Article(id=1200860518169825837, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1200860506031518620, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-1406, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1702742400000, receivedDateStr=2023-12-17, revisedDate=1709654400000, revisedDateStr=2024-03-06, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1764237058441, onlineDateStr=2025-11-27, pubDate=1715443200000, pubDateStr=2024-05-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1764237058441, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-27, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1764237058441, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764237058441, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1200860506031518620, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2024', volume='59', issue='5', pageStart='1101', pageEnd='1508', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1764237055547, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764241222263, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1200877982563824311, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1200860506031518620, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1200877982563824312, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1200860506031518620, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=1126, endPage=1150, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1200860520212451968, articleId=1200860518169825837, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Advances in nucleoside analogues as methyltransferase inhibitors, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

As the second largest cofactor after ATP in body, S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) is responsible for methyl donor in SAM-dependent methyltransferases (MTases). The methylation of essential ingredients (e.g., DNA, RNA, protein) plays a critical role in epigenetic regulation, cellular signal transduction and metabolic cycles, which is closely related to different kinds of diseases. Therefore, SAM-dependent methyltransferases are considered as promising drug targets. Currently, a growing number of nucleoside analogues have been developed as SAM-competitive inhibitors, blocking the downstream signaling pathways to cure diseases. In the review, we outline the design strategy and optimization process of methyltransferase inhibitors, analyze the shortcomings and solutions of developing nucleoside derivatives as MTase inhibitors, to provide guidance and broad direction to the development of nucleoside MTase inhibitors.

, correspAuthors=Tong-chao LIU, Bing XIONG, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2024 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Jun-jie ZHANG, Tong-chao LIU, Bing XIONG), CN=ArticleExt(id=1200860526369689808, articleId=1200860518169825837, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=核苷类甲基转移酶抑制剂的研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

S-腺苷-L-蛋氨酸(SAM) 作为仅次于ATP第二普遍存在的辅助因子, 其主要的功能是作为SAM依赖性甲基转移酶的甲基供体, 对DNA、RNA、蛋白质等基本生命物质进行甲基化修饰。此过程构成了表观遗传调控、细胞信号转导和生物代谢循环的重要一环, 参与多种疾病的发生与发展, 因此, SAM依赖性甲基转移酶已成为药物研发的潜在靶点。最近, 许多核苷类分子已经被开发为甲基转移酶的SAM竞争性抑制剂, 从而阻断下游的信号通路, 达到治疗相关疾病的目的。本文系统性回顾基于SAM结构开展改造的甲基转移酶抑制剂设计策略和研发过程, 分析核苷类甲基转移酶抑制剂研发的不足和解决方法, 为未来设计靶向甲基转移酶SAM结合位点的核苷类分子提供更多的思路。

, correspAuthors=刘同超, 熊兵, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*刘同超, Tel: 86-21-68077888, E-mail: ;
熊兵, Tel: 13661970096, E-mail:
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Cell Res, 2021, 31: 1212-1214., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null)], funds=[Fund(id=1201106669913731976, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, awardId=82204187, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金资助项目(82204187), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1201106670085698445, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, awardId=82173658, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金资助项目(82173658), fundOrder=null, country=null), Fund(id=1201106670320579476, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, awardId=81773572, language=CN, fundingSource=国家自然科学基金资助项目(81773572), fundOrder=null, country=null)], companyList=[AuthorCompany(id=1201106658937237916, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1201106658945626525, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, companyId=1201106658937237916, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1. Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1201106658949820830, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, companyId=1201106658937237916, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=1.中国科学院上海药物研究所, 上海 201203)]), AuthorCompany(id=1201106659079844263, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, xref=null, ext=[AuthorCompanyExt(id=1201106659092427176, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, companyId=1201106659079844263, language=EN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China), AuthorCompanyExt(id=1201106659117593001, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, companyId=1201106659079844263, language=CN, country=null, province=null, city=null, postcode=null, companyName=null, departmentName=null, remark=2.中国科学院大学, 北京 100049)])], figs=[ArticleFig(id=1201106663798436485, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=trBmPVO3c8BlGJvodRU6Rg==, figureFileBig=7RkIP81Hr8u2FLn9vSmkfA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106663995568779, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=CN, label=Figure 1, caption=

The overview of SAM metabolism[1] and subcellular localization of the methylation modifications in the cell[2].

MAT: Methionine adenosyltransferase; SAM: S-Adenosyl-L-methionine; MTase: Methyltransferases; SAH: S-Adenosyl-L-homocysteine; AHCY: Adenosylhomocysteinase; MS: Methionine synthase; THF: Tetra-hydrofolate; AMD1: Adenosylmethionine decarboxylase 1; MTA: Methylthioadenosine; MTAP: Methylthioadenosine phosphorylase; MTR: Methylthioribose; Nu: Nucleophile; ATP: Adenosine triphosphate; PPi: Pyrophosphoric acid; Pi: Phosphoric acid

, figureFileSmall=trBmPVO3c8BlGJvodRU6Rg==, figureFileBig=7RkIP81Hr8u2FLn9vSmkfA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106664209478296, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=ylIruBnpFvC+HVgH+Ma5Bw==, figureFileBig=VvT/TBHBP5ZUPzbOGZi1vg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106664331113123, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=CN, label=Figure 2, caption= The chemical structures of the representative MTase pan-inhibitors , figureFileSmall=ylIruBnpFvC+HVgH+Ma5Bw==, figureFileBig=VvT/TBHBP5ZUPzbOGZi1vg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106664461136557, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=pFEx/e8LYggG+0N+K6iDaQ==, figureFileBig=lGRER+nozz006oL09oa+Vw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106664628908726, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=CN, label=Figure 3, caption=

The catalytic mechanism of DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs).

A: N6-methyladenine (6mA); B: N4-methylcytosine (4mC); C: C5-methylcytosine (5mC)

, figureFileSmall=pFEx/e8LYggG+0N+K6iDaQ==, figureFileBig=lGRER+nozz006oL09oa+Vw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106664813458112, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=45WKeS7gAI2u55nIZCxkig==, figureFileBig=cyv6m8Igb5dXa6zES2SFfg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106664972841675, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=CN, label=Figure 4, caption=

The chemical structures of the representative DNMT inhibitors.

A: DNMT1 inhibitors; B: DNMT3A inhibitor; C: DNMT3B inhibitor

, figureFileSmall=45WKeS7gAI2u55nIZCxkig==, figureFileBig=cyv6m8Igb5dXa6zES2SFfg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106665119642323, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=TUrkMizNkF1HphoM9wN6ZQ==, figureFileBig=F88l+ZFPbRBXw9v6cc1guw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106665224499930, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=CN, label=Figure 5, caption=

The catalytic mechanism of histone methyltransferases.

A: Protein arginine methyltransferases (PRMTs); B: Protein lysine methyltransferases (PKMTs)

, figureFileSmall=TUrkMizNkF1HphoM9wN6ZQ==, figureFileBig=F88l+ZFPbRBXw9v6cc1guw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106665400660710, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=sejf63ayxbo7F8TtoL1iUA==, figureFileBig=vQWqXJOEOonbDE0fdLjY8w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106665564238573, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=CN, label=Figure 6, caption=

The representative PRMT1 inhibitors.

A: The chemical structures of PRMT1 inhibitors; B: The mechanism of covalent inhibitor AAI

, figureFileSmall=sejf63ayxbo7F8TtoL1iUA==, figureFileBig=vQWqXJOEOonbDE0fdLjY8w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106665681679095, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=1MGCCkSlpZUsIvYQ/zfaqg==, figureFileBig=nyT8oLVj6rO/uzPjPTOXsw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106665820091136, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=CN, label=Figure 7, caption= The chemical structures of PRMT4 inhibitors , figureFileSmall=1MGCCkSlpZUsIvYQ/zfaqg==, figureFileBig=nyT8oLVj6rO/uzPjPTOXsw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106665912365831, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=OsG0jiaAl21g0YHc9mlCEQ==, figureFileBig=Pty8BrvtdHzmAnkW5nDDOg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106666063360782, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=CN, label=Figure 8, caption=

The chemical structures of PRMT5 inhibitors.

A: PRMT5 inhibitors with chiral benzyl alcohol; B: PRMT5 inhibitors with aliphatic amine; C: PRMT5 inhibitors with aminoquinoline

, figureFileSmall=OsG0jiaAl21g0YHc9mlCEQ==, figureFileBig=Pty8BrvtdHzmAnkW5nDDOg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106666164024084, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=iXtiUBaYVJq8KtFrCkrNkw==, figureFileBig=i4BuJcEuYIBf+es1Rv4ycg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106667304874777, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=CN, label=Figure 9, caption=

The crystal structures of PRMT5 bound to PRMT5 inhibitors.

A: LLY-283 (PDB code: 6CKC); B: PF-06939999 (PDB code: 7MX7); C: JNJ64619178 (PDB code: 6RLQ); D: Superimposition of LLY-283 (green), PF-06939999 (cyan) and JNJ64619178 (magentas) models. The conformation of Phe327 is flexible when binding with various ligands. The key residues are labeled as stick structures, hydrogen bonds are indicated as yellow dashed lines, π-π stacking is indicated as blue dashed lines

, figureFileSmall=iXtiUBaYVJq8KtFrCkrNkw==, figureFileBig=i4BuJcEuYIBf+es1Rv4ycg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106667560727329, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=ZAaV61hGwlIw2IO/zkEP2g==, figureFileBig=M8n0D6zWZ3KxpSS8I4D8Pw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106667690750761, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=CN, label=Figure 10, caption=

The chemical structures of representative PRMT7 inhibitors.

A: The optimization process of SGC3027; B: The mechanism of SGC3027 as prodrug

, figureFileSmall=ZAaV61hGwlIw2IO/zkEP2g==, figureFileBig=M8n0D6zWZ3KxpSS8I4D8Pw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106667854328621, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=y2MJ/4FECPtNO/ayl7JpTQ==, figureFileBig=6b6yKPCA6oNUaUc+meMAEA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106667988546359, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=CN, label=Figure 11, caption= The optimization process of PRMT7/9 inhibitors from PRMT4 inhibitor , figureFileSmall=y2MJ/4FECPtNO/ayl7JpTQ==, figureFileBig=6b6yKPCA6oNUaUc+meMAEA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106668105986878, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=UojbuHlJ59fYCm09uakYLw==, figureFileBig=jvcKadUmUFO5A6v4kyd5+w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106668269564743, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=CN, label=Figure 12, caption=

The chemical structures of the representative PKMTs bearing SET (Su(var), enhancer of zeste, Trithorax) domain inhibitors.

G9a: Euchromatic histone-lysine N-methyltransferase 2; GLP: G9a-like protein; MLL1: Lysine methyltransferase 2A; SETD2: SET domain containing 2; SMYD2: SET and MYND domain containing 2; SMYD3: SET and MYND domain containing 3; EZH2: Enhancer of zeste homologue 2

, figureFileSmall=UojbuHlJ59fYCm09uakYLw==, figureFileBig=jvcKadUmUFO5A6v4kyd5+w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106668504445776, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=PoG30CLBy/4SXUZq8ejsFw==, figureFileBig=PNKVHdWo/OltkEtu4vSN4A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106668663829333, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=CN, label=Figure 13, caption=

The chemical structures of disruptor of telomeric silencing 1-like (DOT1L) inhibitors.

A: SAH-like derivatives; B: The optimization process of compound 63 and 71 as urea DOT1L inhibitors; C: Benzimidazole derivatives

, figureFileSmall=PoG30CLBy/4SXUZq8ejsFw==, figureFileBig=PNKVHdWo/OltkEtu4vSN4A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106668802241373, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=7wpdADdxxUWhhLfCtcFeBg==, figureFileBig=HChW0cp8sCkeUm6cbtLCVw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106668982596452, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=CN, label=Figure 14, caption=

The catalytic mechanism of RNA methylation.

A: N1-Methyladenosine (m1A); B: N6-Methyladenosine (m6A); C: 7-Methylguanosine (m7G); D: 5-Methylcytosine (m5C)

, figureFileSmall=7wpdADdxxUWhhLfCtcFeBg==, figureFileBig=HChW0cp8sCkeUm6cbtLCVw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106669213283180, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=QBnLLwK02kmjjXgfpN3AJw==, figureFileBig=yrDJKtf84opB12xfkPBeRA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106669364278129, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=CN, label=Figure 15, caption= The chemical structures of representative methyltransferase-like 3 (METTL3) inhibitors , figureFileSmall=QBnLLwK02kmjjXgfpN3AJw==, figureFileBig=yrDJKtf84opB12xfkPBeRA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106669477524345, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=F0mcFMajvX7eF+z//uoazA==, figureFileBig=umQfmbbLmYONhLQ9focWhw==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1201106669628519290, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200860518169825837, language=CN, label=Figure 16, caption=

The chemical structures of DNMT2 inhibitors.

A: The optimization process of DNMT2 inhibitors; B: The proposed mechanism of compound 88 as covalent inhibitor

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核苷类甲基转移酶抑制剂的研究进展
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张俊杰 1, 2 , 刘同超 1, * , 熊兵 1, 2, *
药学学报 | 综述 2024,59(5): 1126-1150
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药学学报 | 综述 2024, 59(5): 1126-1150
核苷类甲基转移酶抑制剂的研究进展
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张俊杰1, 2, 刘同超1, * , 熊兵1, 2, *
作者信息
  • 1.中国科学院上海药物研究所, 上海 201203
  • 2.中国科学院大学, 北京 100049

通讯作者:

*刘同超, Tel: 86-21-68077888, E-mail: ;
熊兵, Tel: 13661970096, E-mail:
Advances in nucleoside analogues as methyltransferase inhibitors
Jun-jie ZHANG1, 2, Tong-chao LIU1, * , Bing XIONG1, 2, *
Affiliations
  • 1. Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
  • 2. University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
出版时间: 2024-05-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-1406
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S-腺苷-L-蛋氨酸(SAM) 作为仅次于ATP第二普遍存在的辅助因子, 其主要的功能是作为SAM依赖性甲基转移酶的甲基供体, 对DNA、RNA、蛋白质等基本生命物质进行甲基化修饰。此过程构成了表观遗传调控、细胞信号转导和生物代谢循环的重要一环, 参与多种疾病的发生与发展, 因此, SAM依赖性甲基转移酶已成为药物研发的潜在靶点。最近, 许多核苷类分子已经被开发为甲基转移酶的SAM竞争性抑制剂, 从而阻断下游的信号通路, 达到治疗相关疾病的目的。本文系统性回顾基于SAM结构开展改造的甲基转移酶抑制剂设计策略和研发过程, 分析核苷类甲基转移酶抑制剂研发的不足和解决方法, 为未来设计靶向甲基转移酶SAM结合位点的核苷类分子提供更多的思路。

表观遗传学  /  S-腺苷-L-蛋氨酸  /  甲基转移酶  /  核苷类似物

As the second largest cofactor after ATP in body, S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) is responsible for methyl donor in SAM-dependent methyltransferases (MTases). The methylation of essential ingredients (e.g., DNA, RNA, protein) plays a critical role in epigenetic regulation, cellular signal transduction and metabolic cycles, which is closely related to different kinds of diseases. Therefore, SAM-dependent methyltransferases are considered as promising drug targets. Currently, a growing number of nucleoside analogues have been developed as SAM-competitive inhibitors, blocking the downstream signaling pathways to cure diseases. In the review, we outline the design strategy and optimization process of methyltransferase inhibitors, analyze the shortcomings and solutions of developing nucleoside derivatives as MTase inhibitors, to provide guidance and broad direction to the development of nucleoside MTase inhibitors.

epigenetics  /  S-adenosyl-L-methionine  /  methyltransferase  /  nucleoside analogue
张俊杰, 刘同超, 熊兵. 核苷类甲基转移酶抑制剂的研究进展. 药学学报, 2024 , 59 (5) : 1126 -1150 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-1406
Jun-jie ZHANG, Tong-chao LIU, Bing XIONG. Advances in nucleoside analogues as methyltransferase inhibitors[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2024 , 59 (5) : 1126 -1150 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-1406
S-腺苷-L-蛋氨酸(S-adenosyl-L-methionine, AdoMet, SAM) 作为体内第二普遍的辅助因子, 是一类由蛋氨酸和腺苷构成的带有正电荷的硫鎓离子化合物。如图 1所示[1, 2], 在生物体内的SAM由底物L-蛋氨酸(methionine) 和ATP (adenosine triphosphate) 在甲硫氨酸腺苷转移酶(methionine adenosyltransferase, MAT) 催化下合成[3]。在SAM依赖性甲基转移酶(SAM-dependent methyltransferases, MTases) 催化下, 体内具有亲核性的原子(N、C、O和S), 通过SN2机制对SAM的锍中心进行亲核进攻, 实现甲基从SAM向多种物质的转移。甲基转移酶作用的底物不仅包括生物大分子(如DNA、组蛋白、RNA、病毒蛋白等), 而且也包括体内代谢小分子物质(如儿茶酚胺、苯乙醇胺、烟酰胺、组胺等)[4]。上述底物的甲基化过程在表观遗传调控、蛋白质功能调节、代谢物及信号分子的合成和降解等方面发挥着至关重要的作用[5], 与肿瘤、神经疾病、炎症、代谢性疾病等密切相关[6]
核苷和核苷酸作为内源性物质, 参与多种细胞过程, 例如DNA和RNA合成、细胞信号传导、酶调节和代谢。经过化学修饰的核苷和核苷酸类似物, 模拟其内源性物质, 利用细胞代谢掺入DNA和RNA中以抑制细胞分裂和病毒复制。除此之外, 核苷类似物与聚合酶、激酶、核糖核苷酸还原酶、甲基转移酶、核苷磷酸化酶等相互作用, 达到抑制酶活的目的[7]。因此, 核苷类似物常被开发为抗肿瘤药物(如吉西他滨、地西他滨、阿糖胞苷、5氟尿嘧啶等) 和抗病毒药物(如利巴韦林、替诺福韦、莫诺拉韦、瑞德西韦等)[8]。特别地, 基于SAM结构开发的甲基转移酶SAM竞争性抑制剂成为了近几年抗肿瘤药物研发的热门方向, 本课题组也在此领域开展了较多的研究工作。因此, 本文总结了核苷类甲基转移酶抑制剂的研究进展, 重点关注与表观遗传相关的甲基转移酶核苷类抑制剂。
作为SAM的结构类似物, SAH (S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine, 化合物1, 图 2)、西奈芬净(sinefungin, 化合物2) 和5′-脱氧-5′-甲硫腺苷(methylthioadenosine, MTA, 化合物3) 均可在一定程度上抑制不同的以SAM为甲基供体的甲基转移酶的催化活性。
SAH作为甲基转移过程的产物, 与蛋白的SAM口袋有较好的结合。在甲硫氨酸循环中, 生成的SAH被腺苷同型半胱氨酸酶(adenosylhomocysteinase, AHCY) 转化为同型半胱氨酸[7] (图 1)。由于各种甲基转移酶具有产物负反馈抑制的特性, 因此SAH对甲基转移酶的活性具有一定的抑制作用[9]。在多种甲基转移酶的晶体结构中, SAH均占据了SAM的结合口袋, Richon等[9]报道了SAH对于不同种类的甲基转移酶具有较高的亲和力。另一方面, 抑制AHCY的水解活性从而增加SAH的含量, 同样能起到抑制甲基转移酶活性的作用[10]
Sinefungin在结构上与SAH较为类似, 也能一定程度地抑制大多数甲基转移酶的活性。2016年, Sinefungin被报道作为SET7/9 (SET domain-containing lysine methyltransferase 7/9) 的抑制剂, 并抑制H3K4单甲基化(H3K4me1), 从而改善肾纤维化[11]。Sinefungin被披露作为SETDB2 (SET domain bifurcated histone lysine methyltransferase 2) 的抑制剂, SETDB2的下调将会导致趋化因子(CXC基序) 配体CXCL1和CXCL8的分泌增强, 增强中性粒细胞的免疫反应, 该化合物可以治疗多种的病毒或细菌感染[12]。Sala等[13]发现, Sinefungin作为Ⅰ型PRMTs (protein arginine methyltransferases) 的抑制剂, 在小鼠乳腺癌模型中可降低肿瘤基质中的肌成纤维细胞活性, 而对正常的肌成纤维细胞无影响。
MTA是普遍存在于生物体内的含硫核苷, 对几乎所有的SAM依赖性甲基转移酶均有抑制活性[14]。由于腺苷5′位的羟基被甲硫基取代, MTA具有良好的细胞渗透性。在约15%的实体瘤患者中, 由于靠近经常缺失的肿瘤抑制基因CDKN2A (cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor 2A), 编码甲硫腺苷磷酸化酶(methylthioadenosine phosphorylase, MATP) 的基因也会随之丢失, 造成MTA在细胞中累积, 从而抑制PRMT5的活性, 同时也提升了细胞对PRMT5抑制的敏感性, 因此MTA依赖性的PRMT5抑制剂也为MTAP-CDKN2A缺失肿瘤患者提供了一种治疗选择[15]。在细菌脂多糖(lipopolysaccharides, LPS) 处理的小鼠模型中, MTA可以抑制肿瘤坏死因子-α (tumor necrosis factor alpha, TNF-α)、诱导型一氧化氮合酶(inducible nitric oxide synthase, iNOS) 的表达以及刺激白细胞介素10 (interleukin-10, IL-10) 的合成, 从而减弱免疫反应, 对炎症疾病的治疗有一定价值[16]
图 3所示, DNA发生甲基化的位点在胞嘧啶的C5 (C5-methylcytosine, 5mC) 和N4 (N4-methylcytosine, 4mC) 位置, 以及腺嘌呤的N6位置(N6-methyladenosine, 6mA)。胞嘧啶4位氨基与腺嘌呤6位氨基, 可以对SAM直接进行SN2亲核进攻, 无需形成中间体[17]。由于胞嘧啶属于缺电子的芳杂环, C5位置并不能对SAM直接进行亲核取代, 而是遵循酶催化的Michael加成的反应机制[18]。位于CpG序列上的5mC最为常见, 该修饰对于沉默逆转录转座子元件序列、X染色体失活、调节基因表达和细胞转化至关重要[19-21]。DNA甲基转移酶(DNA methyltransferase, DNMT) 一共有5个亚型, 分别是DNMT1、DNMT2、DNMT3A、DNMT3B和DNMT3L, 其中只有DNMT1、DNMT3A和DNMT3B能催化DNA甲基化。DNMT1是一种维持甲基转移酶, 负责在新DNA复制后的甲基化标记。而DNMT3A和DNMT3B则是一种从头甲基化酶, 在非甲基化DNA上启动甲基化标记, 对于发育和细胞分化至关重要[22]。5mC修饰增加DNA螺旋的稳定性, 抑制基因的表达, 而6mA修饰破坏螺旋的稳定性并导致DNA解旋[23]。对于DNA的6mA修饰催化酶研究尚不明确, 一些团队也报道了N6AMT1 (N-6 adenine-specific DNA methyltransferase 1)[24]和METTL4 (methyltransferase like 4) 可能催化6mA过程, 但是有研究显示N6AMT1是蛋白eRF1 (eukaryotic translation termination factor 1) 的甲基转移酶而无法结合和催化DNA甲基化[25]。因此, 下文对DNA的6mA修饰酶抑制剂不做讨论, 重点关注DNMT1和DNMT3抑制剂的研究进展。
2004年, 由Celgene公司研发的DNMT1核苷类抑制剂阿扎胞苷(azacitidine, 化合物4, 图 4) 被批准上市, 用于治疗幼年型粒单核细胞白血病(juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia, JMML)、急性髓系白血病(acute myeloid leukemia, AML)、骨髓增生异常综合征(myelodysplastic syndromes, MDS)、慢性髓细胞白血病(chronic myelocytic leukemia, CML) 和慢性粒单核细胞白血病(chronic myelomonocytic leukemia, CMML)。随后在2006年, Eisai公司研发的地西他滨(decitabine, 化合物5) 也被批准上市, 用于治疗AML和MDS。阿扎胞苷与地西他滨进入体内后, 都被转化为脱氧核苷酸三磷酸, 然后代替胞嘧啶掺入复制的DNA中, 修饰后的碱基与DNMT1形成共价键, 导致酶的耗尽和DNA的去甲基化[26]。两种药物进入体内易被水解和在胞苷脱氨酶的作用下脱氨, 因此在临床给药后体内半衰期都很短。接受地西他滨静脉注射治疗的患者在输注后1 h内显示出大于90%的药物清除率[27]。阿扎胞苷具有类似的快速清除率[28, 29]。Guadecitabine (SGI-110, 化合物6) 是由Astex公司开发的第二代DNMT1抑制剂, 为地西他滨和脱氧鸟苷通过磷酸二酯键连接的二核苷酸, 解决了第一代DNMT1抑制剂的不足。Guadecitabine不易被体内多个器官中胞苷脱氨酶所代谢, 半衰期较第一代DNMT1抑制剂更长, 暴露效果更佳, 增强了融入分裂细胞DNA的能力。截至目前, Guadecitabine已经完成用于治疗AML[30, 31]、MDS[32]和CMML[32]的Ⅲ期临床试验, 但由于疗效不显著, 均未达到预期的临床终点[33]。由美国国立癌症研究所(National Cancer Institute, NCI) 研发的化合物7在胞嘧啶的5位引入氟原子, 于2018年开展Ⅰ/Ⅱ期临床试验, 用于评价在非小细胞肺癌和食管癌患者中的疗效, 但是在2023年5月终止了临床试验[34]。由Rexahn公司研发的RX-3117 (化合物8) 对胞苷的呋喃糖环进行结构优化, 与阿扎胞苷和地西他滨激活机制不同的是, 该化合物通过UCK2 (uridine-cytidine kinase 2) 激活磷酸化, 因此可以克服阿扎胞苷和地西他滨的交叉耐药问题[35]。RX-3117开展了两项Ⅰ/Ⅱ期临床试验[36, 37], 旨在评价治疗转移性胰腺癌和晚期实体瘤的疗效, 临床结果显示疗效较好, 且安全性与耐受性良好[38, 39]。由Southern Research Institute研发的NTX-301 (化合物9) 将地西他滨的呋喃环中的氧原子替换为硫原子, 与地西他滨相比, NTX-301作为单一疗法以及联用BCL-2抑制剂维奈托克(Venetoclax) 的治疗指数有所改善。此外, NTX-301的口服给药优于传统DNA甲基转移酶抑制剂的腹腔给药, 凸显了额外的临床优势[40]。NTX-301在2022年终止了一项Ⅰ/Ⅱ期临床试验[41], 除此之外, 另外一项Ⅰ期临床试验[42]正在招募患者中, 旨在评价在MDS和AML患者中的安全性和耐受性[43]
NCI基于NTX-301的结构在呋喃糖环2′位引入氟原子, 设计出NSC-801845 (化合物10)[44], 相较于NTX-301具有更佳的体内外药效。Zhang等[45]报道了一个缬氨酸修饰的地西他滨前药(化合物11), 进入体内之后快速被酯酶水解形成地西他滨, 血浆暴露量和生物利用度有所提高。类似地, Ohara公司对地西他滨进行硅烷化修饰, 设计了前药OR-2100 (化合物12), 其DNA去甲基化能力和抗肿瘤效果与地西他滨相当, 且体内不良反应较少, 对胞苷脱氨酶表现出较高的稳定性, 口服生物利用度显著提高[46-48]
在不同癌症的发生与进展中, DNMT3往往会发生失调和突变[49]。DNMT3A在AML[50]、胃癌[51]、肺癌[52]和结直肠癌[53]中表达上调, 同时在男性不育[54]、衰老[54]过程中具有一定的作用。DNMT3B在子宫内膜癌[55]、结肠癌[56]和乳腺癌[57]中表达上调, 但在淋巴瘤[58]中表达下调。相比于DNMT1抑制剂, DNMT3A和DNMT3B抑制剂报道较少。2013年, GlaxoSmithKline公司披露了DNMT3A的特异性抑制剂(化合物13)[59], 选择性抑制DNMT3A的活性(DNMT3A: IC50 = 3 μmol·L-1 vs DNMT1: IC50 > 300 μmol·L-1)。2006年, Mirati公司披露了DNMT3B2的特异性抑制剂(化合物14)[60], 显著地抑制DNMT3B2的活性(IC50 = 0.26 μmol·L-1), 但对DNMT1A的抑制活性较弱(IC50 = 3.7 μmol·L-1)。
组蛋白甲基化修饰是研究较为深入的蛋白翻译后修饰(post-translational modification, PTM), 参与异染色质形成和维持、转录调控、DNA修复、X染色体失活和RNA成熟等生物过程[61]。根据修饰的残基类型的不同, 组蛋白甲基转移酶可以分为蛋白质精氨酸甲基转移酶(protein arginine methyltransferase, PRMT) 和蛋白质赖氨酸甲基转移酶(protein lysine methyltransferase, PKMT)。组蛋白甲基化是通过改变蛋白质的体积和疏水性, 从而影响组蛋白甲基化阅读器对组蛋白的识别[4]。如图 5所示, 在组蛋白甲基转移酶的催化下, SAM的甲基可以转移至精氨酸和赖氨酸残基上, 在精氨酸残基上形成单甲基化和二甲基化基团[62], 但是在赖氨酸残基上形成单甲基化、二甲基化和三甲基化基团[61]
图 5所示, 组蛋白精氨酸残基首先在PRMTs催化下得到单甲基化精氨酸产物(monomethylation of arginine, MMA), 随后继续在PRMTs的催化下发生第二次甲基转移, 生成对称的双甲基精氨酸产物(symmetrically demethylated arginine, sDMA) 或不对称的双甲基精氨酸产物(asymmetrically demethylated arginine, aDMA)。按照催化底物甲基化状态的不同, 可以将PRMTs分为三大类(图 5A): ① Ⅰ型PRMTs (PRMT1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8), 负责催化精氨酸胍基的ω氮原子的单甲基化以及不对称双甲基化过程; ② Ⅱ型PRMTs (PRMT5和PRMT9), 负责催化ω氮原子的单甲基化以及对称双甲基化过程; ③ Ⅲ型PRMT (PRMT7), 负责催化精氨酸胍基的δ氮原子的单甲基化过程[62]。组蛋白H3的第2、8、17、26位和H4的第2位精氨酸是常见的甲基化位点[61]。下文将详细介绍核苷类的PRMTs抑制剂的研究进展。
PRMT1是第一个被鉴定的哺乳动物PRMT[63], 承担哺乳动物细胞中大部分Ⅰ型PRMTs的活性[64]。PRMT1负责催化组蛋白H4R3精氨酸侧链的不对称二甲基化, 该过程参与基因转录、DNA修复和信号转导[65-67]。PRMT1的过度表达和异常剪接与多种疾病有关, 包括乳腺癌[68]、前列腺癌[69]、结肠癌[70]、肺癌和膀胱癌等[71]。2008年, Osborne等[72]报道一类PRMT1的共价抑制剂AAI (化合物15, 图 6), 在精氨酸残基的催化下原位生成氮杂环丙烷片段, 随后被精氨酸的胍基进攻, 开环形成共价键, 为探索其他的PRMTs的功能提供了一个工具分子。2010年, Dowden等[73]基于SAM结构引入精氨酸残基片段设计化合物16, 对PRMT1具有较有效的抑制作用(IC50 = 3~6 μmol·L-1), 对于同属于Ⅰ型的PRMT4抑制活性较弱, 从对接结果分析, 胍基片段与PRMT1的底物口袋中Glu47形成静电相互作用, 而在PRMT4中相同位置则为组氨酸和天冬酰胺残基[74]
PRMT4属于Ⅰ型PRMT, 能催化组蛋白H3R2、H3R17和H3R26精氨酸侧链的单甲基化和不对称双甲基化[75, 76], 该过程参与了转录激活、RNA剪接、细胞周期进程和DNA修复[77]。PRMT4在多种肿瘤中异常表达, 如乳腺癌[78]、结肠癌[79, 80]、膀胱癌[81]、肺癌[82]、肝癌[83]与卵巢癌等。2014年, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center披露了一类PRMT4的核苷抑制剂(化合物17, 图 7)[84], 该化合物对PRMT4和DOT1L具有较好的抑制活性(PRMT4: IC50 = 0.1 μmol·L-1, DOT1L: IC50 = 0.14 μmol·L-1), 对于其他组蛋白甲基转移酶具有较好的选择性。随后, 基于化合物17引入苄基侧链(化合物18)[85], 活性有了进一步提升(IC50 = 0.045 μmol·L-1), 同时保持了对于其他甲基转移酶的选择性。同年, Pierre Fabre公司也披露一类核苷类PRMT4抑制剂(化合物19)[86], 对PRMT4抑制活性在微摩尔水平(IC50 = 1.9 μmol·L-1), 对PRMT1、PRMT6和PRMT7具有较好的选择性。2022年, Gianluca Sbardella课题组[87]基于选择性PRMT4小分子抑制剂EML108, 保留一半的片段, 随后引入胍基片段模拟带有精氨酸的多肽底物, 最后引入腺苷片段占据SAM口袋, 获得化合物EML981 (化合物20)。有趣的是, 从构效关系(structure-activity relationship, SAR) 分析中发现, EML108片段、胍基片段与腺苷之间的距离对于其他的PRMT的活性至关重要。当增加linker的长度, 化合物则呈现扭曲的U形构象, 从而减少与double-E环以及底物结合区域的有利结合。相反, 当缩短linker的长度, 将会对PRMT7具有较高的活性, 这部分将在下面部分进行分析。
PRMT5是第一个被确定的Ⅱ型PRMT, 催化精氨酸残基的单甲基化和对称性双甲基化过程[88]。在体内PRMT5负责催化H2AR3、H4R3、H3R2和H3R8位点, 参与多种转录信号的调控[89-93]。WD40蛋白质家族的MEP50是PRMT5最常见的分子伴侣, 对PRMT5的催化活性十分关键, PRMT5-MEP50复合物的催化活性显著强于单独的PRMT5[94]。据报道, PRMT5在多种人类恶性肿瘤中过度表达, 包括淋巴瘤[91, 95, 96]、黑色素瘤[97]、肺癌[98]、乳腺癌[99]和结直肠癌[100]
近几年来, 核苷类PRMT5的抑制剂报道逐渐增多, 在结构上多为修饰腺苷与结构多样的片段相连接而成的化合物。根据与核苷所连接片段的结构类型大致分为三类(图 8): ①以LLY-283为代表的手性苄醇类; ②以PF-06939999为代表的脂肪胺类; ③以JNJ-64619178为代表的氨基喹啉类。
2018年, Eli Lilly公司报道了一个核苷类抑制剂LLY-283 (化合物21, 图 8A)[101], 在酶(IC50 = 22 nmol·L-1) 和细胞(IC50 = 25 nmol·L-1) 上表现出较高的抑制活性, 对31种甲基转移酶具有较好的选择性, 在小鼠异种移植瘤模型中也显示出明显的抗肿瘤活性。共晶结构(图 9A, PDB code: 6CKC) 显示, 腺嘌呤与Asp419的侧链和Met420的主链形成氢键, 而呋喃糖的双羟基与Glu392形成一对氢键, 并与Tyr324的侧链形成一个氢键。5′位苯环的引入占据了PRMT5蛋白中柔性较大的Phe327位置, 并与该残基侧链之间形成face to edge的π-π堆积作用。柔性的Phe327被诱导后发生构象的改变, 对于PRMT5是独特的, 这也是形成PRMT5选择性的原因。
Prelude公司针对LLY-283进行了一系列的结构优化, 在苯环上引入氯原子可以使得活性有所提升, 采用环化策略将手性羟基环化成醚, 得到化合物22[102], 活性显著提升(IC50 = 3.8 nmol·L-1), 当将五元环扩大成六元环后(化合物23), 活性进一步提升(IC50 = 1.2 nmol·L-1), 脱氮腺嘌呤的6位氨基被甲基取代(化合物24), 活性依然得到保持(IC50 = 4.8 nmol·L-1)[103]。PRMT5的SAM结合口袋中带有Cys449, 该氨基酸残基与LLY-283的6位氨基相邻, 为PRMT5共价抑制剂的开发提供了结构基础。除此之外, 在其他的PRMT中该位置缺少半胱氨酸, 因此开发共价抑制剂也是提高选择性的一种策略。该公司研发人员从LLY-283出发, 在碱基上引入一个半缩醛结构(化合物25), 在生理条件下开环转变为醛基(化合物26), 与Cys449的巯基发生加成反应形成共价键, 表现出良好的酶抑制活性(IC50 = 11 nmol·L-1)[104]。该公司开发的结构尚未披露的PRT543[105]和PRT811[106]已经完成Ⅰ期临床试验, 用于治疗晚期实体瘤、血液瘤、中枢神经系统淋巴瘤和神经胶质瘤, 临床试验结果显示, PRT543具有良好的耐受性, 并且在一些患者中能使肿瘤消退[107]。PRT811在神经胶质瘤和转移性葡萄膜黑色素瘤患者中表现出可接受的安全性和临床活性[108]
Merck公司分析了共晶结构, 发现呋喃糖环的5′位和碱基的8位之间的空间较大, 表明8, 5′-环核苷(化合物2728)[109]可以容纳在SAM结合袋中。两种化合物均可降低H4R3Me2水平, IC50值分别为5.7和1.0 μmol·L-1。与LLY-283相比, 活性下降较大, 可能的原因是生物活性构象与能量最低构象有较大的能垒, 造成了整体吉布斯自由能的升高。
Pfizer公司从腺苷结构出发, 发现5′位羟基的与周围水分子形成氢键相互作用, 在周围有一个较深的结合口袋, 引入3-氟-4-氯苯基之后可以占据该口袋, 并且与Tyr324形成face to edge的π-π堆积作用, 该化合物与LLY-283的结合模式类似。随后在PF-06855800 (化合物29, 图 8B) 共晶结构的指导下, 去除5′位的碳原子和手性羟基, 并将呋喃糖环氧原子从糖环内移至5′位, 将苯环定位在口袋中, 在苯环上引入碱性的脂肪胺片段以指向关键残基Glu444, 获得PF-06939999 (化合物30)[110]。从晶体结构(图 9B, PDB code: 7MX7) 中可以发现, 四氢异喹啉片段和Glu444形成盐桥相互作用, 与Leu437和Glu435的主链羰基氧之间形成氢键作用, 这些额外的相互作用导致PF-06939999与PRMT5具有更高的结合亲和力(KD = 11.4 pmol·L-1)。2019年, PF-06939999开展Ⅰ期临床试验[111], 但是在Ⅰ期剂量递增研究中表现出剂量限制性毒性, 出现血小板减少症不良反应[112], 该临床试验于2022年8月终止。
2017年, Janssen公司也披露了该结构类型的化合物31[113], 使用氮杂螺烷烃作为与Glu444结合的片段, 对PRMT5保持了较好的抑制活性(IC50 = 0.6~1.9 nmol·L-1)。2023年, Chen等[114]报道用磺酰胺作为linker将脂肪胺片段锚定到Glu444 (化合物32), 抑制活性较强(IC50 = 8 nmol·L-1), 由于该化合物32透膜性较差, 采用Trimethyl Lock的前药策略(化合物33) 提升细胞活性。
Janssen公司发现了一种全新结构的核苷类PRMT5抑制剂JNJ64619178 (化合物34, 图 8C)[115], 从共晶结构(图 9C, PDB code: 6RLQ) 中可以看出, 该化合物同时占据SAM和底物口袋, 在SAM结合口袋中, 与LLY-283结合模式相同, 脱氮嘌呤部分与Asp419的侧链和Met420的主链形成与LLY-283相同的氢键, 环戊烷环的两个羟基与Glu392和Tyr324的侧链形成一对氢键。JNJ64619178以“伪不可逆”的结合方式伸入底物结合口袋, 氨基喹啉基团向底物结合位点延伸, 并与Glu444侧链形成双齿氢键相互作用, 溴原子与Ser578的氧原子形成氢键相互作用, 因此降低了化合物与PRMT5的解离速率, 拥有持续的抑制效果。值得注意的是, Phe327的构象发生明显变化以容纳较大体积的氨基喹啉片段, 与之形成face to face的π-π堆积作用。这一独特的结合模式, 使得JNJ64619178对于其他甲基转移酶具有较好的选择性, 表现出优异的体内外抗肿瘤活性。2018年, JNJ64619178开展Ⅰ期临床试验, 用于治疗非霍奇金淋巴瘤、MDS和实体瘤[116]。随后, Janssen公司又披露一类螺[3.4]壬烷类核苷化合物35[117], 保持了对PRMT5较高的抑制活性(IC50 = 9.1 nmol·L-1)。
Merck公司在分析JNJ64619178的结构基础上, 借助计算机预测筛选不同的linker, 巧妙地将中间核糖的连接方式用五元稠合双环进行替换, 设计了化合物3637[118], 化合物36表现出更高的亲和力(EC50 = 4.7 nmol·L-1), 有效抑制Z138细胞系的增殖(EC50 = 17 nmol·L-1), 显示出良好的药代动力学特性。化合物37为全碳五元稠合双环, 比化合物36表现出更高的结合亲和力(EC50 = 0.84 nmol·L-1) 和更强的抗增殖细胞活性(EC50 = 5.8 nmol·L-1)。其中, 化合物36具有平衡的药效和代谢性质、低人类剂量预测和差异化药物相互作用风险等特点, 在体内表现出显著的抗肿瘤增殖活性。
Angex公司对喹啉环进行修饰, 将双环修饰为三环结构(化合物38), 活性也有了一定的提升(IC50 < 1 nmol·L-1)[119, 120]。Lupin公司基于JNJ64619178的结构将环戊烷环中引入双键(化合物39)[121], 表现出更佳的抑制活性(IC50 = 0.25~0.95 nmol·L-1; Z-138: IC50 = 0.1~100 pmol·L-1)。
PRMT7作为唯一被报道的Ⅲ型PRMT, 负责在组蛋白上添加单甲基化标记。与PRMT9类似, PRMT7存在两个SAM结构域[122]。PRMT7含有两个底物结合序列, 但是每个结构域无法单独发挥作用[123]。PRMT7参与了DNA修复、胚胎干细胞多能性、雄性生殖基因印记等多种生物过程[124]。PRMT7可以诱导上皮间质转化(epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, EMT) 并促进乳腺癌转移, 被认为是治疗乳腺癌的潜在靶标[125]。2020年, Szewczyk等[126]通过筛选得到化合物SGC0911 (化合物40, 图 10, IC50 = 1 μmol·L-1), 引入联苯基团获得的化合物SGC8172 (化合物41), 活性显著提升(IC50 < 2.5 nmol·L-1), 但是缺乏对PRMT7的选择性。随后对linker的长度进行调整, 获得的化合物SGC8158 (化合物42) 在保持活性(IC50 < 2.5 nmol·L-1) 的基础上, 对其他的PRMT具有较好的选择性, 其选择性可能是由于PRMT7的THW loop的长度和构象与其他的PRMT不同。根据动力学验证, 该化合物是SAM竞争性抑制剂, 而不是底物竞争性抑制剂。为了增加SGC8158的细胞膜渗透性, 采用了Trimethyl Lock的前药设计策略, 降低分子的极性。前药SGC3027 (化合物43) 透过细胞膜之后, 在细胞内还原酶的作用下, 将对苯醌还原成对苯酚, 酚羟基对酰胺进行加成消除反应, 释放活性药物SGC8158。在细胞中, SGC3027能抑制HSP70 (heat shock protein 70) 的甲基化, 并导致对蛋白质稳态扰动的耐受性降低。
由于PRMT9已被证明能合成MMA和sDMA, 因此与PRMT5同属Ⅱ型PRMT[127], 在选择性剪接的调节中发挥重要作用[128, 129]。与PRMT7相同, PRMT9包含两个SAM结合域。与其他PRMTs不同, PRMT9中特征性的34肽重复序列可促进蛋白—蛋白相互作用[77]。有文献报道, PRMT9在肝癌[130, 131]、AML[132]和前列腺癌[133]的治疗中发挥重要的作用。PRMT9通过精氨酸甲基化减弱线粒体抗病毒信号蛋白的激活, 从而降低先天抗病毒免疫反应[134]。2023年, Feoli等[135]基于之前的PRMT4抑制剂研发工作, 发现化合物EML734对PRMT7具有较好的抑制活性(IC50 = 0.32 μmol·L-1), 并且对其他PRMTs具有较好的选择性, 从EML734 (化合物44, 图 11) 出发, 调整萘环片段、胍基和腺苷片段之间的长度, 获得化合物EML1102 (化合物45), 在保留了对于PRMT7的抑制活性的基础上, 进一步改善了对于PRMT1、PRMT3和PRMT6的选择性。随后通过动力学模拟发现, 相比于PRMT7, 化合物EML734的萘环面向PRMT9的溶剂区, 萘环片段与Trp152的π-π相互作用较弱, 因此在萘环引入三氟甲基(化合物46), 对PRMT9的抑制活性显著提升, 同时也降低了对PRMT7的抑制活性, 实现了选择性的反转。
PKMT根据是否含有SET (Su(var), enhancer of zeste, Trithorax) 结构域, 可以分为两类: 含SET结构域的PKMT和不含SET结构域的PKMT。含有SET结构域的PKMT主要分为五个家族: SUV、SET1、SET2、EZ和RIZ, 而不含SET结构域的只有DOT1L[136, 137]。最近提出的新分类方法, 可以将PKMTs分为8个组: KMT1到KMT8[138]。组蛋白H3的第4、9、27、36和79位以及组蛋白H4第5和20位的赖氨酸是常见的甲基化位点[61]。H3K4、H3K36和H3K79的甲基化与转录激活有关, 而H3K9的双甲基和三甲基化以及H3K27的三甲基化与转录相关[139-142]。下文将按照新的分类方法分别阐述PKMTs的生物学功能及其核苷类抑制剂的进展(图 12)。
组蛋白H3K9的单、双甲基化主要由G9a (euchromatic histone-lysine N-methyltransferase 2, EHMT2, KMT1C) 和GLP (G9a-like protein, EHMT1, KMT1D) 催化, 两者都具有SET结构域, 具有约80%的序列相似性, 可形成异二聚体[143, 144]。G9a不仅与多种肿瘤的发生发展密切相关[145, 146], 也在HIV-1病毒潜伏[147]、可卡因成瘾[148]和炎性结肠炎[149]中发挥重要作用。Devkota等[150]基于Sinefungin的结构报道了一个G9a/GLP抑制剂(化合物47, 图 12), 有微弱的抑制活性(GLP: IC50 = 1.5 μmol·L-1; G9a: IC50 = 1.6 μmol·L-1), 对DNMT1、PRMT1和SET7/9具有选择性。
MLL (lysine-specific methyltransferase 2A, KMT2A, TRX1, MLL1) 蛋白是一种负责组蛋白H3K4的单、双和三甲基化的PKMT[151]。与MLL相关的染色体重排已被证明可导致AML、急性淋巴细胞白血病(acute lymphoblastic leukemia, ALL) 或混合谱系白血病(mixed lineage leukemia, MLL) 的发生[152]。尽管MLL蛋白含有SET结构域, 但该蛋白本身甲基转移酶活性很低, 而当与WDR5 (WD repeat domain 5)、RBBP5 (RB binding protein 5) 和ASH2L (ASH2 Like) 形成复合物时, 其活性显著增强[153]。因此, 阻断MLL复合物之间的蛋白质—蛋白质相互作用, 已被视为抑制MLL甲基转移酶活性的一大策略。2020年, Chern等[154]模拟甲基转移酶SET结构域中的过渡态构型, 报道了一个核苷类MLL抑制剂TC-5115 (化合物48), 对于MLL1抑制作用较强(IC50 = 15.2 nmol·L-1), 该化合物直接作用于SET结构域, 诱导SET结构域打开而处于非活性状态。
SETD2 (SET domain containing 2, KMT3A) 属于含有SET结构域的PKMT, 负责催化组蛋白H3K36的甲基化过程。SETD2与p53依赖性基因的调控以及转录延伸和内含子—外显子剪接相关, 是一种肿瘤抑制因子[155-157]。SETD2突变经常在肾细胞癌[158, 159]和非小细胞肺癌中被发现[160]。2012年, Zheng等[161]基于Sinefungin的结构报道了核苷类似物Pr-SNF (化合物49), 相比于Sinefungin, 对处于激活的状态SETD2的抑制活性提升10倍, 但是对于当SAH存在时的非激活状态的SETD2 (Arg1670占据底物赖氨酸结合口袋) 没有抑制作用。Pr-SNF对其他的PKMT有2~200倍的选择性, 分析其原因是处于激活状态的SETD2包含两个位置良好的主链羰基(Arg1625和Tyr1604), 可与Pr-SNF形成氢键作用, 在其他的PKMT中该位置缺乏合适的氨基酸残基。
SMYD (SET and MYND domain-containing) 蛋白家族作为PKMT的一个亚家族, 包括SMYD1、SMYD2 (KMT3C)、SMYD3 (KMT3E)。其中SMYD1是发育过程中的重要因子[162], SMYD3是癌症的直接调节因子[163]。SMYD2通过组蛋白底物H3K36、H3K4和H4K20以及非组蛋白底物的甲基化来调节这些蛋白质的功能, 从而影响细胞增殖, 并不直接参与癌细胞的生存信号转导[164]
2018年, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center[165]基于Sinefungin结构, 披露了核苷类SMYD2抑制剂(化合物50), 其分子抑制活性较好(IC50 = 0.39 μmol·L-1), 但是在MCF-7细胞中抑制活性较弱(EC50 = 15 μmol·L-1)。考虑到化合物透膜性质较差, 采用了Trimethyl Lock的前药设计策略, 获得化合物51, 其在MDA-MB-231细胞中的抑制活性得到显著提升(EC50 < 0.5 μmol·L-1)。
2016年, GlaxoSmithKline公司解析了SAH、SMYD3和底物肽段复合物的晶体结构, 发现SAH的碱性侧链深入底物肽段的结合口袋, 经过一系列结构优化, 获得化合物GSK2807 (化合物52)[166]。GSK2807对SMYD3显示出较好的抑制活性(IC50 = 130 nmol·L-1), 对SMYD3的选择性优于SMYD2 (SMYD3: Ki = 14 nmol·L-1; SMYD2: Ki = 345 nmol·L-1) 和其他的甲基转移酶。在MOA (mechanism of action) 研究中显示GSK2807是SAM的竞争性抑制, 并不是底物竞争性抑制剂。
H3K27的甲基化是由高度保守的、多亚基蛋白复合物PRC2 (polycomb repressive complex 2) 催化进行的[167], PRC2复合物包括EZH1 (enhancer of zeste homologue 1, KMT6B)或EZH2 (enhancer of zeste homologue 2, KMT6A)、EED (embryonic ectoderm development)、SUZ12 (suppressor of zeste 12) 和RbAp46/48 (retinoblastoma-associated protein 46/48)。EZH1或EZH2作为PRC2的催化亚基[167-169], 其SET结构域有96%的序列相似性, 只是分布于不同的组织。EZH1主要分布于分化细胞和分裂细胞中, 而EZH2仅分布于分裂细胞群中[170, 171]。EZH1和EZH2单独作用无催化活性, 至少需要两个其他亚基(EED和SUZ12), 才能发挥催化作用[172-174]。EZH2中Y641的点突变在7%的滤泡性淋巴瘤和22%的生发中心B细胞和弥漫性大B细胞淋巴瘤中观察到[175]。EZH2过度表达和H3K27过度三甲基化与多种癌症有关[176, 177], EZH1和EZH2可以相互补偿, 都可以维持细胞增殖和抑制细胞分化以维持侵袭性MLL重排白血病的发展[178-180]。截至目前, 与小分子抑制剂相比, EZH1/2的核苷类抑制剂报道较少。2015年, Pfizer公司报道了一类SAH类似物作为EZH2抑制剂(化合物53)[181], 与野生型EZH2相比(IC50 = 270 nmol·L-1), 其对于Y641N突变的EZH2具有更强的抑制活性(IC50 = 70 nmol·L-1)。化合物53对于其他的PKMT具有较好的选择性, 尤其是EZH1 (IC50 = 6.4 μmol·L-1), 但是对于PRMT4有较强的抑制作用(IC50 = 30 nmol·L-1)。该化合物由于透膜性较差, 并没有表现出细胞活性。
DOT1L (disruptor of telomeric silencing 1-like, KMT4) 是唯一一个没有SET结构域的PKMT[182], 催化结构域类似于PRMTs和DNMTs的折叠拓扑构象[183]。DOT1L负责催化H3K79的单、双和三甲基化[182, 184], 与转录激活、DNA修复、胚胎发育、细胞周期调节、造血和心脏功能相关[185-187]。DOT1L与MLL重排(MLL-rearrangement, MLL-r) 白血病中最常见的MLL融合蛋白(AF4、AF9、AF10、AF6和ENL) 相互作用[188-192], 并被招募到它们的靶基因(HOXA9MEIS1)[186], 促进这些基因位点的甲基化, 增强其表达, 从而驱动MLL-r白血病的发生。因此, DOT1L作为治疗MLL-r白血病的潜在靶点受到越来越多的关注。截至目前, 大量的核苷类DOT1L抑制剂被报道, 如图 13所示, 根据结构的类型可分为以下几类: ① SAH类似物抑制剂; ②氨基甲酸酯类抑制剂; ③脲类抑制剂; ④苯并吡唑类抑制剂。下文将对以下四类结构分别进行阐述。
2011年, 美国贝勒医学院Yao等[193]发现SAM的腺嘌呤6位氨基与DOT1L仅形成一个氢键, 且附近有一个大的疏水空腔。然而, 与PRMTs形成两个氢键, 且与其他的PKMT作用模式完全不同。因此, 在腺嘌呤的6位氨基上引入甲基, 获得化合物54 (图 13), 与SAH (Ki = 0.16 μmol·L-1) 相比, 抑制活性基本保持(Ki = 0.29 μmol·L-1), 但是对于PRMTs (PRMT4和PRMT1) 和PKMTs (G9a和SUV39H1) 的选择性显著提升。2013年, 加拿大的多伦多大学Yu等[194]通过对激酶抑制剂进行筛选, 获得一个对DOT1L具有微弱抑制活性的化合物5ITC (化合物55, IC50 = 18.2 μmol·L-1), 随后基于SAH和5ITC的结构进行优化, 被溴原子取代(化合物56) 后具有更强的抑制活性(IC50 = 77 nmol·L-1) 和更高的选择性。晶体结构(PDB code: 3SX0) 表明, 溴原子占据了DOT1L中由疏水侧链形成的裂缝, 而在PRMTs中并不存在这样的疏水口袋。同时, 溴原子在DNMT1蛋白中可能与大体积的疏水氨基酸残基产生空间位阻, 这也解释了化合物Br-SAH对其他甲基转移酶具有较好选择性的原因[194]。2016年, 英国伦敦大学Spurr等[195]基于Br-SAH的结构, 用氰基取代溴原子设计了CN-SAH (化合物57), 活性和选择性得到进一步提升(IC50 = 13 nmol·L-1)。
与PRMT1抑制剂(AAI, 化合物15) 相类似, Yao等[193]也报道了基于共价修饰策略的抑制剂(化合物58), 其抑制活性得到显著提升(IC50 = 38 nmol·L-1), 对其他甲基转移酶有较好的选择性。为了进一步提升其选择性, 基于之前的研究成果, 在腺嘌呤6位氨基上引入取代基(化合物5960), 在保持活性的基础上(59: IC50 = 120 nmol·L-1; 60: IC50 = 110 nmol·L-1), 表现出更优异的选择性(>1 000倍)。
2012年, 美国贝勒医学院Anglin等[196]与Epizyme公司[197]几乎同时报道了氨基甲酸酯/脲类DOT1L抑制剂。Anglin等[196]为了降低SAH类似物的极性和电荷, 以提高核苷类化合物的生物利用度。在5′位引入一些亲脂性的保护基Boc (化合物61, Ki = 50 μmol·L-1) 和Cbz (化合物62, Ki = 46 μmol·L-1), 活性并未完全丧失。基于上述的氨基甲酸酯类化合物进行了多轮结构优化, 发现将氨基甲酸酯替换为脲基, 活性提升25~50倍。随后在脲基苯环的3、4位引入亲脂基团, 呋喃糖环5′位的胺基引入异丙基, 去除腺嘌呤6位氨基的取代基, 调节5′位N原子与脲基间的长度, 获得化合物63, 该化合物的抑制活性显著提升(Ki = 0.46 nmol·L-1), 对其他甲基转移酶有 > 4 500倍的选择性, 在MV4-11和THP1细胞中表现出显著的抗增殖活性(MV4-11: EC50 = 4.4 μmol·L-1; THP1: EC50 = 8.1 μmol·L-1)。研究显示, 该化合物可以与SAM/SAH竞争性结合, 但是和核小体不存在竞争关系, 推测可能是DOT1L与抑制剂结合之后, 蛋白构象发生改变, 能同时结合抑制剂和底物核小体。2013年, Deng等[198]考虑到腺苷代谢稳定性不佳的问题, 将四氢呋喃糖环修饰为环戊烷, 得到化合物64, 对于DOT1L的抑制活性得到保持(Ki = 1.1 nmol·L-1), 并且对于其他甲基转移酶拥有较好的选择性, 在MV4-11细胞中剂量依赖性地抑制H3K79的甲基化(IC50 = 200 nmol·L-1), 并且在血浆和肝微粒体中均表现稳定。
2012年, Epizyme公司最初为了优化SAM中高度极化的硫原子和氨基酸部分上的带电基团, 获得化合物EPZ000004 (化合物65), 仅有微弱的亲和力(Ki = 38 μmol·L-1)。随后探索SAM与底物结合口袋, 当引入异丙基之后(EPZ002446, 化合物66) 活性提升了约3倍(Ki = 12 μmol·L-1), 当继续延长5′位置的取代基, 意外发现连有Fmoc保护基的化合物67 (EPZ003144) 活性依然得到保持(Ki = 20 μmol·L-1), 考虑到氨基甲酸酯的不稳定性, 将之转化为脲基片段得到EPZ003647 (化合物68), 活性有了较为显著的提升(Ki = 845 nmol·L-1), 在优化liker长度之后, EPZ003696 (化合物69) 的活性又得到大幅度提升(Ki = 13 nmol·L-1), 叔丁基苯基脲通过改变Phe239、Tyr312、Met147和Leu143的侧链构象, 打开了一个新的疏水口袋。随后对腺嘌呤进行改造, 脱氮化合物EPZ004450 (化合物70) 活性又有所提升(Ki = 4 nmol·L-1), 最后将脱氮腺嘌呤和5′位的异丙基优势片段组合获得化合物EPZ004777 (化合物71), IC50值达到0.3 nmol·L-1。EPZ004777对于其他甲基转移酶均有 > 1 000倍以上的选择性, 有效地抑制细胞中H3K79的甲基化, 阻断MLL融合目标基因的表达, 选择性诱导MLL-r细胞的分化和凋亡, 达到了抑制肿瘤细胞增殖的效果, 在小鼠异种移植模型中表现出优异的药效[199]。美国Dana-Farber癌症研究院Yu等[200]从EPZ004777的结合模式发现, 7-脱氮腺嘌呤环的7位周围存在一个疏水性裂口, 因此在该位置引入溴原子(SGC0946, 化合物72), 与EPZ004777 (IC50 = 0.5 nmol·L-1) 相比, 对于DOT1L的抑制活性有所提升(IC50 = 0.3 nmol·L-1), 同时增强了对PRMT5的选择性, 更显著地降低了MCF10A细胞中H3K79的甲基化水平(SGC0946: IC50 = 8.8 nmol·L-1 vs EPZ004777: IC50 = 84 nmol·L-1)。该团队对7-脱氮腺嘌呤引入氯原子, 选用硫脲替换脲片段, 报道了结构类似的化合物73, 同样比EPZ004777具有更好的抑制活性, 并且能选择性地抑制H3K79的二甲基化过程[201]
2013年, Epizyme公司[202]基于EPZ004777进行进一步的结构优化获得苯并吡唑类化合物EPZ-5676 (化合物74)。EPZ-5676占据SAM口袋并诱导DOT1L构象变化, 从而导致超出SAM氨基酸部分的疏水袋打开, 这种结构重排产生了额外的相互作用表面, 有助于提高其亲和力和选择性。与EPZ004777相比, EPZ-5676具有更高的亲和力(Ki = 80 pmol·L-1), 对于其他的甲基转移酶拥有 > 37 000倍的选择性。在细胞研究中, EPZ-5676抑制H3K79甲基化和MLL融合靶基因表达, 并选择性地杀伤带有MLL基因易位的急性白血病细胞。在MLL-r白血病大鼠异种移植模型中连续静脉输注EPZ-5676, 可以使肿瘤完全消退, 在化合物输注结束后效果仍持续存在, 且没有明显毒性迹象。2019年1月, EPZ-5676在美国开展Ⅰ/Ⅱ期临床试验, 旨在评价与标准化疗手段联用治疗MLL重排AML的疗效[203], 但是在2022年11月该临床试验被终止。2020年3月, EPZ-5676开展了另一项Ⅰ/Ⅱ期临床试验[204], 以评估与阿扎胞苷联用治疗AML的疗效。
针对EPZ-5676的优异药效, 在结构公布之后有多家机构进行跟踪研究。2017年, Liu等[205]报道在呋喃糖环5′位引入甲基(化合物75), 抑制活性较好(IC50 = 6.34 nmol·L-1)。2019年, 上海药物研究所[206]披露一类在呋喃糖环2′位引入甲基的衍生物(化合物76), IC50值为0.1~100 nmol·L-1。同年, 广州盈升生物科技有限公司披露了两篇专利(化合物7778)[207, 208], 将四元环链修饰为螺[3.3]庚烷, 降低分子的柔性, 其中7-脱氮腺嘌呤的活性较好(IC50 = 6.53 nmol·L-1)。2022年, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research[209]将腺嘌呤碱基修饰为噻吩并嘧啶, 获得MC-21 (化合物79), 保持了较强的抑制活性(EC50 = 5.77 nmol·L-1)。2021年, 沈阳药科大学[210]将EPZ-5676中的异丙基修饰为吗啉烷基片段(化合物80), 对DOT1L抑制活性较好(IC50 = 6.7 nmol·L-1), 并在肿瘤移植瘤模型中显示较好的抑制活性。
RNA甲基转移酶(RNA methyltransferase, RNMT) 催化RNA的甲基化, 影响翻译、基因组稳定性和线粒体基因表达等过程, 参与细胞分化、应激反应和肿瘤发生等许多生物过程[8]。根据RNA修饰的碱基类型的不同, RNMT可以分为四类[211]: ①介导N6-甲基腺苷(N6-methyladenosine, m6A) 的甲基转移酶, 包括METTL3 (methyltransferase-like 3)、METTL14 (methyltransferase-like 14)、METTL16 (methyltransferase-like 16)、METTL5 (methyltransferase-like 5) 和ZCCHC4 (Zinc finger CCHC-type containing 4); ②介导N1-甲基腺苷(N1-methyladenosine, m1A) 的甲基转移酶, 包括TRMT10 (transfer RNA methyltransferase 10) 和TRM6/61 (transfer RNA methyltransferase non-catalytic subunit 6/61); ③介导N7-甲基鸟苷(7-methylguanosine, m7G) 的甲基转移酶, 包括METTL1 (methyltransferase-like 1)、WBSCR22 (Williams-Beuren syndrome chromosomal region 22 protein) 和RNMT (RNA guanine-7 methyltransferase); ④介导C5-甲基胞苷(5-methylcytosine, m5C) 的甲基转移酶, 包括NSUN (NOL1/NOP2/SUN domain family member) 1-7和DNMT2 (DNA methyltransferaselike 2)。腺嘌呤的1位和6位氮原子是真核生物中腺苷甲基化的常见位置。如图 14所示, m6A的机制表明, 腺嘌呤6位氨基在碱催化去质子后直接进攻SAM[212]。m1A的作用机制尚未确定, 主要有两种机制[213]。一方面, 在腺嘌呤6位氨基发生碱催化的去质子化, 随后1位氮原子通过嘧啶上的电子流进攻SAM。另一方面, 1位氮原子的孤对电子直接进攻SAM。m7G的作用机制与m1A类似[214], 而RNA的m5C修饰[215]与DNA的5mC修饰的机制类似。由于对RNMTs的生物学功能研究仍处于起步阶段, 抑制剂的报道也较为稀少, 下文将重点阐述METTL3和DNMT2的核苷类抑制剂的研究进展。
METTL3-METTL14复合物作为m6A修饰的关键甲基化酶, METTL3以SAM作为甲基供体, 为底物RNA甲基化提供催化场所, 而METTL14没有催化活性, 起到识别底物和稳定复合物的作用[216]。METTL3可以通过特定靶转录本的甲基化来调节胚胎发育、细胞重编程、精子产生、T细胞稳态以及内皮—造血转化(endothelial-to-hematopoietic transition, EHT)[217]。METTL3的异常表达会诱导各种类型肿瘤的发生发展[218]。在AML中, 转录因子CEBPZ (CCAAT enhancer binding protein zeta) 将METTL3稳定地募集至特定活性基因组的启动子, 导致相应mRNA的m6A甲基化以增加其翻译, 其中一个重要的靶点SP1 (specificity protein 1) 调节c-Myc表达[219, 220]。在常染色体显性遗传多囊肾病(autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease, ADPKD) 中, METTL3往往表现出高表达, 抑制METTL3则会减缓囊肿的生长[221]
2020年, Bedi等[222]筛选了近4 000个腺嘌呤类似物的化合物库, 发现一个核苷类化合物81, 其对METTL3有微弱的抑制活性(IC50 = 8.7 μmol·L-1), 从晶体结构(PDB code: 6TTT) 中发现, 化合物81 (图 15) 的腺嘌呤部分与SAM作用模式相同, 但是由于柔性尾部的影响, 结构解析并不完全。2022年, Wang等[223]通过虚拟筛选获得一个潜在的METTL3抑制剂Cpd-564 (化合物34), 与SAH相比, Cpd-564通过抑制TAB3 (TGF-β activated kinase 1 binding protein 3) 的m6A修饰, 并通过IGF2BP2 (insulin-like growth factor 2 binding protein 2) 依赖性机制降低TAB3的稳定性, 从而对顺铂和缺血/再灌注引起的肾脏损伤和炎症具有更好的保护作用。2021年, Accent公司披露了两类核苷类化合物, 化合物82[224]和化合物83[225]对METTL3具有高效的抑制活性(IC50 < 10 nmol·L-1), 对其他甲基化酶(PRMT5、METTL1和METTL16) 选择性较好, 在MOLM-13细胞中显著抑制m6A修饰(IC50 < 1 μmol·L-1)。同年, Storm公司也披露了两种核苷类似物[226], 化合物84和化合物85能显著抑制METTL3的活性(IC50 < 6 nmol·L-1), 有效地抑制Kasumi细胞和Caov3细胞的增殖(84: Kasumi IC50 = 1.6 μmol·L-1/Caov3 IC50 = 0.95 μmol·L-1; 85: Kasumi IC50 = 0.4 μmol·L-1/Caov3 IC50 = 0.25 μmol·L-1)。
DNMT2是DNMTs的成员, 催化结构域与其他的DNMT相似[227]。但是, 与DNMT1和DNMT3相比, DNMT2主要存在于细胞质中, 因此缺乏DNA甲基化酶的特征, DNMT2主要功能是催化tRNAAsp的反密码子环中第38位胞嘧啶的甲基化[228]。DNMT2对tRNA的甲基化可防止核糖核酸酶介导的tRNA裂解[229], 从而调节RNA稳定性并提高蛋白质的合成率[230]。DNMT2在多种癌症组织中过度表达, 如宫颈癌和膀胱癌[231]。2022年, Schwickert等[232]基于SAH的结构, 兼顾氮原子在特定的pH下可被质子化的特性, 将硫原子替换为氮原子(化合物86, 图 16), 从而降低分子带电荷量。对呋喃糖环5′位氮原子的两个取代基进行分别探索, 获得化合物87, 具有中等的抑制活性(KD = 8.1 μmol·L-1), 对其他的m5C甲基转移酶(NSUN2和NSUN6) 具有选择性, 但对于DNMT3A和G9a缺乏选择性。从预测的结合模式来看, 分子的Y型分叉结构对于活性至关重要, 亲脂性的炔基能占据一个疏水口袋(Cyt-site), 去除在该口袋中不利的水分子。由于化合物87的透膜性质较差导致缺乏细胞活性, 即使在羧基上引入乙酯制备成前药, 也会被快速降解。2023年, 该团队[233]对炔基部分替换为苯基取代基进行进一步的结构优化, 发现当引入缺电子的苯环时, 尤其是苯环上有易离去的取代基(化合物88), 其活性有所提升(KD = 4.9 μmol·L-1), 对于NSUN2和NSUN6依然保持较好的选择性。蛋白质质谱显示, 化合物88与能疏水口袋中的Cys79形成共价键(图 16B)。
SAM作为体内仅次于ATP的第二普遍的辅助因子, 在生命活动中扮演着十分重要的角色。通过调控SAM依赖性甲基转移酶的活性, 以调节DNA、RNA、蛋白质以及体内代谢小分子的结构与功能, 从而影响各种生理功能和疾病的发生发展。开发SAM依赖性甲基转移酶的调节剂, 对于相关疾病的诊断与治疗具有重要的意义。截至目前, 在核苷类甲基转移酶抑制剂中, 有两款药物(阿扎胞苷和地西他滨) 作为抗肿瘤药物已经成功上市, 7款药物(guadecitabine、FdCyd、RX3117、NTX-301、PF-06939999、JNJ64619178和EPZ-5676) 进入临床研究阶段, 虽然有个别的临床试验被终止, 但是大多数药物在临床疗效上表现优秀, 同时大量的临床前化合物也不断被报道, 开发核苷类甲基转移酶抑制剂逐渐成为热门研究领域。
已报道的核苷类抑制剂大多是以SAM/SAH的结构为模板进行修饰, 天然的核苷化合物在结构上有几点不足: ①分子中带有电荷与极性基团, 造成分子的细胞渗透性不佳, 生物利用度较低; ②天然核苷的糖苷键对于酸碱环境或者水解酶不稳定, 进入体内容易被代谢; ③由于SAM/SAH是甲基转移酶的非特异性底物, 在结构优化过程中, 提高对于特定靶点的选择性是一个难点。针对以上的不足, 本文对以往的策略进行了详细的叙述: ①针对化合物细胞渗透性不佳的问题, 可采用减少酸碱性基团和带电基团, 在极性基团上引入亲脂性片段等手段; ②针对化合物稳定性的问题, 可对糖苷键进行修饰, 如用碳环或含硫糖环取代呋喃糖环; 对糖环进行甲基、氟原子的取代以改变糖环的构象; 对碱基的片段进行氟代或采用电子等排策略替换, 以封闭代谢软点; ③针对选择性差的问题, 以组蛋白甲基转移酶为例, 设计同时占据SAM结合位点和底物结合位点的化合物, 根据底物的多样性, 设计多样性的片段以适应不同的底物结合位点, 或者修饰碱基片段引入其他基团, 探索特有的结合口袋, 从而提升对其他甲基转移酶的选择性。
未来以SAM/SAH的结构为模板设计核苷类甲基转移酶抑制剂有以下可供考虑的方向: ①如本文提及的PRMT1抑制剂(化合物15)、PRMT5抑制剂(化合物25)、DOTL1抑制剂(化合物58) 和DNMT2抑制剂(化合物88), 针对特有的氨基酸残基, 开发共价抑制剂一方面可以提高其抑制活性, 另一方面也可以提高对其他甲基转移酶的选择性; ②开发基于核苷抑制剂的PROTAC蛋白降解技术, 有望调控蛋白的非催化功能, 最近在DOT1L抑制剂的研发中也被采用[234-236]; ③对核苷类化合物进行合理的设计, 探索蛋白独特的作用模式。如本文提及的PRMT5抑制剂(化合物21), DOT1L抑制剂(化合物56)和DNMT2抑制剂(化合物87), 当甲基转移酶抑制剂与蛋白结构后, 会诱导相关氨基酸残基的构象的改变, 从而产生全新的作用模式, 同样能达到提升活性和选择性的目的; ④对生物利用度低的核苷类抑制剂采用前药策略, 可以提升其细胞渗透性, 如本文提及的Trimethyl Lock前药策略, 新冠口服药民得维的三异丁酸酯前药策略[237]等。总之, 基于SAM/SAH的结构进行修饰和优化, 是开发核苷类SAM依赖性甲基转移酶抑制剂的一大重要的策略, 未来将会有更多的高活性、高选择性以及代谢性质优良的核苷化合物进入临床试验, 最终上市造福患者。
作者贡献:
张俊杰负责文献调研、全文撰写与图表绘制; 刘同超负责论文修改与校对工作; 熊兵负责综述选题、框架组织、论文修改等工作。
利益冲突: 所有作者均声明不存在利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(82204187)
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(82173658)
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(81773572)
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2024年第59卷第5期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-1406
  • 接收时间:2023-12-17
  • 首发时间:2025-11-27
  • 出版时间:2024-05-12
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  • 收稿日期:2023-12-17
  • 修回日期:2024-03-06
基金
国家自然科学基金资助项目(82204187)
国家自然科学基金资助项目(82173658)
国家自然科学基金资助项目(81773572)
作者信息
    1.中国科学院上海药物研究所, 上海 201203
    2.中国科学院大学, 北京 100049

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*刘同超, Tel: 86-21-68077888, E-mail: ;
熊兵, Tel: 13661970096, E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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