Article(id=1210516647643836541, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516638089212895, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0754, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1655654400000, receivedDateStr=2022-06-20, revisedDate=1659628800000, revisedDateStr=2022-08-05, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1766539259109, onlineDateStr=2025-12-24, pubDate=1662912000000, pubDateStr=2022-09-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1766539259109, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-24, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1766539259109, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766539259109, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1210516638089212895, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2022', volume='57', issue='9', pageStart='1', pageEnd='2888', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1766539256832, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766539546411, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1210517852726096743, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516638089212895, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1210517852726096744, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516638089212895, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=2662, endPage=2670, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1210516648084238484, articleId=1210516647643836541, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Research progress of EGFRvⅢ targeted immunotherapy in the treatment of glioblastoma, columnId=1210516639267812321, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Special Reports: Therapeutic interventions and strategies for cancer immunotherapy, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common primary brain tumor, which is prone to recurrence and metastasis with poor prognosis. In recent years, immunotherapy has prolonged the survival of patients with GBM, providing a new option for the treatment of GBM. Target selection is very important for immunotherapy. Epidermal growth factor receptor variant Ⅲ (EGFRvⅢ) is highly expressed on the surface of GBM cells in some patients, and EGFRvⅢ was not expressed in normal tissues. EGFRvⅢ are pivotal for the occurrence and progression of GBM, various targeted therapy including immunotherapy is promising to improve the efficacy of GBM. Currently, there are various approaches to target EGFRvⅢ, including humanized monoclonal antibodies, adoptive cell therapies and therapeutic vaccines. In this review, we focus on the preclinical and clinical findings of targeting EGFRvⅢ for GBM.

, correspAuthors=Xiao-mei YANG, Xiao-ling LU, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2022 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Jun LIU, Shen-xia XIE, Hai-xia LI, Wei SHI, Xiao-bing JIANG, Xuan WANG, Xiao-mei YANG, Xiao-ling LU), CN=ArticleExt(id=1210516649795514591, articleId=1210516647643836541, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=靶向EGFRvⅢ免疫疗法在胶质母细胞瘤治疗的研究进展, columnId=1210516639397835747, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=专题报道:靶向肿瘤免疫治疗策略与药物干预, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

胶质母细胞瘤(glioblastoma, GBM) 是最常见的原发性恶性脑肿瘤, 易复发转移, 预后差。放化疗等传统治疗手段对于GBM的疗效不够理想, 近年来, 免疫治疗可使部分GBM患者的生存期延长, 为治疗GBM提供了一种新的选择。对于免疫治疗而言, 靶点的选择至关重要。部分患者的GBM细胞表面异常高表达表皮生长因子受体变异体Ⅲ (epidermal growth factor receptor variant Ⅲ, EGFRvⅢ), 且EGFRvⅢ在正常组织中不表达。EGFRvⅢ在GBM的发生发展中起重要作用, 将其作为包括免疫治疗在内的各项治疗策略的靶点有望提高疗效。目前, 靶向EGFRvⅢ的免疫疗法种类繁多, 包括人源化的单克隆抗体、过继性细胞疗法和治疗性疫苗。本文就靶向EGFRvⅢ的免疫治疗新策略和新方法在GBM治疗的基础研究和临床应用等方面的前沿进展进行综述。

, correspAuthors=杨晓梅, 卢小玲, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*杨晓梅, E-mail: ;
卢小玲, Tel: 86-771-2387518, E-mail:
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The extracellular region includes four domains, L1, CR1, L2 and CR2. L1 and L2 are leucine-rich domains that directly bind ligands. EGFRvⅢ lacks almost the entire L1 and two-thirds of CR1 domains, which results in a truncated receptor unable to bind with any ligands. The transmembrane and intracellular regions of EGFR and EGFRvⅢ are identical. 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DCs loaded with EGFRvⅢ antigenic peptides can directly induce the activation of CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells and can synergistically activate CD8<sup>+</sup> T cells through CD4<sup>+</sup> T cells , figureFileSmall=//fFkdh3f0ALmmwTTBFcAA==, figureFileBig=gcPQ1cI+gJ6/GPDBBenGWw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516657236210489, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516647643836541, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=Bya+NrXy7MrWpm6XLaC5mw==, figureFileBig=ldPZy3U4cQsWAA3QYIK1Fw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1210516657420759878, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1210516647643836541, language=CN, label=Figure 3, caption= Schematic depicting regulatory CAR T therapy targeting EGFRvⅢ in GBM. EGFRvⅢ-CAR T cell can recognize EGFRvⅢ positive glioblastoma cell surface antigens in an MHC-independent manner, thus inducing tumor cell death. 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靶向EGFRvⅢ免疫疗法在胶质母细胞瘤治疗的研究进展
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刘君 1, 2 , 谢深霞 2, 3 , 李海霞 2, 4 , 施维 2, 4 , 姜晓兵 5 , 王旋 5 , 杨晓梅 2, 4, * , 卢小玲 1, 2, *
药学学报 | 专题报道:靶向肿瘤免疫治疗策略与药物干预 2022,57(9): 2662-2670
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药学学报 | 专题报道:靶向肿瘤免疫治疗策略与药物干预 2022, 57(9): 2662-2670
靶向EGFRvⅢ免疫疗法在胶质母细胞瘤治疗的研究进展
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刘君1, 2, 谢深霞2, 3, 李海霞2, 4, 施维2, 4, 姜晓兵5, 王旋5, 杨晓梅2, 4, * , 卢小玲1, 2, *
作者信息
  • 1.广西医科大学口腔医学院, 广西 南宁 530021
  • 2.广西纳米抗体研究重点实验室, 广西 南宁 530021
  • 3.广西医科大学药学院, 广西 南宁 530021
  • 4.广西医科大学基础医学院, 广西 南宁 530021
  • 5.华中科技大学同济医学院附属协和医院神经外科, 湖北 武汉 430022

通讯作者:

*杨晓梅, E-mail: ;
卢小玲, Tel: 86-771-2387518, E-mail:
Research progress of EGFRvⅢ targeted immunotherapy in the treatment of glioblastoma
Jun LIU1, 2, Shen-xia XIE2, 3, Hai-xia LI2, 4, Wei SHI2, 4, Xiao-bing JIANG5, Xuan WANG5, Xiao-mei YANG2, 4, * , Xiao-ling LU1, 2, *
Affiliations
  • 1. College of Stomatology, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China
  • 2. Guangxi Key Laboratory of Nanobody Research, Nanning 530021, China
  • 3. Pharmaceutical College, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China
  • 4. School of Preclinical Medicine, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China
  • 5. Department of Neurosurgery, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, China
出版时间: 2022-09-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0754
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胶质母细胞瘤(glioblastoma, GBM) 是最常见的原发性恶性脑肿瘤, 易复发转移, 预后差。放化疗等传统治疗手段对于GBM的疗效不够理想, 近年来, 免疫治疗可使部分GBM患者的生存期延长, 为治疗GBM提供了一种新的选择。对于免疫治疗而言, 靶点的选择至关重要。部分患者的GBM细胞表面异常高表达表皮生长因子受体变异体Ⅲ (epidermal growth factor receptor variant Ⅲ, EGFRvⅢ), 且EGFRvⅢ在正常组织中不表达。EGFRvⅢ在GBM的发生发展中起重要作用, 将其作为包括免疫治疗在内的各项治疗策略的靶点有望提高疗效。目前, 靶向EGFRvⅢ的免疫疗法种类繁多, 包括人源化的单克隆抗体、过继性细胞疗法和治疗性疫苗。本文就靶向EGFRvⅢ的免疫治疗新策略和新方法在GBM治疗的基础研究和临床应用等方面的前沿进展进行综述。

表皮生长因子变异体Ⅲ  /  胶质母细胞瘤  /  靶向抗肿瘤  /  免疫治疗  /  CAR-T细胞  /  疫苗

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common primary brain tumor, which is prone to recurrence and metastasis with poor prognosis. In recent years, immunotherapy has prolonged the survival of patients with GBM, providing a new option for the treatment of GBM. Target selection is very important for immunotherapy. Epidermal growth factor receptor variant Ⅲ (EGFRvⅢ) is highly expressed on the surface of GBM cells in some patients, and EGFRvⅢ was not expressed in normal tissues. EGFRvⅢ are pivotal for the occurrence and progression of GBM, various targeted therapy including immunotherapy is promising to improve the efficacy of GBM. Currently, there are various approaches to target EGFRvⅢ, including humanized monoclonal antibodies, adoptive cell therapies and therapeutic vaccines. In this review, we focus on the preclinical and clinical findings of targeting EGFRvⅢ for GBM.

epidermal growth factor receptor variant Ⅲ  /  glioblastoma  /  targeted antitumor  /  immunotherapy  /  CAR-T cell  /  vaccine
刘君, 谢深霞, 李海霞, 施维, 姜晓兵, 王旋, 杨晓梅, 卢小玲. 靶向EGFRvⅢ免疫疗法在胶质母细胞瘤治疗的研究进展. 药学学报, 2022 , 57 (9) : 2662 -2670 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0754
Jun LIU, Shen-xia XIE, Hai-xia LI, Wei SHI, Xiao-bing JIANG, Xuan WANG, Xiao-mei YANG, Xiao-ling LU. Research progress of EGFRvⅢ targeted immunotherapy in the treatment of glioblastoma[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2022 , 57 (9) : 2662 -2670 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0754
胶质母细胞瘤(glioblastoma, GBM) 是成人最常见的、最具侵袭性的原发性恶性脑肿瘤。GBM的治疗方法主要包括手术、放疗、化疗和电场疗法[1], 虽然目前美国食品药品监督管理局(US Food and Drug Administration, FDA) 批准的标准治疗方法可提高部分GBM患者的存活率, 但是GBM的治疗仍然存在许多局限性, 如手术完整切除难度高, 胶质瘤干细胞(glioma stem cells, GSCs) 的高度浸润可能导致疾病的进展或复发, 肿瘤微环境增强了GBM患者对放疗的抵抗和化疗的耐药性[2, 3]。GBM患者的预后较差, 特别是异柠檬酸脱氢酶(isocitrate dehydrogenase, IDH) 野生型GBM, 其生存期小于15个月, 五年的生存率不到10%[4]。综上所述, 基于目前的治疗手段, GBM患者难以获得良好的治疗效果及预后, 因此有必要探索新的有效的治疗方法, 来延长患者的生存期, 改善患者的生活质量。
与放疗和化疗等传统癌症治疗手段不同, 免疫治疗可以通过增强机体自身的免疫系统清除体内的肿瘤细胞发挥疗效。1893年William Corley利用活性细菌作为免疫刺激剂使肿瘤消退, 肿瘤免疫治疗的序幕由此拉开。免疫疗法治疗黑色素瘤患者取得的最新进展引发了研究人员对该领域的广泛兴趣[5], 同时开展了多个研究探索针对GBM不同免疫治疗的应用效果, 与其他肿瘤相比, GBM免疫原性较差, 且位于大脑这一类免疫特权器官中, 属于“冷肿瘤”[6]。这些原因共同造成了免疫疗法治疗GBM的困境。然而, 近期的研究结果表明, 白细胞会跨过血脑屏障(blood-brain barrier, BBB) 转运到中枢神经系统(central nervous system, CNS) 到达GBM中, CNS的抗原也可以到达周围淋巴结[7]。因此, 大脑会接受持续的免疫监视并保持与外周免疫系统之间的交流, 从而使免疫疗法治疗GBM成为一种可能。
目前针对肿瘤的免疫治疗包括细胞免疫疗法、双特异性T细胞激动剂和疫苗[8-10], 细胞免疫疗法中嵌合抗原受体(chimeric antigen receptors, CAR) T细胞疗法在血液系统恶性肿瘤领域取得了显著的疗效, 但是对实体瘤治疗仍面临巨大挑战。不能特异性识别抗原是阻碍免疫治疗发挥疗效的重要因素之一, 为了提高免疫疗法的安全性, 识别肿瘤特定的抗原对于治疗性疫苗和过继性T细胞(adoptive T cell therapy, ACT) 转移的免疫治疗方法至关重要。在过去10年中, 已在GBM中鉴定出几种肿瘤相关抗原, 包括表皮生长因子变体Ⅲ (epidermal growth factor receptor variant Ⅲ, EGFRvⅢ)、IL-13Rα2、人表皮生长因子受体2 (human epidermal growth factor 2, HER2) 等[11-14]。由于在30%~40%的GBM患者中可以检测到EGFRvⅢ的表达, 并且EGFRvⅢ在GBM中表达会增强细胞的致瘤性、侵袭性及患者的耐药性, 因此它是治疗GBM的理想靶点[15]。以EGFRvⅢ为靶点治疗GBM的免疫疗法有许多种, 包括人源化的单克隆抗体、负载EGFRvⅢ肽疫苗、过继性细胞治疗和联合免疫治疗等。这些免疫制剂在GBM治疗的临床前和临床研究中都取得了较成功的疗效。本文就靶向EGFRvⅢ的免疫治疗新策略和新方法在GBM治疗的基础研究和临床应用等方面的前沿进展进行综述。
GBM具有高度免疫抑制的肿瘤微环境、血脑屏障及肿瘤抗原提呈少等特点[16, 17]。在解剖学中, CNS是免疫学上“独特”的部位, 因为它没有传统的淋巴结构并且缺乏常驻的专职抗原呈递细胞[18]。在健康的脑组织中, 内皮细胞之间连接紧密, 从而阻碍中枢神经系统与全身循环的交流[19]。既往研究认为CNS具有免疫特权, 然而, 新研究发现在包括肿瘤和炎症性疾病在内的各种病理情况下, 血脑屏障的完整性受到损害[20]; 并且硬脑膜静脉窦旁存在功能性淋巴管, 使免疫细胞穿过脑膜与外周免疫系统联系[7], 即CNS并没有获得免疫特权。免疫治疗的单独疗法或与传统治疗方案联合疗法在临床前评估和Ⅰ期、Ⅱ期临床试验展现出一定的效果。GBM患者对于免疫疗法总体上具有良好的耐受性, 并且能够产生有效的抗肿瘤免疫反应。增强免疫治疗疗效的另一策略是选择更合适的特异性肿瘤抗原作为治疗靶标, 靶向此类抗原的免疫疗法理论上能将脱靶效应的有害风险进一步降低。
表皮生长因子受体(epidermal growth factor receptor, EGFR) 是分子量为170 kDa的跨膜糖蛋白, EGFR能够与表皮生长因子(epidermal growth factor, EGF) 等配体以等比的化学计量比结合后形成同二聚体或异二聚体, 并且在与配体结合后受体激酶结构域被变构激活, 使其他细胞底物的酪氨酸磷酸化并启动下游信号转导, 对多种细胞过程产生影响, 其中包括增殖、代谢、凋亡和细胞分化[21]。在GBM中, 大多数情况下EGFR扩增伴随基因重排, 其中EGFRvⅢ是最常见的EGFR突变体, 它的跨编码序列外显子2~7的801个碱基对框内缺失, 从而在外显子1和8之间形成了一个新的带有甘氨酸残基的连接位点[22], 结构如图 1所示。EGFRvⅢ的基因重排删除了配体结合域的大量部分, 使截断的受体激活不依赖配体, 具有组成性活性[23]。EGFRvⅢ是一种肿瘤特异性抗原, 仅在GBM和其他肿瘤的细胞表面表达, 而在正常组织中不表达[24]。研究表明EGFRvⅢ在GBM细胞膜表面的分子簇提高了致瘤信号的传导效率[25]。在接受肿瘤全切除并存活一年或更长时间的患者中, EGFRvⅢ的表达被认为是一种不良预后指标[24]
EGFRvⅢ的上调表达会增强GBM的致癌性。EGFRvⅢ的促癌作用由下游的几个关键信号通路介导, 包括磷脂酰肌醇3激酶(phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase, PI3K)/蛋白激酶B (protein kinase B/Akt)、Ras/Raf/促分裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinase, MAPK)、信号转导和转录激活因子3 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, STAT3) 和核因子(nucleus factor, NF) κB[26, 27]。越来越多的研究证明, GSCs具有显著的增殖和自我更新能力, GSCs在调节肿瘤微环境、新生血管、肿瘤侵袭和免疫逃逸等方面发挥着重要作用, 有助于GBM的进展[28, 29]。EGFRvⅢ信号通路通过调节GSCs的自我更新增强GBM的致瘤性。Kim等[30]发现人帕金森病蛋白(Parkinson disease protein, PARK) 7和EGFRvⅢ共同作用对于维持GSC干细胞性至关重要。Li等[31]发现p-Src和Polo样激酶(polo-like kinase, PLK) 1通过驱动Notch1-SOX2信号传导而促进EGFRvⅢ+ GSC的癌变, 这些发现对于研究EGFRvⅢ+ GSC的新治疗靶标具有重要的临床意义。此外, EGFRvⅢ+ GBM细胞还具有额外的侵袭特性, 可通过IL-6家族细胞因子介导的旁分泌机制促进周边EGFRvⅢ- GBM细胞生长[32], EGFRvⅢ的表达还可以触发膜脂筏微泡的产生, 并伴随含有完整的EGFRvⅢ癌蛋白的微泡细胞外释放, 从而导致胶质瘤细胞的侵袭性增加[33]。EGFRvⅢ在GBM中独特的生物学特性, 为利用EGFRvⅢ的免疫疗法靶向治疗GBM提供了科学依据。
目前, 靶向EGFRvⅢ治疗GBM的免疫治疗策略多种多样, 其中包括抗体治疗、治疗性疫苗和ACT, 这些方法在临床上单独或与抗肿瘤药物、免疫检查点抑制剂(immune checkpoint inhibitors, ICI) 联合使用。以下将分别对不同的EGFRvⅢ靶向免疫治疗方法的优缺点和发展现状进行介绍。
靶向EGFR/EGFRvⅢ的抗体药物是治疗GBM的重要手段。西妥昔单抗(cetuximab)、帕尼单抗(panitumumab)、耐昔妥珠单抗(necitumumab) 是FDA批准的通过靶向EGFR治疗GBM的3株单克隆抗体。这些抗体旨在靶向EGFR的细胞外结构域, 阻断配体结合, 并抑制PI3K、STAT3等下游信号转导通路的激活, 使细胞表面EGFR下调[34]。然而, 由于EGFRvⅢ在细胞外结构域上缺乏配体结合区, 因此大多数临床批准的靶向EGFR的药物不能阻碍GBM中EGFRvⅢ的活化。帕尼单抗是唯一一个同时靶向EGFR和EGFRvⅢ的抗体, 与西妥昔单抗和耐昔妥珠单抗相比, 帕尼单抗具有与EGFRvⅢ更高的亲和力, 可以与EGFRvⅢ结合, 从而将EGFRvⅢ锁定在无活性的高分子簇中, 同时阻碍EGFR和EGFRvⅢ激活。在临床前模型中, 帕尼单抗对表达EGFRvⅢ和EGFR的胶质母细胞瘤细胞系具有细胞毒能力[23], 但目前尚未开展临床研究。
双特异性T细胞衔接器(bispecific T-cell engager, BiTE) 是由两个单链抗体(single chain antibody fragments, scFvs) 组成的重组可溶性蛋白, 通过重定向T细胞靶向肿瘤实现抗肿瘤效果[35]。BiTE能够最大限度地使靶细胞裂解并且无需主要组织相容性复合物(major histocompatibility complex, MHC) 呈递, 提供了一种通过MHC缺失或下调来克服肿瘤免疫逃逸的方案[36]。Choi等[37]设计了一种名为bscEGFRvⅢ×CD3的BiTE, 静脉注射bscEGFRvⅢ×CD3治疗EGFRvⅢ阳性的颅内异种移植瘤的NSG小鼠可以使约75%的小鼠获得完全、持久的治疗效果。细胞因子和BiTE疗法联合使用可以有效调节肿瘤免疫微环境, Gardell等[38]在一项研究中发现双分泌BiTE蛋白和单链IL-12比单独分泌BiTE蛋白的巨噬细胞具有更强的抗肿瘤活性。Sternjak等[39]开发了一种代号为AMG596的靶向EGFRvⅢ的BiTE, 能够有效提高EGFRvⅢ+ GBM荷瘤小鼠的生存期, 超过75%的小鼠存活到研究结束。正在进行的一项Ⅰ期临床研究(NCT03296696) 用于评估AMG596在EGFRvⅢ阳性GBM患者中的安全性、耐受性及药物在体内的代谢规律。除此之外, 已有靶向EGFRvⅢ的BiTE (hEGFRvⅢ-CD3-biscFv) 的Ⅰ期临床研究(NCT04903795) 准备开展, 用于评估hEGFRvⅢ-CD3-biscFv治疗EGFRvⅢ阳性GBM患者的安全性。虽然靶向EGFRvⅢ的BiTE已在临床前模型中显示出有潜力的应用前景, 并且已经进入临床试验阶段, 但是BiTE治疗GBM仍然面临许多挑战, 如CNS中存在的BBB、药物半衰期短等。通过持续局部给药有利于改善经BiTEs治疗的GBM患者的预后[40]
抗原的呈递方式是肿瘤疫苗成功的关键因素之一。抗原可以直接以肽、mRNA或DNA疫苗的形式传递, 也可以在体外装载在树突状细胞(dendritic cell, DC) 上, 发挥抗肿瘤作用(图 2)。
Rindopepimut (又称CDX-110) 是靶向EGFRvⅢ的肽类抗肿瘤疫苗。Rindopepimut由14-氨基酸低分子肽PEPvⅢ结合于高分子载体蛋白钥孔血蓝素(keyhole limpet hemocyanin, KLH) 构成, PEPvⅢ来源于EGFRvⅢ的新型甘氨酸残基, 将其输注体内后产生的抗体可以特异性靶向EGFRvⅢ, 发挥肿瘤抗原的作用。KLH则可以增强PEPvⅢ的免疫原性, 促进免疫反应的发生[41]。多项临床试验相继开展以评估rindopepimut与替莫唑胺联合使用的临床应用价值。一项随机多中心Ⅱ期试验(NCT00458601) 证明rindopepimut对新诊断的EGFRvⅢ阳性GBM患者表现出有希望的结果, 与历史对照相比, 使用rindopepimut治疗的患者抗EGFRvⅢ抗体滴度比基线水平增加了4倍, 具有特异且持久的免疫应答, 中位进展生存期(mPFS) 和中位总生存期(median overall survival, mOS) 分别为14.2个月和26个月[42]。但是, 基于Ⅱ期临床试验的良好结果开展的大规模的临床Ⅲ期随机对照试验(NCT01480479) 显示rindopepimut组的OS (20.4个月) 与对照组的OS (21.1个月) 相当, rindopepimut联合替莫唑胺治疗未显示OS获益[43]。尽管Ⅲ期临床试验的结果不甚理想, 但是关于rindopepimut的研究仍在继续, 针对复发性GBM患者的Ⅱ期临床试验(NCT01498328) 显示rindopepimut联合贝伐单抗在复发性GBM患者中观察到更多的客观缓解率(ORR: 30% vs 18%) 和更长的中位缓解持续时间(7.80 vs 5.60个月)[44]。尽管rindopepimut已被证明可以延长胶质母细胞瘤患者的生存期, 但是这些观察结果均具有一定的局限性, 如: ①样本量小, 靶向EGFRvⅢ仅对部分患者有效, 在考虑接种疫苗之前, 必须对患者行EGFRvⅢ筛查; ②在GBM患者中使用rindopepimut后, 82%的复发性GBM患者发生EGFRvⅢ抗原逃逸[45]
由于EGFRvⅢ抗原肽缺乏免疫原性, 研究人员将DC用于抗原呈递, 刺激T细胞发生免疫反应。负载肿瘤裂解物的自体DC疫苗的研究正在稳步推进, 如治疗GBM的DCVax®-L疫苗, 它在Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ期临床试验均表现出了较为成功的结果, 美国纽约科学院在2022年5月公布了DCVax®-L临床Ⅲ期试验(NCT00045968) 结果, 该项结果显示DCVax®-L疫苗能够显著延长GBM患者的生存期, 表现出卓越的临床应用价值[46]。此外, DC负载PEPvⅢ构建形成的EGFRvⅢ-DC疫苗也是精准靶向EGFRvⅢ+ GBM细胞的有效措施之一[47]
过继细胞疗法通过体外改造、扩增免疫细胞, 提高免疫细胞的功能, 再将其回输患者体内以发挥抗肿瘤效应。目前, 靶向EGFRvⅢ治疗GBM的ACT引起越来越多的国际关注。
CAR-T细胞表面的胞外抗原识别区可靶向性地识别细胞表面抗原, 绕过了传统的MHC免疫激活途径, 直接杀伤靶细胞, 具有MHC非限制性特点(图 3)。缺乏理想的靶点是CAR-T细胞治疗实体瘤的主要障碍之一。EGFRvⅢ是GBM中最常见的一种致癌基因突变, 由于其在GBM中特异性高表达, 近年来逐渐成为CAR-T细胞疗法在GBM免疫治疗的研究中最热门的靶标之一。宾夕法尼亚大学的研究人员[48]构建了一种靶向人EGFRvⅢ的CAR-T细胞(2173 CART-EGFRvⅢ), 临床前实验显示2173 CART-EGFRvⅢ细胞具有有效的抗肿瘤活性, 并在2014年进行的Ⅰ期临床试验(NCT02209376) 结果显示2173 CART-EGFRvⅢ细胞具有良好的安全性, 作者随后对GBM患者残余的肿瘤组织中EGFRvⅢ的表达量进行分析, 发现静脉注射EGFRvⅢ特异性CAR-T细胞后复发性GBM患者出现抗原丢失和适应性抵抗的情况, 表明GBM具有抗原异质性。13928BBz-CAR是一种包含4-1BB和CD28共刺激结构域的靶向EGFRvⅢ的三代CAR, 在Ⅰ期临床试验中评估了多剂量13928BBz-CART细胞的安全性和耐受性, 然而临床试验结果并不理想, 两名接受CAR-T细胞治疗的患者出现严重的不良反应[49]。肿瘤异质性、抗原丢失和免疫检查点抑制性肿瘤微环境是限制CAR-T细胞治疗GBM的关键因素。通过优化CAR结构的设计、CAR-T细胞疗法联合免疫检查点抑制剂等方法可以提高CAR-T细胞的抗肿瘤疗效。CAR胞外结构域中的单链抗体是CAR-T细胞特异性识别抗原的重要组成部分。Abbott等[50]构建了一种新型靶向EGFRvⅢ的CAR-T细胞(GCT02 CAR-T), GCT02 CAR-T细胞与2173 CART-EGFRvⅢ细胞相比scFv的亲和力更高, 临床前实验结果显示GCT02 CAR-T细胞与2173 CART-EGFRvⅢ细胞均能够缓解小鼠体内EGFRvⅢ+ GBM的生长。但是相较于2173 CART-EGFRvⅢ细胞, GCT02 CAR-T细胞具有更高的持久性。纳米抗体(nanobody, Nb) 具有体积小(~15 kDa)、稳定性好、组织穿透性高及高亲和力等特点[51]。使用Nb替代传统CAR靶向结构域中的scFv, 可以提高CAR-T细胞的抗肿瘤疗效。本课题组在前期研究中, 构建了一种CD105纳米抗体CAR-T细胞, 在体内外抗肿瘤实验中获得了良好的治疗效果[52]。靶向EGFRvⅢ的纳米抗体CAR-T细胞将有望提高GBM的疗效。目前仍有2项靶向EGFRvⅢ的CAR-T细胞治疗GBM的Ⅰ期临床试验正在进行, 用于证实靶向EGFRvⅢ的CAR-T细胞疗法的可行性和安全性。
虽然新研究发现外周免疫细胞可以有效地穿过BBB, 但是BBB仍然在一定程度上限制了T细胞进入CNS。为了调节CNS中T细胞募集的速率, 可以将CAR-T细胞直接作用于肿瘤组织, 消除CAR-T细胞跨越BBB障碍[53]。尽管CAR-T细胞脑室内输注是一种高效的递送方式, 神经毒性作为主要的毒副作用仍然令人担忧[54]。因此, 抑制细胞因子过度释放的策略应该是未来主要的研究方向, 靶向EGFRvⅢ的CAR-T细胞疗法用于临床任重而道远。
CAR-T细胞技术在血液瘤的临床治疗中获得了显著的疗效, 但对于实体瘤的治疗效果欠佳。自然杀伤细胞(natural killer cells, NKs) 作为抗肿瘤免疫的第一道防线, 在控制肿瘤的生长和转移中发挥关键作用[55, 56]。研究人员将CAR技术应用于固有免疫细胞NK细胞, 构建CAR-NK细胞。相较于T细胞而言, 异基因NK细胞引起移植物抗宿主反应(graft versus host reaction, GVHD) 的风险更低。靶向EGFRvⅢ的CAR-NK技术在GBM的临床前研究中获得了良好的效果[57]。Genßler等[58]发现通过使用靶向EGFRvⅢ和野生型EGFR的双特异性CAR构建体转导的CAR-NK细胞疗法可以预防治疗GBM后可能产生的抗原丢失的问题。在颅内GBM异种移植小鼠模型中施用双特异性EGFR和EGFRvⅢ定向CAR-NK细胞, 与单特异性靶向EGFRvⅢ的CAR-NK相比, 双特异性结构在没有抗原逃逸的情况下荷瘤小鼠的生存期延长。目前该技术治疗GBM的临床研究尚未开展, 与CAR-T细胞相比, CAR-NK细胞具有独特的优点, 但仍面临着一些挑战, 解决NK细胞在体内的低持久性等问题, CAR-NK技术也将是肿瘤免疫治疗领域发展的新方向。
在临床试验的初步结果中, 免疫疗法用于治疗GBM患者具有一定的疗效, 然而部分患者没有表现出临床获益。因此, 研究人员将目光聚焦在开发合理的联合免疫疗法之上, 通过联合免疫的协同作用, 克服原发性和获得性耐药提高GBM患者的疗效。
免疫检查点阻断(immune checkpoint blockade, ICB) 疗法通过阻断免疫检查点引发抗肿瘤效应, 免疫检查点包括细胞程序性死亡蛋白-1 (programmed cell death 1, PD-1)、细胞程序性死亡配体-1 (programmed cell death 1 ligand 1, PD-L1) 和细胞毒性T淋巴细胞相关抗原-4 (cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4, CTLA-4) 等。ICB作为单一疗法在治疗过程中的“脱靶”效应使其仍然具有挑战性, 特异性靶向治疗联合ICB疗法可能成为一种潜在的解决方案。在GBM的临床前模型中, 靶向PD-1/PD-L1和CTLA-4通路的检查点抑制剂已被证明可以增强CAR-T细胞的活性[59, 60]。Nakazawa等[61]使用CRISPR/Cas9基因编辑技术特异性敲除T细胞中PD-1基因片段, 研究证实PD-1基因敲除后的EGFRvⅢ-CART细胞对表达EGFRvⅢ的GBM细胞具有体外生长抑制作用。Song等[62]证明联合抗PD-1抗体可以显著提高EGFRvⅢ-CART细胞在临床前GBM模型中的抗肿瘤作用。目前由宾夕法尼亚大学开展的EGFRvⅢ-CART细胞联合ICB疗法在新诊断的O6-甲基鸟嘌呤-DNA甲基转移酶(MGMT) 未甲基化GBM患者中的Ⅰ期临床研究(NCT03726515) 已经完成[63]
基于EGFRvⅢ-CART细胞在GBM治疗方面表现的巨大潜力, 研究者正在设计新的方案克服CAR-T细胞疗法治疗GBM的挑战, 包括GBM靶抗原异质表达、复杂的免疫异质性肿瘤微环境等。靶向EGFRvⅢ的BiTE可以重定向CAR-T细胞并招募未转导的旁观者T细胞杀伤具有异质表达EGFRvⅢ的肿瘤细胞。哈佛大学的研究团队在EGFRvⅢ-CART中加入抗EGFR的BiTE, 构建了一种分泌BiTE的CAR-T细胞(CART-EGFRvⅢ.BiTE-EGFR), CART-EGFRvⅢ.BiTE-EGFR能够在体外诱导EGFR和EGFRvⅢ阳性GBM细胞的特异性裂解, 系统性输注CART-EGFRvⅢ.BiTE-EGFR可以提高颅内EGFRvⅢ阳性GBM小鼠的存活率[64]
EGFR和EGFRvⅢ的过度表达是GBM进展的关键因素。EGFRvⅢ特异性免疫靶向作用使其成为治疗GBM有希望的工具, 并提高了EGFRvⅢ+肿瘤的治疗效果。尽管靶向EGFRvⅢ的免疫疗法在许多针对GBM临床前研究取得了积极的疗效, 但在临床治疗仍未获得令人满意的进展。肿瘤异质性、继发性突变等实体肿瘤微环境的抑制因素均可导致耐药性的发生, 为靶向EGFRvⅢ免疫治疗的发展带来限制和挑战。基于GBM具有弥散性和异质性等特点, 单一治疗的方法难以阻止疾病的进展, 需要利用联合免疫的治疗方法克服该病的复杂性, 未来双靶点和多靶点免疫疗法将成为GBM免疫治疗的发展趋势。由于GBM病灶在脑部, 对于GBM免疫疗法来说, 抗体的血脑屏障透过率对于抗体是否可以在体内发生作用有着关键作用, 通过改造抗体来增加血脑屏障透过率也将成为免疫疗法未来的发展趋势之一。总体而言, 靶向EGFRvⅢ治疗GBM的免疫疗法具有深远前景, 同时面临巨大挑战。深入研究EGFRvⅢ, 探索其作用机制和关键通路, 对于临床新药的研发及治疗方案的选择至关重要, 未来仍需继续展开探索。充分利用EGFRvⅢ并将其转化为有效的治疗策略, 实现个体化治疗以改善GBM患者的预后迫在眉睫。
作者贡献: 刘君负责文献整理和文章撰写; 谢深霞、李海霞、施维负责文章的修改; 姜晓兵、王璇负责文章临床方面的指导; 杨晓梅、卢小玲负责文章思路整理和审阅。
利益冲突: 所有作者均声明没有利益冲突。
  • 国家重点研发计划(2019YFE0117300)
  • 广西纳米抗体研究重点实验室(21-220-16)
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2022年第57卷第9期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0754
  • 接收时间:2022-06-20
  • 首发时间:2025-12-24
  • 出版时间:2022-09-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-06-20
  • 修回日期:2022-08-05
基金
国家重点研发计划(2019YFE0117300)
广西纳米抗体研究重点实验室(21-220-16)
作者信息
    1.广西医科大学口腔医学院, 广西 南宁 530021
    2.广西纳米抗体研究重点实验室, 广西 南宁 530021
    3.广西医科大学药学院, 广西 南宁 530021
    4.广西医科大学基础医学院, 广西 南宁 530021
    5.华中科技大学同济医学院附属协和医院神经外科, 湖北 武汉 430022

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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
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栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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