 并识别了一组具有不同结构类型的分子, 以亚微摩尔亲和力与Keap1结合。其中, 化合物51具有纳摩尔的亲和力(Kd= 114 nmol·L-1), 并破坏Keap1与Nrf2之间的相互作用; 化合物52Kd =158 nmol·L-1, IC50=2.7 μmol·L-1
2021年, Li等[60]设计并合成了一系列铱(iridium, Ir) 和铑(rhodium, Rh) 配合物作为Keap1-Nrf2抑制剂, 激活Nrf2, 具有抗氧化应激的活性。其中, 活性最高的化合物53含有2, 9-二甲基-1, 10-邻菲罗啉和4-氯-2-苯基喹啉生物活性配体, 与Keap1蛋白结合IC50 (FP) 值为1.09 μmol·L-1, Kd值为0.71 μmol·L-1, 可以促进人正常肝细胞(LO2) 中Nrf2核转位并诱导HO-1和NQO1的上调表达, 体内可逆转对乙酰氨基酚(acetaminophen, APAP) 诱导的肝损伤, 不引起小鼠器官损伤和免疫毒性, 且具有良好的细胞通透性和体内药代动力学性质, 可以作为新型金属有机类Keap1-Nrf2 PPI相互作用抑制剂, 用于治疗APAP诱导的急性肝损伤。
LM49是一种溴酚类似物, 此前报道其具有很强的抗氧化能力, 参与了Keap1-Nrf2途径。Feng等[61]将氮化杂环和氟原子引入到LM49中制备了27种含氟苯酚, 其中化合物54 (图 10) 的EC50 = 0.82 μmol·L-1, 通过氢键与Keap1蛋白稳定结合发挥抗氧化作用, 具有较好的水溶性和成盐可能性, 是一类新型Keap1-Nrf2蛋白-蛋白相互作用抑制剂。
化合物55是Zhang等[62]从吴茱萸中分离得到的吴茱萸次碱, 具有一定Keap1-Nrf2抑制活性, 该化合物可直接与Keap1的Kelch域结合, 从而抑制Keap1蛋白与Nrf2的相互作用, 其Kd = 19.6 μmol·L-1。在HCT116细胞中, 吴茱萸次碱可通过激活Nrf2减轻H2O2所造成的损伤, 并对DSS诱导的结肠炎模型有一定的保护作用。
2020年, Yang等[63]合成了一种新型的胡椒碱衍生物能与Keap1结合, 并在体外激活Keap1-Nrf2-ARE信号通路。研究表明, 化合物56 (HJ22) 通过抑制Keap1与Nrf2的相互作用而上调核Nrf2的表达, 从而抑制氧化应激和人硫氧还蛋白互作蛋白(thioredoxin-interacting protein, TXNIP) 介导的核苷酸结合寡聚化结构域样受体蛋白3 (NOD-like receptor protein 3, NLRP3) 炎症小体的激活。该衍生物可以显著减轻鹅膏蕈氨酸(ibotenic acid, IBO) 诱导的大鼠认知功能障碍、细胞凋亡、神经炎症和氧化应激, 具有治疗阿尔茨海默症的潜力。
最近, Zhang等[64]将红枫中提取得到的多酚ginnalin A (GA) 进行分子对接, 结果表明GA通过氢键和疏水相互作用, 很好地结合于Keap1 Kelch结构域的3个口袋(P1、P2、P3)。课题组还通过敲除Nrf2证实了化合物57仅通过Keap1/Nrf2-ARE途径发挥生物效应, 可增强神经细胞抗氧化防御系统以抵消氧化应激。
大环化合物(macrocyclic compounds, MCs) 在靶向蛋白质相互作用方面具有良好的发展潜力和挑战性。80%的MCs相对分子质量大于500, 不符合“类药五规则”, 但是其具有高度灵活性, 能与具有大而平坦或沟槽状结合位点的靶点结合, 实现高亲和性和高选择性[65]
2018年, 姜正羽课题组[66]设计了一种环肽, 序列为c[GQLDPETGEFL] (58, 图 11), 与Keap1具有较高的结合力(ITC实验中Kd值为18.12 nmol·L-1; BLI实验中Kd值为6.19 nmol·L-1), FP实验中表现出对Keap1-Nrf2 PPI较强的抑制作用(IC50为18.31 nmol·L-1)。58在细胞水平上通过激活Nrf2调控的防御系统和抗氧化能力, 在小鼠RAW 264.7细胞中表现出良好的抗炎作用。2021年, Whitty课题组[67]根据Nrf2序列DxETGE结合蛋白晶体结构合成了线性7-mer多肽(Ac-GDEETGE-NH2), 该多肽和Keap1 Kelch结构域结合力Ki仅为4.3 μmol·L-1, 其活性不高的原因可能是LEU-84和N-端乙酰基之间的分子内氢键以及LEU-84的酰胺基团和Keap1 ASN-387的分子间极性相互作用的缺失。然后, 通过环合优化锁定多肽构象, 该环状7-mer多肽59序列为c[(D)-β-homoAla-DPETGE], 与Keap1相互作用残基没有任何改变, 但稳定的结合构象将与Keap1 Kelch结合力Ki提高至20 nmol·L-1
Fasan小组[68]报道了一种新型非还原性硫醚桥约束的大环多肽组合库(MOrPH-PhD) 的构建, 并评估了该平台用于发现大环肽化合物针对Keap1-Nrf2结合抑制功能性方面的高通量筛选应用研究。筛选发现了化合物60 (图 12) 表现出最低的纳摩尔级的亲和力, Kd仅为40 nmol·L-1
近期, Begnini等[69]进行天然产物的分子对接筛选, 发现了一种新的环状Keap1-Nrf2 PPI抑制剂61, 该化合物与Keap1结合能力Kd = 4 μmol·L-1。共晶显示, 该环状抑制剂和Keap1蛋白上3个精氨酸残基ARG-380、ARG-415和ARG-483侧链高度结合, 苯环嵌入ALA-556和ARG-415之间形成阳离子-π相互作用, C-端的二甲基酰胺与TYR-572相互叠加, 对苯甲酸部分与ARG-483形成双盐桥。构效关系研究发现, 61的脯氨酸酰基和邻硫亚甲基苯环适合进一步优化, 脯氨酸上引入不同取代基后亲和力略有增加(微摩尔范围); 而在邻硫亚甲基苯环上引入苯环取代, 增强与ARG-483相互作用, 亲和力比61提高了近100倍。其中, 化合物62~64与Keap1结合能力最优, 在ITC实验中Kd值分别为68、29、29 nmol·L-1。该类化合物具有较高的水溶性, 在体外人肝微粒体中稳定性较好。
PROTACs是一种异双功能分子, 作用机制是招募E3泛素连接酶于靶蛋白(protein of interest, POI) 上, 泛素化靶蛋白进而将靶蛋白降解, 逐渐成为新药开发的热点之一[70]。目前研究表明人体内有将近600种E3连接酶, 其中人小脑蛋白(cereblon, CRBN) 和肿瘤抑制蛋白(von hippel-lindau, VHL)已经较为广泛地被用作PROTAC的研究。Keap1是cullin 3 E3连接酶复合物的重要组成部分, 在生物体内起着调控Nrf2蛋白水平的作用。通常情况下, Keap1和cullin 3骨架蛋白、RBX1蛋白结合成复合物, 随后结合Nrf2蛋白并介导其泛素化, 最后使其降解, 维持正常的生理功能[71]。因此, Keap1-cullin 3 E3连接酶复合物是一种非常有效的E3泛素化系统, 可能被用于PROTAC的设计, 招募Keap1蛋白实现关键靶点的降解。
姜正羽课题组[72]报道了一种依赖于Keap1泛素化-蛋白酶体降解途径来降解Tau蛋白的肽类PROTAC (peptide 1, 65, 图 13)。65在体外与Keap1和Tau具有很强的结合能力, 与两个蛋白结合的Kd值分别为22.8和763 nmol·L-1。流式细胞术和蛋白印迹分析结果显示, 65能进入野生型人骨髓神经母细胞瘤细胞系SH-SY5Y, 并以时间和浓度依赖性下调细胞内Tau蛋白水平。通过Keap1敲除和应用蛋白酶体抑制剂MG132等方式证实了65可以诱导Tau蛋白降解是依赖于Keap1泛素化蛋白酶体系的。但值得注意的是, 这类肽类PROTAC的膜渗透性和药代动力学性质仍不理想, 有待进一步优化。该研究提示, 利用PROTACs招募Keap1诱导Tau蛋白降解可能在神经退行性疾病的治疗中具有良好的应用前景。
荜茇酰胺(piperlongumine, PL) 可诱导ROS的表达, 可以与Keap1 E3连接酶发生共价结合, 抑制肿瘤细胞的生长[73]。基于这个Keap1 E3配体PL, Pei等[74]将周期素依赖性激酶9 (cell division protein kinase 9, CDK9) 选择性抑制剂SNS-032以不同连接方式与PL相连, 获得一系列PROTACs, 其中化合物66可以共价结合的方式与Keap1 E3连接酶结合, 以泛素-蛋白酶体依赖的方式有效地降解CDK9。在体外MOLT4细胞中处理16 h后, 66能对CDK9进行有效降解(Dmax = 96%, DC50 = 9 nmol·L-1), 即使短期(6 h) 处理, 66仍能对CDK9进行有效降解, 而抑制剂SNS-032不能降解靶蛋白。为进一步评价PL能否作为一种新的Keap1 E3连接酶配体来降解肿瘤蛋白, 该课题组设计合成了另一种PROTAC 67, 结果表明, 在NCI-H2228 NSCLC细胞中67也可通过招募Keap1来介导EML4-ALK以浓度依赖性的方式降解。
CDDO的α-氰烯酮结构能够与Keap1蛋白上的半胱氨酸发生可逆共价结合。2020年, Tong等[75]报道了CDDO作为Keap1 E3连接酶配体和含溴结构域蛋白4 (bromodomain, BRD4) 抑制剂JQ1连接为异双功能分子68 (CDDO-JQ1, 图 14), 在人乳腺癌231MFP细胞中可有效降解BRD4蛋白, 当浓度低于1 μmol·L-1时, 该分子呈现剂量依赖性降解, 当浓度较高(≥5 μmol·L-1) 时, 可能是由于钩状效应(Hook效应) 导致BRD4蛋白降解的消失。由于CDDO与半胱氨酸相互作用具有高度可逆性, 直接检测CDDO的所有蛋白质组靶点具有挑战性, 因此目前不能排除CDDO-JQ1也可能共价修饰其他E3连接酶实现靶向蛋白质降解。
2021年, Wei等[76]根据Expression Atlas数据库, 与CRBN、VHL、RNF4、RNF114等E3泛素酶相比, Keap1蛋白表达水平在人的多种组织有明显的分布。因此, 以高活性化合物34为Keap1配体招募E3连接酶Keap1蛋白, 设计Keap1-BRD4 PROTACs, 采用BRD4抑制剂JQ1作用于靶蛋白, 经过连接子筛选获得活性化合物69, Kd值为16 nmol·L-1。为了增强化合物分子的膜渗透性, 将羧酸基团用乙酯基团替代。化合物69以浓度依赖、时间依赖、Keap1依赖和泛素化蛋白酶体依赖的方式有效降低了细胞中BRD4的蛋白水平。这些研究进一步证明了Keap1作为E3泛素化系统设计降解剂的潜力, 进一步扩充了可靶向蛋白降解的E3泛素酶工具库。
近年来, 多种类型的Keap1-Nrf2蛋白相互作用小分子抑制剂的发现取得了极大进展, 最有效的抑制剂活性已达到纳摩尔级别, 并且多个化合物在动物模型上已经被证实可以激活体内Nrf2, 发挥多种氧化应激相关疾病治疗效果, 并鲜有发现其明显的毒性作用。因此, 通过直接抑制Keap1-Nrf2 PPI的策略来取代共价化合物修饰Keap1半胱氨酸残基, 是避免了共价抑制剂作用于其他细胞蛋白的半胱氨酸而发生“脱靶”效应的有效策略。目前已知Keap1和Nrf2蛋白与多种疾病的发生有密切关系, 包括炎症、糖尿病、癌症和中枢神经退行性疾病(尤其是阿尔茨海默病和帕金森病) 等多种慢性疾病[77, 78], 不论是参与Keap1-Nrf2蛋白相互作用的抑制剂还是基于Keap1 E3泛素化系统的降解剂都为改善人类健康提供了新的思路。
这些PPI抑制剂获得突破性进展的同时, 靶向性、成药性以及生物学功能等方面也一直面临诸多挑战。首先, 如何让小分子抑制剂靶向作用于特定部位是当前需要用药物化学或其他药学手段解决的关键科学问题之一。大部分Keap1-Nrf2 PPI抑制剂含有羧酸等极性基团, 而这又是发挥PPI抑制活性的非常关键的药效团。在脑部疾病的治疗中, 这些极性基团导致化合物不易透过血脑屏障, 产生较差的药代动力学性质而不易产生明确药效。其次, 这类分子疏水性很强, 导致分子的性质不是非常理想, 溶解性不佳, 导致口服给药的生物利用度不佳, 至今只有几个分子报道了生物利用度, 但也不高; 因此, 通过药物化学策略, 如前药策略、基团添加策略、骨架跃迁策略等, 改善抑制剂的性质, 是这类分子需要重点关注的另一个关键科学问题。第三, Nrf2在疾病中的作用机制及功能需要进一步研究。比如, 肿瘤中Nrf2一方面保护正常细胞免受ROS诱导DNA损伤的同时恶性肿瘤细胞也受到保护; 另一方面在正常组织中Nrf2可抑制肿瘤的形成, 而在肿瘤组织中Nrf2引发的保护性反应可为特定肿瘤组织提供生长优势[79, 80], 因此, 有必要深入研究分子的作用机制, 根据Nrf2的不同功能选择性地应用于肿瘤治疗。PROTACs技术是一种化学敲除方式, 虽然大量研究已经表明通过生物手段敲除Nrf2是可行的, 通过蛋白降解方式敲除Keap1或Nrf2可能为研究该通路提供新的工具; 此外, Keap1作为一种新型的E3泛素连接酶为PROTACs的设计提供了新的方向和思路, 扩展了可用的E3工具库。总而言之, Keap1-Nrf2 PPI抑制剂及降解剂研究在药物开发及生物学功能研究领域是非常值得期待的热点。
作者贡献: 闫健羽负责文献检索、图片制作、数据核对及综述撰写; 刘国栋参与综述初稿撰写; 缪震元、庄春林负责为综述撰写思路并对稿件进行修改和审校。
利益冲突: 所有作者均声明不存在利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金“优秀青年基金”资助项目(82022065)
  • 上海市曙光学者计划资助项目(21SG038)
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2022年第57卷第10期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0669
  • 接收时间:2022-05-31
  • 首发时间:2025-12-24
  • 出版时间:2022-10-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-05-31
  • 修回日期:2022-06-17
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国家自然科学基金“优秀青年基金”资助项目(82022065)
上海市曙光学者计划资助项目(21SG038)
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    中国人民解放军海军军医大学药学系, 上海 200433

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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