Article(id=1210516645102096483, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516638089212895, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0519, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1651161600000, receivedDateStr=2022-04-29, revisedDate=1652803200000, revisedDateStr=2022-05-18, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1766539258504, onlineDateStr=2025-12-24, pubDate=1662912000000, pubDateStr=2022-09-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1766539258504, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-12-24, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1766539258504, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766539258504, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1210516638089212895, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2022', volume='57', issue='9', pageStart='1', pageEnd='2888', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1766539256832, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1766539546411, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1210517852726096743, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516638089212895, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1210517852726096744, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1210516638089212895, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=2570, endPage=2579, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1210516645651550347, articleId=1210516645102096483, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=The immunomodulatory effect of lactic acid within the tumor microenvironment, columnId=1210516639267812321, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Special Reports: Therapeutic interventions and strategies for cancer immunotherapy, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Tumor cells leads to enhanced glucose uptake and the conversion of a larger fraction of pyruvate into lactate even under the circumstance of abundant oxygen. This phenomenon of aerobic glycolysis is known as the Warburg effect. Lactic acid, as an important tool for tumor cells to modify the tumor microenvironment, promotes the process of tumor invasion and metastasis, and contributes to tumor development by inducing and recruiting immunosuppression-related cells and molecules. Lactic acid could efflux out of the cancer cells via the monocarboxylate transporters to prevent intracellular acidification. Lactate can inhibit the cytolytic activity of T cells and natural killer (NK) cells, promoting the differentiation of tolerogenic interleukin 10 (IL-10)-producing dendritic cells. Moreover, the lactate-derived lactylation of histone lysine residues can promote macrophage polarization toward the M2-like phenotype, suppressing the immune response within the tumor microenvironment. In this review, we discuss the role of lactate as an immunosuppressor molecule that contributes to tumor evasion from the aspects of lactic acid metabolism and its effect on immune cells. And we explore the possibility of targeting potential targets in lactate metabolism for tumor treatment. At last, we proposed a tumor immunotherapy strategy by inhibiting the pathway of aerobic glycolysis and proteins associated with the production and transport of lactic acid.

, correspAuthors=Guo-hui WAN, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2022 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Wei-xiang GE, Shi-jia YAN, Guo-hui WAN), CN=ArticleExt(id=1210516647618679015, articleId=1210516645102096483, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=乳酸在肿瘤微环境中的免疫调节作用, columnId=1210516639397835747, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=专题报道:靶向肿瘤免疫治疗策略与药物干预, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

在氧气充足时, 肿瘤细胞会增加葡萄糖的摄取并将大量丙酮转化为乳酸。这种有氧糖酵解现象被称为Warburg效应(Warburg effect)。而产物乳酸作为癌细胞改造微环境的重要工具, 促进肿瘤侵袭与转移, 并通过诱导和招募免疫抑制相关细胞和分子, 有利于肿瘤发生发展。乳酸通过单羧酸转运蛋白从癌细胞流出并防止胞内酸化, 可抑制T淋巴细胞和NK (natural killer) 细胞的细胞毒活性, 并促进树突细胞(dendritic cells, DCs) 向分泌白介素10的耐受性DCs分化。此外, 通过组蛋白赖氨酸残基的乳酸化修饰, 乳酸可促进巨噬细胞向M2样表型极化, 从而抑制肿瘤微环境内的免疫反应。本综述从乳酸代谢过程、乳酸对免疫细胞的影响等方面系统地阐释了乳酸作为免疫抑制分子的作用。此外, 揭示了组蛋白乳酸化修饰在乳酸调节细胞代谢和功能中发挥的重要作用, 并探索了靶向乳酸代谢过程中的潜在靶点用于癌症治疗的可能性, 最终提出通过抑制糖酵解途径和乳酸生成与转运的相关蛋白的肿瘤免疫联合治疗策略。

, correspAuthors=万国辉, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*万国辉, Tel: 86-20-39943495, E-mail:
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乳酸在肿瘤微环境中的免疫调节作用
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葛威祥 , 严时佳 , 万国辉 *
药学学报 | 专题报道:靶向肿瘤免疫治疗策略与药物干预 2022,57(9): 2570-2579
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药学学报 | 专题报道:靶向肿瘤免疫治疗策略与药物干预 2022, 57(9): 2570-2579
乳酸在肿瘤微环境中的免疫调节作用
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葛威祥, 严时佳, 万国辉*
作者信息
  • 中山大学药学院, 广东 广州 510006

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*万国辉, Tel: 86-20-39943495, E-mail:
The immunomodulatory effect of lactic acid within the tumor microenvironment
Wei-xiang GE, Shi-jia YAN, Guo-hui WAN*
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  • School of Pharmaceutical Science, Sun Yat-san University, Guangzhou 510006, China
出版时间: 2022-09-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0519
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在氧气充足时, 肿瘤细胞会增加葡萄糖的摄取并将大量丙酮转化为乳酸。这种有氧糖酵解现象被称为Warburg效应(Warburg effect)。而产物乳酸作为癌细胞改造微环境的重要工具, 促进肿瘤侵袭与转移, 并通过诱导和招募免疫抑制相关细胞和分子, 有利于肿瘤发生发展。乳酸通过单羧酸转运蛋白从癌细胞流出并防止胞内酸化, 可抑制T淋巴细胞和NK (natural killer) 细胞的细胞毒活性, 并促进树突细胞(dendritic cells, DCs) 向分泌白介素10的耐受性DCs分化。此外, 通过组蛋白赖氨酸残基的乳酸化修饰, 乳酸可促进巨噬细胞向M2样表型极化, 从而抑制肿瘤微环境内的免疫反应。本综述从乳酸代谢过程、乳酸对免疫细胞的影响等方面系统地阐释了乳酸作为免疫抑制分子的作用。此外, 揭示了组蛋白乳酸化修饰在乳酸调节细胞代谢和功能中发挥的重要作用, 并探索了靶向乳酸代谢过程中的潜在靶点用于癌症治疗的可能性, 最终提出通过抑制糖酵解途径和乳酸生成与转运的相关蛋白的肿瘤免疫联合治疗策略。

乳酸  /  肿瘤微环境  /  免疫系统  /  表观遗传学  /  糖酵解

Tumor cells leads to enhanced glucose uptake and the conversion of a larger fraction of pyruvate into lactate even under the circumstance of abundant oxygen. This phenomenon of aerobic glycolysis is known as the Warburg effect. Lactic acid, as an important tool for tumor cells to modify the tumor microenvironment, promotes the process of tumor invasion and metastasis, and contributes to tumor development by inducing and recruiting immunosuppression-related cells and molecules. Lactic acid could efflux out of the cancer cells via the monocarboxylate transporters to prevent intracellular acidification. Lactate can inhibit the cytolytic activity of T cells and natural killer (NK) cells, promoting the differentiation of tolerogenic interleukin 10 (IL-10)-producing dendritic cells. Moreover, the lactate-derived lactylation of histone lysine residues can promote macrophage polarization toward the M2-like phenotype, suppressing the immune response within the tumor microenvironment. In this review, we discuss the role of lactate as an immunosuppressor molecule that contributes to tumor evasion from the aspects of lactic acid metabolism and its effect on immune cells. And we explore the possibility of targeting potential targets in lactate metabolism for tumor treatment. At last, we proposed a tumor immunotherapy strategy by inhibiting the pathway of aerobic glycolysis and proteins associated with the production and transport of lactic acid.

lactic acid  /  tumor microenvironment  /  immune system  /  epigenomics  /  glycolysis
葛威祥, 严时佳, 万国辉. 乳酸在肿瘤微环境中的免疫调节作用. 药学学报, 2022 , 57 (9) : 2570 -2579 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0519
Wei-xiang GE, Shi-jia YAN, Guo-hui WAN. The immunomodulatory effect of lactic acid within the tumor microenvironment[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2022 , 57 (9) : 2570 -2579 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0519
有氧条件下, 正常细胞主要通过线粒体氧化磷酸化途径获得能量, 而糖酵解途径则被抑制[1]。然而, 在氧气充足时, 肿瘤细胞以有氧糖酵解为重要特征(Warburg effect)[2], 基于葡萄糖转运蛋白1 (glucose transporter 1, GLUT1) 和糖酵解酶中乳酸脱氢酶A (lactate dehydrogenase isoform A, LDH-A) 的上调, 产生大量糖酵解的代谢产物—乳酸。
肿瘤微环境(tumor microenvironment, TME) 是肿瘤所处的内环境, 缺氧、炎症及免疫抑制是其三大特征[3]。乳酸可作为癌细胞改造微环境的重要工具, 促进肿瘤侵袭与转移, 并通过诱导和招募免疫抑制相关细胞和分子, 有利于肿瘤发生发展。首先, 乳酸通过质子偶联转运蛋白MCT1 (monocarboxylate transporter 1) 和MCT4从癌细胞流出并提供酸性条件[4], 进而抑制T细胞和NK (natural killer) 细胞的溶细胞活性[5, 6], 并促进树突细胞(dendritic cells, DCs) 向分泌白细胞介素10 (interleukin 10, IL-10) 的耐受性DCs分化[7]与巨噬细胞向M2表型极化[8], 从而抑制TME内的免疫反应。乳酸通过充当乳酸受体[又称羟基羧酸受体1 (hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 1, HCAR1/GPR81)] 的激动剂发挥信号分子作用, 通过自分泌机制诱导肿瘤细胞上的细胞程序性死亡-配体1 (programmed cell death 1 ligand, PD-L1) 表达, 同时激活癌细胞旁分泌, 抑制组织相容性复合体Ⅱ(major histocompatibility complex Ⅱ, MHCⅡ) 分子抗原呈递, 促进血管生成、免疫逃逸和化疗耐药[9]。此外, 大量乳酸通过增加组蛋白的乳酸化修饰触发巨噬细胞从具有细胞毒性的M1炎症表型极化为M2表型, 进一步削弱免疫杀伤作用[10]。本文系统地综述了乳酸对TME中免疫细胞的影响, 并介绍组蛋白乳酸化修饰这一新型表观遗传修饰机制, 最后探究了靶向乳酸代谢用于癌症治疗的可能性, 并指出通过抑制有氧糖酵解途径和乳酸生成与转运相关蛋白的肿瘤免疫联合治疗策略。
正常细胞通过糖酵解、线粒体氧化磷酸化和磷酸戊糖途径代谢葡萄糖。在有氧条件下, 主要通过线粒体氧化磷酸化途径获得能量, 而糖酵解途径则被抑制[1]。在缺氧条件下, 葡萄糖可通过糖酵解分解代谢为两个丙酮酸分子, 同时产生两分子三磷酸腺苷(adenosine triphosphate, ATP) 和两分子还原性辅酶Ⅰ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NADH)。在糖酵解过程中, NADH和丙酮酸还原成乳酸后被排出体外, 最后每个葡萄糖分子产生两分子ATP和两分子乳酸分子, 而不消耗氧气[11]
TME中的乳酸积累主要依靠的是肿瘤的代谢重编程, 其特征是主要使用糖酵解而非氧化磷酸化代谢葡萄糖[12]。肿瘤可分为非缺氧区域和缺氧区域, 不同区域具有不同的代谢特征[13]。在缺氧和低糖环境下, 肿瘤细胞的增殖对能量需求增加, 通过改变细胞代谢, 细胞进行代谢适应, 依靠有氧糖酵解产生ATP, 被称为“Warburg效应”[2, 11], 其结果是丙酮酸氧化减少、糖酵解速率和乳酸表达增加[1, 14, 15]。乳酸依靠单羧酸转运蛋白(monocarboxylate transporters, MCTs) 输出至TME中, 浓度可达5~20 mmol·L-1[16, 17], 并在某些情况下可为肿瘤细胞提供替代的代谢燃料。非缺氧区域的肿瘤细胞可通过MCT1摄取乳酸, 乳酸进一步被LDH-1 (lactate dehydrogenase 1) 氧化为丙酮酸, 进入三羧酸循环, 每个乳酸分子可产生多达18个ATP分子[13, 15, 17, 18], 此外, 葡萄糖通过氧化性肿瘤细胞自由扩散, 促进远处缺氧肿瘤细胞的糖酵解, 由糖酵解细胞释放的乳酸可转运到其他经历氧化代谢的细胞。这种乳酸的矢量转运是由MCTs的细胞类型特异性表达介导的, 被称为“乳酸穿梭”[19-21], 在人宫颈鳞状细胞癌、肺癌和人结直肠腺癌小鼠模型中, 可发生类似现象, 也被称为代谢共生[13]。已有研究证明, 肿瘤细胞对乳酸的偏好超过了葡萄糖[13], 支持了肿瘤代谢共生体的概念, 即乳酸作为低氧肿瘤细胞室中的糖酵解的终产物释放, 可显著促进含氧肿瘤细胞亚群的氧化代谢。通过抑制MCT1可破坏肿瘤细胞糖酵解过程并抑制谷胱甘肽合成, 导致细胞内过氧化氢含量增加与线粒体损伤, 并最终导致细胞死亡[22]。此外, 研究发现, 醛缩酶A (aldolase A, ALDOA) 在糖酵解中发挥重要作用, 在缺氧条件下促进肝癌细胞生长。在敲除ALDOA后可导致乳酸耗竭, 并抑制肿瘤生长[23]
TME存在高浓度乳酸区域, 肿瘤可通过代谢重编程适应高浓度的乳酸环境, 而其异常的乳酸浓度已被证明会通过多种途径影响肿瘤浸润性免疫细胞的分化、代谢和功能(图 1)。
乳酸通过降低细胞内pH值进而影响NK细胞毒活性[6], 并诱导NK细胞凋亡。
一方面, 研究表明, 在佛波肉豆蔻醋酸(phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, PMA)/离子霉素刺激下, 病理浓度下的乳酸抑制T细胞和NK细胞中活化T细胞核因子(nuclear factor of activated T cells, NFAT) 的表达上调, 导致γ干扰素(interferon-γ, IFN-γ) 产生减少[24]; 另一方面, 鼠NK细胞摄取乳酸后导致细胞内pH值降低和能量代谢受损, 且高于20 mmol·L-1的乳酸会导致T细胞和NK细胞凋亡[24]。在使用乳酸处理肝脏驻留的NK细胞后获得了类似结果[25], 乳酸通过降低细胞内pH值导致线粒体功能障碍, 从而诱导细胞凋亡, 通过阻断线粒体中的活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS) 积累可降低细胞凋亡水平。已有报道证明, 将pH由6.8降至6.0会显著降低NK细胞活性[6]
肿瘤的代谢重编程加速了癌细胞的糖酵解, 不仅导致了TME中的乳酸积累, 还会降低TME中的葡萄糖可用性[26]。而CD8+T和NK细胞活化导致对葡萄糖和氨基酸的需求增加, 密切的代谢相互依赖性导致代谢竞争, 最终限制了肿瘤特异性免疫细胞的增殖和效应功能。在肾细胞癌中, 葡萄糖代谢的加快与CD8+T细胞的低浸润相关, 并导致哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mammalian target of rapamycin, mTOR) 活性下降、糖酵解能力减弱与IFN-γ产生减少[27]
此外, 在黑色素瘤模型中, 肿瘤来源的乳酸在体内和体外抑制了CD8+T细胞和NK细胞增殖, 并通过下调NK细胞中NKp46的表达及促进了骨髓来源的抑制性细胞(myeloid-derived suppressor cells, MDSC) 的增殖, 从而抑制NK细胞功能[6]
肿瘤浸润性的成熟DCs能激活免疫反应。然而, 肿瘤通过抑制DCs功能或招募免疫抑制性的DCs改变TME。
肿瘤来源的乳酸是调节TME中DCs表型的重要因素, 对肿瘤免疫逃逸机制起关键作用。乳酸能抑制单核细胞向DCs分化, 使已分化的DCs分泌的细胞因子失活, 并导致分化为耐受性DCs[7, 28]
耐受性DCs在响应Toll样受体(Toll-like receptor, TLR) 刺激时表现为IL-10的分泌增加和IL-12分泌的减少[7]。Gottfried等[28]发现, 在体外DCs分化过程中添加乳酸后, 所诱导的表型与黑色素瘤和前列腺癌肉瘤中产生的肿瘤相关树突细胞(tumor-associated dendritic cells, TADCs) 一致, 即减少IL-12分泌和下调CD1a表达等。阻断黑色素瘤共培养物中的乳酸产生可使TADCs表型恢复[28]。同时, 研究发现, 乳酸增强了浆状树突细胞(plasmacytoid dendritic cells, pDCs) 的色氨酸分解代谢和犬尿氨酸的生成, 并通过色氨酸代谢合成犬尿氨酸介导的吲哚胺-2, 3-双加氧酶(indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase, IDO) 途径诱导具免疫抑制性的FoxP3+CD4+的调节性T细胞[29, 30], 从而造成TME的整体免疫抑制。
GPR81为G蛋白偶联的细胞表面乳酸受体[17], 乳酸激活DCs中的GPR81, 可抑制MHCⅡ的细胞表面呈递, 从而阻止肿瘤特异性抗原呈递给其他免疫细胞[31]。浆细胞样DCs是Ⅰ型干扰素的有效生产者[32], 对抗肿瘤免疫反应具有重要作用。过量乳酸通过两种不同的细胞机制抑制pDCs产生IFN-α。一方面, 乳酸与pDCs表面上的GPR81受体结合导致胞内钙调动, 从而抑制IFN-α产生[29]; 另一方面, 细胞外乳酸通过MCTs向细胞内输入乳酸。同时, 细胞的乳酸向胞外输出是一个被动的过程并由MCTs介导, 胞外高乳酸浓度抑制了乳酸从糖酵解代谢的DCs中输出, 导致其在pDCs胞质中的乳酸积累并影响糖酵解过程[33], 而糖酵解被证明是pDCs响应TLR刺激诱导产生IFN-α这一过程的主要供能途径之一[34], 因此乳酸抑制糖酵解过程可通过影响pDCs能量产生途径抑制IFN-α生成。
TME中高浓度的乳酸被证明会影响T细胞的代谢, 进而改变其生物学功能。研究表明, 乳酸会损害体外T细胞尤其是CD8+T细胞的细胞杀伤功能, 乳酸可抑制95%的人细胞毒性T淋巴细胞(cytotoxic T lymphocyte, CTL) 的增殖和相关细胞因子如IL-2、IFN-γ等的产生, 并造成50%的细胞毒活性被抑制[5]。活化T细胞主要通过糖酵解代谢葡萄糖以提供ATP, 并为戊糖-磷酸途径提供中间体[35]。在人CD8+CTLs中, 负责乳酸转运的MCT1表达异常升高[5], 由于其转运活性主要受细胞膜内外的浓度梯度调节[36], 高浓度的细胞外乳酸会导致乳酸和质子的摄取积累, 降低活化T细胞的糖酵解速率扰乱能量代谢。
在黑色素瘤细胞中, 黑色素瘤球体相比于单层肿瘤细胞可产生更多乳酸, 并显著抑制特异性CTL细胞产生由肿瘤相关抗原(tumor-associated antigen, TAA) 诱导的IFN-γ[5]。另一项研究证实, 在与IFN-γ产生相关的JNK/c-Jun通路中, 乳酸通过抑制p38信号蛋白磷酸化, 从而抑制T细胞受体(T cell receptor, TCR) 触发的IFN-γ、肿瘤坏死因子α (tumor necrosis factor α, TNF-α) 和IL-2的产生, 并损害细胞毒性T淋巴细胞杀伤细胞的颗粒胞吐作用[37]
乳酸和其所造成的酸性环境被证明可以干扰单核细胞分泌TNF和糖酵解过程, 并可抑制单核细胞向DCs分化[38]。研究表明, 乳酸通过阻断脂多糖(lipopolysaccharides, LPS) 诱导的蛋白激酶B (protein kinase B, PKB/AKT) 磷酸化和人核因子κB抑制蛋白α (nuclear factor kappa-B inhibitor alpha, IκBα) 的降解, 从而瞬时抑制LPS诱导基因的表达, 下调单核细胞中TNF、核因子κB (nuclear factor kappa-B, NF-κB) 和五聚蛋白(pentraxin 3, PTX3) 表达, 并上调IL-23表达。此外, 乳酸诱导的趋化因子如单核细胞趋化蛋白-1 (monocyte chemotactic protein-1, MCP-1/CCL2)、CCL7的表达上调, 都可造成单核细胞功能的改变, 从而有助于肿瘤的免疫抑制[39]
此外, 肿瘤产生的乳酸作为有氧和无氧糖酵解的副产物, 通过诱导血管内皮生长因子(vascular endothelial growth factor, VEGF) 的表达和肿瘤相关巨噬细胞向M2表型极化, 在肿瘤生长中具有重要作用[8]
肿瘤相关巨噬细胞(tumor-associated macrophages, TAM) 通过细胞膜上的MCT转运蛋白摄取肿瘤来源的乳酸, 诱导血管内皮生长因子VEGF和精氨酸酶1 (arginase 1, Arg1) 的转录。Arg1可将L-精氨酸水解为L-尿氨酸和尿素。Arg1在包括TAM在内的髓细胞中表达, 可促进肿瘤生长并抑制抗肿瘤免疫反应。乳酸通过缺氧诱导因子1α (hypoxia-inducible factor 1α, HIF1α) 诱导巨噬细胞中Arg1的表达, 并促进巨噬细胞极化为M2表型, 从而抑制T细胞的活化和增殖。
另一项研究证实, 肿瘤分泌的乳酸可增强单核细胞/巨噬细胞和由TLR2、TLR4配体刺激的肿瘤浸润性免疫细胞中IL-23p19和IL-23的转录[40]。IL-23是一种炎性细胞因子, 可诱导血管生成并减少细胞毒性T淋巴细胞向TME的浸润, 从而促进肿瘤生长[41, 42]。IL-23的过表达会导致辅助性T细胞17 (T helper cell 17, Th17) 细胞分泌IL-17A的增加。IL-17A是由Th17细胞产生的细胞因子, 在癌症进展中有重要作用[43]。乳酸作用于单核细胞/巨噬细胞, 诱导CD4+T细胞分泌IL-17A。值得注意的是, 乳酸也被证明可抑制初始T细胞向Th17细胞分化和CD4+T细胞增殖[40, 43]
乳酸是从肿瘤细胞中的丙酮酸转化而来的, 被广泛认为是一种代谢副产物, 这种代谢过程影响了多种免疫细胞, 在肿瘤血管生成、肿瘤免疫逃逸和免疫抑制等方面产生重要作用。近来, 一种新的表观遗传修饰方式揭示了乳酸调节细胞代谢和功能的潜在机制(图 2)。
组蛋白是组成核小体核心的一类蛋白质, DNA包裹在核小体核心周围。组蛋白的尾部受到包括乙酰化、甲基化、磷酸化、苏木化和泛素化等多种翻译后修饰[44, 45], 这些修饰可通过影响DNA的转录等过程调节基因表达。
Zhang等[10]发现了乳酸可通过一种新的组蛋白修饰调节基因表达即组蛋白赖氨酸乳酸化修饰(lysine lactylation, Kla)。研究发现, 在人HeLa细胞和小鼠骨髓来源巨噬细胞(bone marrow-derived macrophage, BMDM) 中鉴定出组蛋白核心的28个赖氨酸乳酸化位点, 其中包括H3、H4、H2A和H2B。H3和H4的乳酸化依赖于p53基因, 并由p300介导[46]13C同位素标记的葡萄糖示踪显示, 赖氨酸的乳酸化依赖于糖酵解, 并对于糖酵解产生的乳酸高度敏感。此外, 通过使用细菌或LPS刺激巨噬细胞诱导其M1极化后发现, 随着糖酵解的增加, 胞内乳酸水平逐渐升高, 而组蛋白乳酸化也相应升高。组蛋白Kla水平增加被证实可促进基因转录, 在巨噬细胞M1极化后期中诱导M2样基因如Arg1表达。有趣的是, 乳酸化主要聚集在基因的启动子区域, 并与基因产生的mRNA水平正相关。不能产生乳酸的巨噬细胞在受到LPS刺激时增加炎症基因的表达, 但无法上调赖氨酸乳酸化或相关稳态基因的表达。这种动态调控用“lactate timer”模型阐述: 组蛋白乳酸化在巨噬细胞M1极化后期诱导M2样基因如Arg1转录与表达, 并帮助组织重归稳态。研究者还从小鼠黑色素瘤和肺肿瘤中分离得到的巨噬细胞中检测到组蛋白乳酸化修饰, 并观察到其与M2样巨噬细胞产生的促癌物质呈正相关。在另一项研究中, 在眼黑色素瘤中发现组蛋白H3K18的乳酸化修饰在RNA N6-甲基腺苷(m6A) 修饰阅读蛋白YTHDF2功能调控中的重要作用, 加速了肿瘤发生发展[47]。这些研究预示了组蛋白乳酸化对于肿瘤发生中的潜在功能。
乳酸在肿瘤发展中扮演重要角色, 与其相关的蛋白如MCT1、MCT4、GPR81和LDH-A等, 现已被认为是癌症治疗的潜在靶点。
MCTs属于溶质载体(solute carrier, SLC) 超家族, 由SLC16A基因家族编码, 构成一个共14个跨膜蛋白的家族[4]。由MCT1和MCT4介导的乳酸穿梭在含氧肿瘤细胞和缺氧肿瘤之间的代谢共生中发挥重要作用[13, 19, 20]。MCT4是HIF1α的直接转录靶标, 在缺氧时显著上调[48]。MCT1和MCT4在胶质母细胞瘤、乳腺癌、肺癌、胃癌、结肠癌、膀胱癌中普遍上调, 并促进肿瘤进展[49-51]。通过阻断MCT1和MCT4功能或降低其在肿瘤细胞中的表达可能在癌症治疗中具有潜力, 其机制包括: ①当乳酸从肿瘤细胞内输出至TME中的过程被阻断, 由此可导致细胞内高浓度的乳酸, 杀死肿瘤细胞, 已有相关临床前研究证明了这种方案的可行性[52, 53]; ②通过MCT1抑制剂破坏含氧肿瘤细胞与缺氧肿瘤细胞间的代谢共生, 含氧肿瘤细胞从氧化乳酸供能的方式转变为糖酵解供能, 糖酵解代谢的增加使葡萄糖不足以满足代谢原料需求, 最终“饿死”肿瘤细胞[13]
此外, CD147 (又称basigin或EMMPRIN) 是一种高度糖基化的单次跨膜蛋白, 发挥的伴侣蛋白作用被证明可促进MCT1和MCT4在细胞膜表面的正确定位与表达, 对MCT1和MCT4发挥相关活性具有重要作用[49, 51, 54]。在乳腺癌中, CD44也被报道参与调节MCT1和MCT4的表达[55]。因此, 靶向CD147和CD44也可作为肿瘤治疗的另一策略。
α-氰基-4-羟基肉桂酸(α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamate, α-CHC) 及其衍生物是一类经典的MCT1抑制剂, 可显著抑制过表达MCT1的肿瘤细胞糖酵解过程, 具有抗肿瘤潜力[13]。对其构效关系研究表明, 在氰基肉桂酸中引入对-N, N-二甲基/芳基和邻甲氧基可具有更好的抑制活性, 并对MCT4也具有充分的抑制作用[56]。然而, 由于存在易受CYP450酶代谢的对-N, N-二甲基/芳基侧链, 化合物的半衰期较短。为此, Nelson等[57]提出通过引入甲硅烷基结构单元如叔丁基二苯基硅烷基(tert-butyldiphenylsilyl, TBDPS) 和叔丁基二甲基硅烷基(tert-butyldimethylsilyl, TBS) 作为羟基保护基团, 增加化合物的代谢稳定性, 并证明在表达MCT1的4T1小鼠乳腺癌细胞和WiDr人结直肠癌细胞中具有明显的抑制增殖作用[57], 这一研究有利于进一步优化α-CHC类化合物, 从而找到具有成药性的MCT1抑制剂或MCT1/MCT4双重抑制剂。
此外, 在7位具有N-苄基或O-苄基取代的羧基香豆素类似物也被证明在宫颈鳞状细胞癌siHa细胞中具有MCT1抑制活性[58]。天然存在的黄酮衍生物如槲皮素等, 在一项研究中被证明具有MCT1的抑制作用[59]
阿斯利康制药公司(AstraZeneca) 设计合成了一系列特异性的MCT1抑制剂, 并对抗肿瘤活性进行了评估。其中, 化合物AR-C155858在表达内源性MCT1的大鼠红细胞中表现有效抑制作用, 并可限制乳酸流出[60], 对非洲爪蟾卵母细胞的MCT1、MCT2和MCT4也表现出抑制活性。体内实验中, AR-C155858显著抑制了Ras转化的成纤维细胞的MCT1和MCT2, 从而抑制了乳酸输出、糖酵解过程和肿瘤生长[61], 虽有研究表明MCT4的表达可造成肿瘤细胞对AR-C155858的耐受性, 但对MCT1高表达的肿瘤有效[62]。化合物AZD3965是AR-C155858的衍生物, 可作为口服的MCT1抑制剂, 并证明部分人小细胞肺癌(SCLC) 细胞系对其抑制作用敏感[63]。另一项研究表明, 在MCT4低表达的人淋巴瘤异种移植模型中, 使用AZD3965处理肿瘤细胞后可抑制脂质的生物合成并增加肿瘤免疫细胞浸润[64]。目前, 该化合物已进入Ⅰ期临床试验(NCT01791595), 并为治疗伯基特淋巴瘤(Burkitt lymphoma, BL) 和弥漫大B细胞淋巴瘤(diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, DLBCL) 提供可能性[65]
目前, 已合成了一系列吡唑和吲唑类化合物用于抑制MCT1和MCT4活性。Bindarit被证明是一种MCT4高度选择性的抑制剂[66]
此外, 根据MCT4胞外部分的结构域作为免疫原性肽, 设计出了一种IgM单克隆抗体, 并被证实具有较好的中和MCT4活性, 将其与CL1-5细胞(人肺腺癌细胞) 孵育后显著增加了细胞内乳酸浓度并降低了产酸率/耗氧率(ECAR/OCR) 比值。同时, 在体内异种移植小鼠模型中显著抑制了CL1-5细胞和Hop62细胞(人肺癌细胞) 皮下肿瘤的生长[67], 提示使用MCT4抑制剂可作为有氧糖酵解偏好的非小细胞肺癌的治疗手段。
如前所述, 使用AZD3965作为MCT1抑制剂抑制人小细胞肺癌细胞系时, 发现MCT4的表达可造成肿瘤细胞对AZD3965的耐受性[63], 即靶向单一转运蛋白的抑制剂可能对同时表达MCT1和MCT4的肿瘤无效。此外, MCT4在骨骼肌和心脏等组织中广泛表达[68], 因而在使用MCT4抑制剂抗肿瘤时, 可能存在平滑肌疼痛等问题。
因此, 同时阻断MCT1和MCT4被认为是一种理想的抑制策略, 基于此策略提出的包含MCT1和MCT4抑制剂的鸡尾酒疗法及MCT1/MCT4双重阻断剂具有前景。
发挥伴侣蛋白作用的糖蛋白CD147, 被证明可促进MCT1和MCT4在细胞膜表面的正确定位与表达[54], 抑制CD147的药物可下调MCT1和MCT4表达并发挥抗肿瘤活性。有机汞试剂对氯汞苯磺酸盐(p-chloromercuribenzene sulfonate, pCMBS) 被证明可通过靶向CD147限制兔红细胞中乳酸转运[69]。AC-73 (ID number: AN-465/42834501) 作为小分子抑制剂, 可选择性阻断CD147蛋白二聚化过程, 并抑制高表达CD147的肝细胞癌的侵袭[70]
抗高血压药物昔洛舍平(syrosingopine) 被证明是一种MCT1和MCT4的双重抑制剂。使用syrosingopine治疗后可导致细胞内高乳酸水平, 并抑制LDH活性。通过与线粒体NADH脱氢酶抑制剂二甲双胍联用, 可阻断糖酵解过程并导致ATP耗竭, 最终造成癌细胞死亡[52]
乳酸受体又称羟基羧酸受体1 (hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 1, HCAR1/GPR81), 属于G蛋白偶联受体(G protein-coupled receptors, GPCRs) 的一员[71]。研究报道了GPR81在如结肠癌、乳腺癌、肝癌、宫颈癌和胰腺癌等肿瘤细胞系高度表达, 并可充当乳酸感受器, 对于癌细胞乳酸转运和代谢及调节对乳酸的敏感性至关重要[17]。乳酸通过GPR81促进肿瘤发生发展被认为涉及自分泌和旁分泌两种机制。在自分泌途径中, 肿瘤来源的乳酸刺激癌细胞上的GPR81可促进癌细胞代谢重编程并适应实体瘤恶劣的微环境。Lee等[72]敲低乳腺癌细胞中GPR81表达后, 观察到癌细胞生长明显受损, 促乳腺癌血管生成的双调蛋白(amphiregulin, AREG) 产生减少和体内血管生成抑制。此外, 研究证明了来源于肿瘤细胞的乳酸可通过GPR81诱导人肺癌细胞中TAZ依赖性的PD-L1表达[73]。在旁分泌途径中, Brown等[31]证明肿瘤细胞来源的乳酸可激活DCs中GPR81, 并阻止肿瘤特异性抗原呈递给其他免疫细胞, 其最终结果是促进血管生成、免疫逃逸和化疗耐药。
这些研究证明了GPR81在癌症发展中的重要作用, 其与PD-L1等肿瘤逃逸相关蛋白的联系表明该受体的药理学阻断具有癌症免疫治疗潜力, 并且由于GPCRs属于较好的药物靶点, 因此可预见GPR81作为GRCPs的一员作为肿瘤潜在靶点的可能性。
Chen等[74]使用3-羟基丁酸(3-hydroxy-butyrate, 3-OBA) 作为GPR81的拮抗剂, 将其与二甲双胍和程序性死亡受体1 (programmed cell death protein 1, PD-1)/PD-L1阻断剂联合使用, 可显著提高二甲双胍的抗肿瘤活性。此外, Longhitano等[75]使用3, 5-DHBA和3-OBA分别作为GPR81受体激动剂和拮抗剂, 证明了乳酸通过GPR81受体和过表达的胰岛素样生长因子结合蛋白6 (insulin like growth factor binding protein 6, IGFBP6) 诱导MDA-231乳腺癌细胞增殖。然而, Mohammad Nezhady等[76, 77]认为3-OBA是羟基羧酸受体2 (hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2, HCAR2/GPR109A) 的配体, 并没有实验证据能证明3-OBA可作为GPR81受体拮抗剂。因此, 3-OBA能否作为GPR81受体拮抗剂存在争议。目前, 尚未发现其他关于GPR81受体拮抗剂的报道。
在糖酵解过程中, LDH-A是催化丙酮酸转化为乳酸的关键酶。LDH-A表达敲低后被证明可损害肿瘤细胞缺氧条件下的增殖能力, 且其缺陷型细胞的致瘤性较差, 可与人同源LDH-A蛋白互补, 这证明了LDH-A在肿瘤发展中的重要作用[78]。此外, 血清LDH由于在如非小细胞肺癌、结直肠癌、尤文氏瘤等恶性肿瘤造成组织破坏后浓度异常升高, 因而被认为是癌症的潜在诊断标志物[79]。LDH-A过表达也被证明与实体瘤患者的不良生存率正相关, 同时与胰腺癌治疗中的化疗和放疗耐药密切相关[80]。因此, LDH-A被证实是癌症重要生物标志物和治疗靶点。
由于LDH-A在肿瘤发生发展过程中的生存增殖[81]、侵袭转移[82]、血管生成[83]、免疫逃逸[24]等具有重要意义, 因而靶向LDH-A的相关抑制剂尤其是小分子抑制剂一直受到人们关注。
基于N-羟基吲哚(N-hydroxyindoles, NHI) 结构的抑制剂被认为是一类高效的LDH-A抑制剂, 对LDH-A具有高度选择性。通过与底物丙酮酸和辅因子NADH竞争性结合LDH-A, 被证实可阻止癌细胞增殖[84]。此外, NHI的甲酯类衍生物NHI-2在细胞测定中由于其更好的细胞渗透性能有效减少癌细胞中乳酸产生[85]。在一项研究中, 通过使用NHI和吉西他滨可协同抑制胰腺癌在缺氧条件上的生长[86]
乳酸在肿瘤代谢重编程中发挥重要作用, 被认为是改造TME的重要工具, 异常的乳酸浓度已被证明会通过多种途径影响肿瘤浸润性免疫细胞的分化、代谢和功能。已有报道表明在低葡萄糖的高糖酵解代谢肿瘤如MYC基因高表达肿瘤及肝转移癌中, 调节性T细胞(regulatory cells, Tregs) 细胞会主动摄取乳酸, 引起PD-1表达水平增加。这种情况下, PD-1抑制剂治疗会激活PD-1+Treg, 导致PD-1+CD8+T细胞进一步被抑制, 最终导致治疗失败[87]。因此, 在高糖酵解的TME中, 乳酸可作为决定Treg功能的有效检查点, 而通过减少癌细胞中的乳酸产生或输送至微环境, 可能与肿瘤的免疫治疗如PD-1抑制剂等产生协同作用。
在肝细胞癌(HCC) 患者中, MCT4的过表达与患者的不良预后正相关。MCT4的过表达可导致HCC小鼠模型中CD8+T细胞募集抑制和活性减弱。通过使用MCT4抑制剂, 可有效阻断TME的酸化过程, 并通过ROS/NF-κB信号通路诱导趋化因子(CXC基序) 的配体CXCL9和CXCL10表达。同时, 在肿瘤小鼠模型中, 抑制MCT4后可显著增强PD-1免疫检查点抑制剂的治疗作用[88], 这预示联用MCT4抑制剂可能对免疫治疗耐药的HCC患者提供机会。事实上, 在黑色素瘤小鼠模型中, 已报道通过阻断乳酸生成的LDH-A后, 可观察到NK细胞和CD8+T细胞产生的IFN-γ和颗粒酶B的升高, 并提高PD-1免疫检查点抑制剂的抗肿瘤免疫反应[89]
在糖尿病相关的乳腺癌中, 研究者提出了一种代谢重编程策略(metabolic reprogramming strategy, MRS), 即用二甲双胍和NF-κB抑制剂诱导肿瘤细胞葡萄糖输入和糖酵解过程, 同时使用一种新型的MCT4抑制剂CB-2 (专利公开号: US20190352282A1) 阻止过量乳酸输出导致癌细胞内代谢紊乱[90]。因此, 抑制MCT4联合二甲双胍/NF-κB抑制剂被认为是针对糖尿病相关的乳腺癌中具有前景的疗法。
肿瘤和基质细胞增加的乳酸分泌可酸化TME, 提高肿瘤细胞的存活与增殖能力。同时, 产生的乳酸通过诱导和招募免疫抑制相关细胞和分子或抑制免疫细胞的免疫活性, 如T细胞增殖、细胞因子产生及NK和CD8+T细胞的细胞毒活性, 最终促进肿瘤发生发展。
因此, 乳酸在肿瘤所处的TME中具有重要作用, 现已被认为是癌症治疗的一个有效靶点。通过抑制有氧糖酵解途径和乳酸生成与转运的相关蛋白如MCTs和LDH的新型抑制剂已取得进展, 而通过将肿瘤代谢重编程和肿瘤免疫相结合或将成为肿瘤免疫治疗的重要方向。
作者贡献: 葛威祥是本综述的主要撰写人, 完成相关文献资料的收集和分析及论文初稿的写作; 严时佳参与文献资料的分析、整理与论文的构思; 万国辉是本篇综述的负责人, 指导论文写作。全体作者都阅读并同意最终的文本。
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  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(82122069)
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(82073869)
  • 广东省基础与应用基础研究基金(2021B1515020004)
  • 广州市科技计划项目-基础与应用基础研究项目(202002020051)
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2022年第57卷第9期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2022-0519
  • 接收时间:2022-04-29
  • 首发时间:2025-12-24
  • 出版时间:2022-09-12
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  • 收稿日期:2022-04-29
  • 修回日期:2022-05-18
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国家自然科学基金资助项目(82122069)
国家自然科学基金资助项目(82073869)
广东省基础与应用基础研究基金(2021B1515020004)
广州市科技计划项目-基础与应用基础研究项目(202002020051)
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    中山大学药学院, 广东 广州 510006

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
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genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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