Article(id=1200394148382626217, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1200394147019477416, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0406, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1714147200000, receivedDateStr=2024-04-27, revisedDate=1715875200000, revisedDateStr=2024-05-17, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1764125867219, onlineDateStr=2025-11-26, pubDate=1720713600000, pubDateStr=2024-07-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1764125867219, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-26, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1764125867219, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764125867219, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1200394147019477416, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2024', volume='59', issue='7', pageStart='1897', pageEnd='2182', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1764125866894, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764225115484, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1200810425920115296, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1200394147019477416, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1200810425920115297, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1200394147019477416, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=2020, endPage=2029, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1200394148747530669, articleId=1200394148382626217, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Cathepsin A maintains the characteristics of tumor stem cells and promotes the occurrence and development of triple-negative breast cancer, columnId=1190335348761793317, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Original Articles, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a subtype of breast cancer known for the poor prognosis due to its strong invasiveness, high recurrence rate, and lack of effective treatment. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find targeted therapy for TNBC. Cathepsin A (CTSA) is an acidic serine carboxypeptidase that is highly expressed in various tumor tissues. However, the role and molecular mechanism of CTSA in TNBC are still unclear. This study found that the expression of CTSA was upregulated, and the high expression of CTSA was positively correlated with the poor prognosis of TNBC. The results further showed that knocking down CTSA inhibited the proliferation, invasion, and colony formation of TNBC cells, improved drug sensitivity of cells, and inhibited the progression of TNBC. Mechanistically, CTSA inhibited the ubiquitination and degradation of the promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) protein by blocking the interaction between PML and its E3 ubiquitin ligase RNF4, thus maintaining the stability of PML nuclear bodies (PML-NBs). The inhibitor of CTSA had a positive therapeutic effect on inhibiting the characteristics of TNBC stem cells. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that inhibiting CTSA to decrease the stability of PML protein may be a promising therapeutic strategy for TNBC. All animal experiments in this experiment were approved by the Ethics Committee of Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College (approval number: IMB-20240326D502).

, correspAuthors=Ke LI, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2024 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Jie WU, Ting-ting ZHANG, Ke LI), CN=ArticleExt(id=1200394150014210499, articleId=1200394148382626217, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=组织蛋白酶A维持肿瘤干细胞性状促进三阴性乳腺癌发生发展, columnId=1190335348896011050, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=研究论文, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

三阴性乳腺癌(triple-negative breast cancer, TNBC) 侵袭性强、复发率高且缺乏有效的治疗方法, 是预后最差的乳腺癌亚型, 因此寻找针对TNBC的有效靶向疗法成为当务之急。组织蛋白酶A (cathepsin A, CTSA) 是一种酸性丝氨酸羧肽酶, 在多种肿瘤组织中高表达, 但是CTSA在TNBC中的作用及机制尚不明确。本研究发现CTSA在TNBC中表达上调, 高表达的CTSA与TNBC患者不良预后呈现正相关。实验结果进一步显示, 敲低CTSA抑制TNBC细胞的增殖、侵袭和克隆形成能力, 提高其药物敏感性, 抑制TNBC疾病进展。机制研究表明, CTSA通过阻碍早幼粒细胞白血病蛋白(promyelocytic leukemia protein, PML) 与其E3泛素连接酶RNF4相互作用, 抑制PML蛋白泛素化和降解, 进而维持PML核小体(PML nuclear bodies, PML-NBs) 结构稳定性。体外结果显示, CTSA抑制剂具有抑制TNBC干细胞性状的治疗效果。综上, 本研究表明抑制CTSA促进PML的降解可能作为TNBC的潜在治疗策略。本实验所有动物实验获得中国医学科学院医药生物技术研究所伦理委员会批准(批准号: IMB-20240326D502)。

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*李珂, E-mail:
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A: Immunohistochemistry (IHC) analysis revealed the expression of CTSA in the tumor tissue and normal tissue of breast cancer (BC) patients (<i>n</i> = 30). Scale bar, 40 µm; B: The GEPIA database showed expression of CTSA in normal and different subtypes of BC patients; C: Western blot validation of CTSA expression in different subtypes of BC cells; D-G: Kaplan-Meier survival curves stratified by CTSA expression were generated for different subtypes of BC patients. In A, statistical significance between two groups was determined with two-tailed student's <i>t</i> test. In B and C, statistical significance among groups was determined by one-way ANOVA. In D to G, statistical significance was determined with log-rank test. Mean ± SEM. <sup>*</sup><i>P</i> < 0.05 <sup>****</sup><i>P</i> < 0.000 1 , figureFileSmall=L3AwNHS+SJOabw2Q5VKHMg==, figureFileBig=Z8kuWTxlNWCKE1reb2XTAg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1200470893785895740, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200394148382626217, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=82BrW657PwJkILDrMbLwRg==, figureFileBig=xmC4IonC7g/3VTne9Rwj4A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1200470894045942599, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200394148382626217, language=CN, label=Figure 2, caption= <i>CTSA</i> promotes development and progression of TNBC by supporting cancer stem cell traits. A: The relative viability of MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 cells was measured by a CCK-8 assay at the indicated times (<i>n</i> = 4); B: Representative images and quantification of the invasion assay results for MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 cells transduced with <i>shNTC</i>, <i>shCTSA1</i>, and <i>shCTSA2</i> are shown. Scale bar, 40 μm; C: Quantification of tumor spheres formed by MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 cells with <i>shNTC</i> and <i>shCTSA</i>; D, E: The effect of <i>shCTSA</i> on Taxol and doxorubicin (Dox) sensitivity in MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 cells. The data are a summary of the IC<sub>50</sub> values for Taxol and Dox in the <i>shCTSA</i> cell lines (<i>n</i> = 4); F: Effects of CTSA on tumor formation from transplanted MDA-MB-231 and MDA-MB-468 cells with <i>shNTC</i> and <i>shCTSA</i> in nude mice were examined (<i>n</i> = 6). Images of tumors are provided; G, H: Effects of <i>CTSA</i> deletion on tumor growth (G) and weight (H) in nude mice; I: 5-Ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EDU) in tumor were evaluated by immunofluorescence analysis (IF). Scale bar, 30 μm; J: IHC analysis revealed the expression of MMP-9 in the <i>shNTC</i> and <i>shCTSA</i> tumor tissue. Scale bar, 40 µm; K: Effects of CTSA on the tumor incidence. In A to E, statistical significance among groups was determined by one-way ANOVA. In F to J, statistical significance between two groups was determined by two-tailed student's <i>t</i> test. In K, the <i>P</i> value was obtained by Pearson's <i>χ</i><sup>2</sup> test using extreme limiting dilution analysis (ELDA) software. Mean ± SEM. <sup>***</sup><i>P</i> < 0.001, <sup>****</sup><i>P</i> < 0.000 1 , figureFileSmall=82BrW657PwJkILDrMbLwRg==, figureFileBig=xmC4IonC7g/3VTne9Rwj4A==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1200470894234686291, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200394148382626217, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=WE+XWA48ZSkVZB36/AzuKA==, figureFileBig=grhKHNmAaodYjEHnK4f90w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1200470894364709730, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200394148382626217, language=CN, label=Figure 3, caption= CTSA maintains protein stability by blocking RNF4-mediated ubiquitination degradation of PML. A: Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was performed to identify the pathways of CTSA target genes. All gene sets showed a positive normalized enrichment score (NES) and false discovery rate (FDR) <i>q</i>-values of less than 0.25; B: The mRNA levels of <i>CTSA</i> and <i>PML</i> were analyzed by reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) in <i>shCTSA</i> and <i>shNTC</i> MDA-MB-231 cells; C: Western blot validation of CTSA, PML, HIF-1<i>α</i>, and MYC expression in <i>shCTSA</i>, and <i>shNTC</i> MDA-MB-231 cells; D: The effect of CTSA on PML ubiquitylation <i>in vivo</i> was assessed in HEK 293T cells; E: Effect of CTSA on PML degradation was investigated in HEK 293T cells treated with cycloheximide (CHX, 10 μg·mL<sup>-1</sup>). The PML relative quantification is shown; F, G: The interaction between CTSA and PML in HEK 293T cells (F) and MDA-MB-231 cells (G) was evaluated with CO-IP assay; H: PML-NBs in MDA-MB-231 cells was evaluated by IF. Scale bar, 5 μm; I: The interaction of RNF4 and PML was evaluated with CO-IP assay; J: The effect of CTSA and RNF4 on PML ubiquitylation <i>in vivo</i>; K: Effect of CTSA and RNF4 on PML degradation in HEK 293T cells tread with CHX (10 μg·mL<sup>-1</sup>). The PML relative quantification is shown. In A and E, statistical significance among groups was determined by one-way ANOVA. In F to H, Statistical significance between two groups was determined by two-tailed student's <i>t</i> test. In B, C, H, and K, statistical significance among groups was determined by one-way ANOVA. Mean ± SEM. <sup>*</sup><i>P</i> < 0.05, <sup>**</sup><i>P</i> < 0.01, <sup>***</sup><i>P</i> < 0.001, <sup>****</sup><i>P</i> < 0.000 1 , figureFileSmall=WE+XWA48ZSkVZB36/AzuKA==, figureFileBig=grhKHNmAaodYjEHnK4f90w==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1200470894507316077, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200394148382626217, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=k01ibD/sK0O9eqqGtWiVEw==, figureFileBig=Ls9nemy29X/Pq7P4oES2eg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1200470894607979384, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1200394148382626217, language=CN, label=Figure 4, caption= Effect of lactacystin and As<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> on the expression of PML and cancer stem cell traits of TNBC cells. A, B: Western blot validation of CTSA and PML expression by lactacystin with different concentrations (A) and time (B); C: Western blot validation of CTSA, PML, HIF-1<i>α</i>, and MYC expression by As<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (5 µmol·L<sup>-1</sup>) and lactacystin (10 µmol·L<sup>-1</sup>); D: PML-NBs in MDA-MB-231 cells was evaluated by IF analysis, scale bar, 5 μm; E: Relative viability of MDA-MB-231 cells with As<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (5 µmol·L<sup>-1</sup>) and lactacystin (10 µmol·L<sup>-1</sup>) was measured by a CCK-8 assay at different time; F: Representative images and quantification of the invasion assay results for MDA-MB-231 cells treated with As<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (5 µmol·L<sup>-1</sup>) and lactacystin (10 µmol·L<sup>-1</sup>); G: Quantification of tumorspheres treated with As<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (5 µmol·L<sup>-1</sup>) and lactacystin (10 µmol·L<sup>-1</sup>). Scale bar, 40 μm. In A to G, statistical significance among groups was determined by one-way ANOVA. 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组织蛋白酶A维持肿瘤干细胞性状促进三阴性乳腺癌发生发展
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吴洁 , 张婷婷 , 李珂 *
药学学报 | 研究论文 2024,59(7): 2020-2029
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药学学报 | 研究论文 2024, 59(7): 2020-2029
组织蛋白酶A维持肿瘤干细胞性状促进三阴性乳腺癌发生发展
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吴洁, 张婷婷, 李珂*
作者信息
  • 中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院医药生物技术研究所, 北京 100050

通讯作者:

*李珂, E-mail:
Cathepsin A maintains the characteristics of tumor stem cells and promotes the occurrence and development of triple-negative breast cancer
Jie WU, Ting-ting ZHANG, Ke LI*
Affiliations
  • Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
出版时间: 2024-07-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0406
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三阴性乳腺癌(triple-negative breast cancer, TNBC) 侵袭性强、复发率高且缺乏有效的治疗方法, 是预后最差的乳腺癌亚型, 因此寻找针对TNBC的有效靶向疗法成为当务之急。组织蛋白酶A (cathepsin A, CTSA) 是一种酸性丝氨酸羧肽酶, 在多种肿瘤组织中高表达, 但是CTSA在TNBC中的作用及机制尚不明确。本研究发现CTSA在TNBC中表达上调, 高表达的CTSA与TNBC患者不良预后呈现正相关。实验结果进一步显示, 敲低CTSA抑制TNBC细胞的增殖、侵袭和克隆形成能力, 提高其药物敏感性, 抑制TNBC疾病进展。机制研究表明, CTSA通过阻碍早幼粒细胞白血病蛋白(promyelocytic leukemia protein, PML) 与其E3泛素连接酶RNF4相互作用, 抑制PML蛋白泛素化和降解, 进而维持PML核小体(PML nuclear bodies, PML-NBs) 结构稳定性。体外结果显示, CTSA抑制剂具有抑制TNBC干细胞性状的治疗效果。综上, 本研究表明抑制CTSA促进PML的降解可能作为TNBC的潜在治疗策略。本实验所有动物实验获得中国医学科学院医药生物技术研究所伦理委员会批准(批准号: IMB-20240326D502)。

三阴性乳腺癌  /  组织蛋白酶A  /  PML-NBs  /  肿瘤干细胞  /  泛素化

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a subtype of breast cancer known for the poor prognosis due to its strong invasiveness, high recurrence rate, and lack of effective treatment. Therefore, there is an urgent need to find targeted therapy for TNBC. Cathepsin A (CTSA) is an acidic serine carboxypeptidase that is highly expressed in various tumor tissues. However, the role and molecular mechanism of CTSA in TNBC are still unclear. This study found that the expression of CTSA was upregulated, and the high expression of CTSA was positively correlated with the poor prognosis of TNBC. The results further showed that knocking down CTSA inhibited the proliferation, invasion, and colony formation of TNBC cells, improved drug sensitivity of cells, and inhibited the progression of TNBC. Mechanistically, CTSA inhibited the ubiquitination and degradation of the promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) protein by blocking the interaction between PML and its E3 ubiquitin ligase RNF4, thus maintaining the stability of PML nuclear bodies (PML-NBs). The inhibitor of CTSA had a positive therapeutic effect on inhibiting the characteristics of TNBC stem cells. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that inhibiting CTSA to decrease the stability of PML protein may be a promising therapeutic strategy for TNBC. All animal experiments in this experiment were approved by the Ethics Committee of Institute of Medicinal Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College (approval number: IMB-20240326D502).

triple-negative breast cancer  /  cathepsin A  /  PML-NBs  /  cancer stem cell  /  ubiquitination
吴洁, 张婷婷, 李珂. 组织蛋白酶A维持肿瘤干细胞性状促进三阴性乳腺癌发生发展. 药学学报, 2024 , 59 (7) : 2020 -2029 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0406
Jie WU, Ting-ting ZHANG, Ke LI. Cathepsin A maintains the characteristics of tumor stem cells and promotes the occurrence and development of triple-negative breast cancer[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2024 , 59 (7) : 2020 -2029 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0406
乳腺癌(breast cancer, BC) 作为一种高度异质性的恶性肿瘤, 是全球女性癌症相关死亡的主要原因[1]。临床上根据雌激素受体(ER)、孕激素受体(PR) 和人表皮生长因子受体2 (HER2) 的表达状态对乳腺癌进行分类, 以指导治疗决策[2]。其中, 三阴性乳腺癌(triple-negative breast cancer, TNBC) 因3种激素受体皆为阴性而无法使用内分泌和抗HER2治疗[3]。常规的细胞毒性化疗仍然是TNBC唯一可用的治疗方法, 并且大部分TNBC患者会产生耐药性而导致治疗失败[4]。由于侵袭性强、复发率较高且缺乏针对性的治疗方法, TNBC患者的预后较其他亚型患者更差[3, 5, 6]。因此, 深入研究TNBC发病机制并进一步发现潜在治疗靶点迫在眉睫。
组织蛋白酶, 即溶酶体蛋白水解酶, 是存在于大多数动物组织中的细胞内肽键水解酶[7]。人体中存在11种组织蛋白酶, 其中组织蛋白酶A (cathepsin A, CTSA) 是一种酸性丝氨酸羧肽酶, 对脱酰胺酶、酯酶和羧肽酶具有独特的水解活性[8]。CTSA在肿瘤和其他疾病中异常表达[9-11]。一方面, CTSA通过与溶酶体糖苷酶形成多酶复合物维持糖苷酶活性, 其缺失将导致半乳糖贮积症[12]。另一方面, CTSA也可以直接降解内皮素调节血管张力, 其缺失或者低表达会提高高血压的患病风险[13]。目前, 越来越多的研究表明CTSA在恶性肿瘤中发挥重要作用。在肝癌中, 血清中的CTSA可以作为肝病诊断指标物, 并且CTSA高表达与肝癌患者的不良预后相关[14]。过表达CTSA促进前列腺癌细胞的生长、迁移和侵袭[15]。相比于正常的乳腺组织, 乳腺肿瘤组织中的CTSA高表达, 且其高表达与乳腺癌导管原位癌患者的不良预后相关[16]。以上结果提示, CTSA与乳腺癌发生发展存在相关性, 但其具体机制并不明确。
早幼粒细胞白血病蛋白(promyelocytic leukemia protein, PML) 于1957年首次在患有急性早幼粒细胞白血病(acute promyelocytic leukemia, APL) 患者中发现[17]。PML蛋白通过RBCC区域募集120多种伙伴蛋白, 促使伙伴蛋白发生多种翻译后修饰, 进而调节细胞分化、增殖、凋亡、病毒感染、衰老、DNA修复、RNA转运等多种生命活动[18-22]。长期以来PML被认为是肿瘤抑制因子, 其抑制活性在肺癌、结直肠癌、前列腺癌和膀胱癌等多种癌症类型中得到证实[23]。PML通过调节细胞周期、细胞凋亡、衰老、迁移、血管生成和DNA修复途径发挥其肿瘤抑制功能[24]。然而, 近期研究发现PML在TNBC、慢性粒细胞白血病及胶质母细胞瘤中高表达, 并且促进肿瘤的发生发展[25-27]。在TNBC中, PML通过调控缺氧诱导因子HIF-1α活性和干性基因SOX9表达驱动TNBC生长和转移[28, 29]。因此, 靶向PML并探索其表达调控的具体机制, 可能为PML高表达的乳腺癌等疾病带来新的治疗选择。
首先, 本研究通过数据库和蛋白免疫印迹实验检测CTSA在不同乳腺癌亚型中的表达以及CTSA和不同乳腺癌亚型患者预后的关系, 提示CTSA可能在TNBC发生发展中发挥调节作用。随后通过体外增殖、侵袭、成球、半数抑制浓度检测实验、体内皮下模型和有限稀释实验检测CTSA对于TNBC的调控作用, 结果发现CTSA通过维持TNBC细胞干性和生长能力促进TNBC发生发展。机制上, 本研究通过基因集富集分析(gene set enrichment analysis, GSEA)、实时荧光定量PCR、蛋白免疫印迹实验、免疫共沉淀和激光共聚焦实验解析CTSA通过影响E3泛素连接酶RNF4与PML的相互作用, 抑制PML泛素化和降解, 维持PML核小体(PML nuclear bodies, PML-NBs) 结构稳定性, 进而促进TNBC的发生发展。最后, 本研究以PML的抑制剂作为对照检测CTSA抑制剂对PML表达、细胞增殖、侵袭、成球的作用, 进一步证明CTSA通过PML蛋白及其下游信号分子促进TNBC的发生发展。本研究不仅表明CTSA是TNBC的潜在治疗靶点, 并为其治疗提供潜在的理论基础和治疗策略。
细胞  MDA-MB-231、MDA-MB-468和HEK293T购自中国医学科学院基础医学研究所细胞资源中心。
质粒  PLVX-shRNA2 vector购自Clontech公司; CTSA-shRNA vector为实验室构建; UB-HA质粒购自Sino Biological公司。
试剂及仪器  紫杉醇(HY-B0015-33770)、盐酸多柔比星(HY-15142-251055) 和lactacystin (HY-16594-149751) 购自MedChemExpress; As2O3 (BCBL4498V) 购自Sigma-Aldrich; CCK-8 (T005-00000005) 购自上海陶术生物科技有限公司; 纤维连接蛋白(354008) 购自康宁公司; CTSA antibody (GR80644-1) 购自Abcam公司; PML protein antibody (D115252-1) 购自Novus Biologicals公司; PMSF (#8553S) 购自Cell Signaling Technology公司; DMEM/F12 (11320033)、B27 (17504044)、基本成纤维细胞生长因子(basic fibroblast growth factor, bFGF)(100-18B-1MG)、表皮细胞生长因子(epidermal growth factor, EGF)(AF-100-15-1MG) 和FBS (30067334) 购自Gibco公司; 兔二步法检测试剂盒(PV-6001) 购自北京中杉金桥生物技术有限公司; RNA快速提取试剂盒(RN001-50Rxns) 购自ES Science公司; SYBR qPCR SuperMix Plus试剂盒(E096-01A) 和NovoScript®Plus All-in-one 1st Strand cDNA Synthesis SuperMix反转录试剂盒(E047-01A) 购自苏州近岸蛋白质科技股份有限公司; 蛋白酶抑制剂(539134)、24孔悬挂式细胞培养小室(PTHT24H48) 和RIPA裂解液(20-188) 购自德国Merck Millipore公司; 实验相关qPCR引物序列(CTSAPMLGAPDH) 来源于Origene官网; DYY-7C型电泳仪购自北京六一生物技术有限公司; 电泳仪及湿转系统购自美国Bio-Rad公司; Tanon 5200全自动化学发光图像分析系统购自上海天能生命科学有限公司; ABI 7500 Fast实时荧光定量PCR仪购自美国ABI公司; CKX41倒置显微镜、CX33显微镜购自日本Olympus公司。
病毒包装  将慢病毒骨架蛋白5.4 μg pMD2.G、2.7 μg psPAX2以及10.6 μg目标质粒加入至无血清DMEM培养基, 再加入153 µL PEI转染试剂并温和混匀, 静置10 min, 将其均匀地添加到接种有Lenti-X 293T细胞的15 cm细胞培养皿中, 培养48 h后, 收集上清, 加入6×病毒浓缩试剂, 4 ℃过夜静置, 次日3 500 ×g, 4 ℃离心25 min, 按照原体积的1/50加入完全培养基重悬沉淀, 分装置于-80 ℃备用。
免疫组化实验(immunohistochemistry, IHC)  将患者组织石蜡切片(临床伦理批号: AZLL022020018200116) 放于56 ℃烘箱中过夜后, 浸泡在二甲苯中30 min, 随后依次在100%、95%、90%、85%、80%、75%乙醇中静置3 min; 依次经过抗原修复20 min, 0.5% Triton X-100透化20 min, 过氧化氢阻断10 min, 3% BSA封闭液室温孵育30 min; 滴加一抗4 ℃孵育过夜, PBS润洗3次; 滴加二抗, 室温孵育2 h, PBS润洗3次; 滴加DAB, 室温孵育15 min, PBS冲洗; 苏木素室温孵育2 min, 盐酸酒精冲洗, 流水返蓝1 h; 脱水后中性树脂封片, 最后使用显微镜拍摄。
半数抑制浓度检测  细胞计数并接种至96孔板; 紫杉醇和盐酸多柔比星分别从1和100 μmol·L-1开始等比梯度稀释10个浓度, 每组4个复孔; 24 h后, 每孔加入10 μL CCK-8试剂, 37 ℃细胞培养箱内孵育2 h, 在酶标仪450 nm下测定光密度, 用GraphPad Prism 6.0计算半数抑制浓度(half-maximal inhibitory concentration, IC50)。
增殖实验  细胞计数后以每孔3 000个细胞铺入96孔板, 每天在6个孔中加入10 μL CCK-8试剂, 37 ℃细胞培养箱内孵育2 h, 在酶标仪450 nm下测定光密度, 连续测量5天。
蛋白免疫印迹实验  收集细胞, RIPA裂解液提取蛋白, BCA法进行蛋白定量, 加入5×loading, 98 ℃变性10 min, SDS-PAGE电泳后进行湿转, 5% BSA封闭液室温封闭1 h; 一抗4 ℃孵育过夜, 次日TBST洗涤3次, 每次10 min; 二抗室温孵育2 h, TBST洗涤3次, 每次10 min; 1∶1混合ECL发光液后使用Tanon发光成像系统进行曝光及图像采集。
实时荧光定量PCR (quantitative real-time PCR, qPCR)  采用RNA快速提取试剂盒提取总RNA进行定量; 根据NovoScript®Plus All-in-one 1st Strand cDNA Synthesis SuperMix说明书进行逆转录反应; 根据NovoStart SYBR Qpcr SuperMix Plus说明书进行qPCR反应。
乳腺癌原位模型  雌性BALB/c-nu小鼠, SPF级别, 20 ± 0.2 g, 6~8周龄, 购自北京华阜康生物科技股份有限公司[许可证号: SCXK (京) 2020-0004]。乳腺癌原位模型制备方法: 将感染shNTCshCTSA的MDA-MB-231细胞分别接种于小鼠的第四乳腺, 每只小鼠接种1×107个细胞, 期间量瘤计数, 23天后取材[30]。本研究动物实验在中国医学科学院医药生物技术研究所进行, 经中国医学科学院医药生物技术研究所伦理审查委员会批准(动物伦理批号为IMB-20240326D502)。
克隆形成实验  将MDA-MB-231细胞铺在低吸附的96孔板上, 共7组, 组别为对照组1、加shCTSA1病毒、加shCTSA2病毒; 对照组2、5 µmol·L-1 As2O3、10 µmol·L-1 lactacystin、5 µmol·L-1 As2O3 + 10 µmol·L-1 lactacystin, 每组3个复孔, 每孔500个细胞和100 μL培基, 培养基为DMEM/F12, B27 (50×), 20 ng·mL-1 bFGF, 20 ng·mL-1 EGF; 在37 ℃、5% CO2条件下培养10天, 利用显微镜观察细胞球的形态和成长情况[31]
侵袭实验  将10 μg mL-1纤维连接蛋白均匀铺于24孔悬挂式细胞培养小室外侧, 吹干, 将细胞接种于上室, 每孔8×104个细胞, 下室加入600 μL完全培养基, 药物处理12 h后, 对迁移细胞进行染色和计数。
有限稀释实验(limiting dilution assay, LDA)  雌性BALB/c-nu小鼠, SPF级别, 20 ± 0.2 g, 6~8周龄, 购自北京华阜康生物科技股份有限公司[许可证号: SCXK (京) 2020-0004]。将shNTCshCTSA的MDA-MB-231细胞计数后梯度接种于小鼠的第四乳腺, 梯度为2×107、1×107、5×106、1×106个细胞/只, 期间统计不同组别不同梯度的成瘤率[32]
免疫共沉淀实验(co-immunoprecipitation, Co-IP)  冰上收集细胞, 每皿细胞加入0.5 mL裂解液(预先加入蛋白酶抑制剂与PMSF), 冰上孵育30 min后, 12 000 r·min-1、4 ℃离心30 min, 吸取上清, 取40 μL留作Input, 加入10 µL 5×loading, 98 ℃变性10 min; 剩余上清加入5 μL抗体, 4 ℃缓慢旋转过夜。次日, 加入抗体偶联的磁珠, 在磁力架上用清洗液清洗5遍, 小心吸除上清, 加入30 μL 2×loading, 98 ℃变性10 min; 随后使用蛋白免疫印迹检测与目标蛋白相互作用的蛋白质。
统计学分析  本课题中所有实验数据均采用SPSS软件进行统计分析。两组间参数对差异比较采用非配对Student's t检验; 两组以上参数之间的差异采用单因素方差分析(one way ANOVA) 进行比较。所有数据均采用平均值(mean) ±均值标准误(standard error of mean, SEM) 表示。
本研究首先通过免疫组化对乳腺癌患者肿瘤和癌旁组织染色, 结果显示, 相比于正常组织, 肿瘤组织中CTSA蛋白表达水平显著升高(图 1A)。随后在基因表达谱交互式分析平台(gene expression profiling interaction analysis, GEPIA) 分析不同乳腺癌亚型患者中CTSA的表达, 结果发现HER2+和TNBC患者中CTSA高表达(图 1B)。蛋白免疫印迹实验显示, 相比于正常乳腺上皮细胞和激素受体阳性(luminal) 型乳腺癌细胞株, CTSA在TNBC和HER2+细胞中蛋白水平较高(图 1C)。同时利用Kaplan-Meier Plotter分析CTSA和不同乳腺癌亚型患者生存时间的关系, 发现CTSA和TNBC患者不良预后呈正相关, 但是与其他亚型乳腺癌患者的不良预后没有显著相关性(图 1D~G)。以上结果提示, CTSA可能在TNBC发生发展中发挥调节作用。
为了进一步探究CTSA在TNBC发生发展中的作用, 本研究利用短发卡RNA质粒(shCTSA) 构建稳定敲低CTSA的MDA-MB-231细胞和MDA-MB-468细胞。CCK-8和Transwell检测结果显示, 敲低CTSA抑制MDA-MB-231和MDA-MB-468细胞的增殖活性(图 2A) 和侵袭能力(图 2B); 此外, 克隆形成实验显示敲低CTSA显著抑制MDA-MB-231和MDA-MB-468细胞的克隆形成能力(图 2C)。研究表明治疗耐药性逐渐成为TNBC患者临床治疗上的一个严峻问题, 虽然患者在治疗初期对药物有反应, 但持续给药往往导致治疗耐药性和不良预后[33]。CCK-8实验结果提示, 敲低CTSA降低TNBC一线化疗药物多柔比星(doxorubicin, Dox) 和紫杉醇(Taxol) 的IC50, 显著增加TNBC细胞的化疗药敏感性(图 2DE)。以上结果说明, 敲低CTSA不仅可以抑制细胞的增殖、侵袭和成球能力, 还可以显著提高多柔比星和紫杉醇治疗的敏感性, 提示CTSA可能通过维持TNBC干细胞活性和功能发挥促进TNBC疾病进展的作用。
为了进一步明确CTSA调控肿瘤起始细胞活性促进TNBC发生发展的作用, 本研究将对照和敲低CTSA的MDA-MB-231细胞分别移植入裸鼠乳腺原位。结果显示, 敲低CTSA后显著抑制肿瘤的生长(图F~H), 表明敲低CTSA抑制TNBC细胞的增殖能力。同时, 采用免疫荧光检测肿瘤组织切片中的增殖指标5-乙炔基-2'脱氧尿嘧啶核苷(5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine, EDU) 和侵袭指标基质金属蛋白酶B (matrix metalloproteinase-9, MMP-9), 结果显示, 敲低CTSA, 肿瘤组织中的EDU和MMP-9表达显著降低, 说明敲低CTSA通过抑制TNBC细胞的增殖活性(图 2I) 和侵袭能力(图 2J) 妨碍TNBC肿瘤生长。随后本研究采用有限稀释实验来评估肿瘤再生能力。结果显示, 敲低CTSA后肿瘤的发生率明显降低, 表明敲低CTSA后肿瘤干细胞活性降低(图 2K), 以上结果表明CTSA通过维持TNBC细胞干性和生长能力促进TNBC疾病进展。
为了进一步探究CTSA促进TNBC发生发展的分子机制, 本研究通过GSEA分析TNBC患者样本中CTSA高表达和低表达组中差异富集的信号通路。结果显示, CTSA高表达的样本中PML信号通路显著富集(图 3A), 提示CTSA可能通过调控PML表达及功能发挥促TNBC作用。通过检测稳定表达Control-shRNA (shNTC) 和CTSA-shRNA (shCTSA1/shCTSA2) 的MDA-MB-231细胞中PML其RNA和蛋白水平, 结果发现敲低CTSAPML的RNA水平无明显改变(图 3B), 但显著降低PML的蛋白水平(图 3C)。研究报道, PML调控缺氧诱导因子HIF-1α和原癌基因MYC驱动TNBC的生长和转移[28, 34]。因此本研究检测了敲低CTSA对于HIF-1α和MYC的蛋白水平影响。结果显示, 敲低CTSA后, HIF-1α和MYC显著降低(图 3C)。说明CTSA通过上调PML下游的信号通路HIF-1α和MYC促进TNBC发生发展。PML蛋白在细胞中可发生多种形式的翻译后修饰调控其蛋白稳定性, 其中泛素化修饰是一种重要形式[20]。因此, 本课题组进一步探究CTSA是否抑制PML蛋白泛素化。免疫共沉淀结果显示, CTSA显著抑制PML泛素化(图 3D), 并延长PML蛋白的降解半衰期(图 3E)。以上结果说明, CTSA通过抑制PML泛素化降解维持PML的蛋白稳定性。
CTSA作为组织蛋白酶易与蛋白发生相互作用[35]。免疫共沉淀结果显示外源性和内源性CTSA与PML均存在相互作用(图 3FG)。PML蛋白主要定位于核亚细胞器PML-NBs, 并且依赖PML-NBs发挥功能[19]。激光共聚焦结果显示, 敲低CTSA后细胞核内PML-NBs数量显著减少(图 3H), 提示CTSA可以维持PML-NBs的稳定性。泛素连接酶E3具有严格的底物识别和泛素链生成特异性, 在泛素化过程中扮演了关键的角色[36]。为了探索CTSA抑制PML蛋白泛素化的机制, 本研究利用免疫共沉淀实验证实, CTSA可以降低PML和RNF4的相互作用(图 3I), 并且抑制由RNF4介导的PML泛素化(图 3J) 和降解(图 3K)。以上结果表明, CTSA通过阻碍E3泛素连接酶RNF4介导的PML泛素化和降解维持其蛋白稳定性。
以上结果表明, CTSA在维持肿瘤干细胞性状促进TNBC发生发展中发挥关键作用, 提示其可以作为遏制TNBC疾病进展的治疗靶点。因此, 本研究进一步检测CTSA抑制剂lactacystin在不同时间和浓度下对于CTSA和PML的影响。Western blot结果表明, lactacystin以时间及剂量依赖性地抑制CTSA和PML的表达(图 4AB)。As2O3被报道可以有效靶向促进PML蛋白降解[37]。因此, 以As2O3作为阳性对照检测CTSA抑制剂对PML及其下游信号分子表达的作用。结果显示, As2O3可以有效降低PML、HIF-1α和MYC表达, CTSA抑制剂不会进一步促进As2O3剂对PML表达的抑制作用(图 4C)。激光共聚焦实验表明, 单独给予CTSA抑制剂和As2O3均可以有效降低PML核小体数量, 但二者联用则不能进一步抑制PML核小体形成(图 4D)。以上结果说明, CTSA的促TNBC作用依赖于PML表达及核小体的形成。
本课题组进一步在细胞水平探究CTSA抑制剂对于肿瘤细胞生长、侵袭和成球的影响。结果显示, 单独给予lactacystin和As2O3均有效抑制TNBC细胞的增殖(图 4E)、侵袭(图 4F) 和成球能力(图 4G)。但是二者联用不能进一步抑制TNBC细胞上述的干细胞性状(图 4E~G)。以上结果进一步表明, CTSA通过PML蛋白促进TNBC细胞增殖、侵袭和成球能力。
TNBC具有高度异质性, 与其他乳腺癌亚型相比, 侵袭性更强, 远端转移率更高, 预后效果最差, 并且一直缺乏有效的治疗靶点, 因此找寻驱动TNBC进展的治疗靶点迫在眉睫[38]。研究者根据分子特征将TNBC分成间充质样、管腔雄激素受体、免疫调节以及基底样和免疫抑制4种不同的转录组亚型[39], 其中间充质样亚型的靶向治疗结果最差, 并显示出癌症干细胞的特征[39], 提示肿瘤干细胞可能是导致TNBC预后效果差的主要原因。越来越多研究表明, 与非TNBC亚型相比, TNBC富含癌症干细胞[40-42], 特异性靶向TNBC干细胞可能是一个潜在治疗策略。本研究通过数据库分析和IHC染色发现, CTSA在TNBC患者以及癌组织中高表达, 并且CTSA的高表达与患者的不良预后密切相关, 提示CTSA可能在TNBC发生发展中具有调节作用。进一步研究发现, 敲低CTSA抑制TNBC细胞增殖、侵袭、耐药等侵袭性表型, 肿瘤3D成球实验和有限稀释实验显示, 敲低CTSA, TNBC细胞的体外克隆形成能力和体内二次成瘤能力显著降低, 说明CTSA通过维持TNBC细胞干性和生长能力促进TNBC疾病进展。本研究提示靶向CTSA可能是有效消除肿瘤干细胞, 改善TNBC患者治疗和预后的有效策略, 为TNBC治疗提供新的治疗选择。
CTSA是组织蛋白酶家族成员之一, 主要存在于溶酶体中, 具有水解蛋白活性[8]。CTSA最初发现与半乳糖贮积症、高血压、脑卒中等疾病相关, 但近期有文献表明, CTSA在转移性结肠癌组织、肝癌组织、前列腺癌、肺腺癌、乳腺癌等肿瘤中显著高表达, 并且与患者不良预后相关[15, 16, 43, 44]。一方面, CTSA作为一种丝氨酸羧肽酶, 其蛋白水解活性可以在肿瘤细胞转移定植过程中直接破坏细胞外基质, 促进肿瘤的侵袭和转移。另一方面, CTSA通过其非蛋白水解酶活性调控细胞周期蛋白Cdk2、cyclin B1、增殖蛋白PNCA以及肿瘤抑制基因p53和p21表达, 抑制肿瘤细胞周期停滞、衰老或者凋亡[45]。虽然有研究证明CTSA在乳腺癌组织中高表达, 并且伴随着淋巴细胞的浸润, 但是CTSA促进TNBC发生发展的机制研究尚未可知[16]。本研究发现CTSA通过妨碍RNF4介导PML降解参与调控PML蛋白泛素化及核小体的形成, 维持PML稳定性进而促进TNBC疾病进程。该研究可能为TNBC的治疗提供潜在的理论基础和治疗策略。
PML蛋白在肿瘤中发挥双重作用, 在APL、肺癌、结肠癌等肿瘤中发挥抑癌因子作用, 而在慢性粒细胞白血病、胶质瘤、乳腺癌中作为肿瘤启动子导致癌症发生[17, 46, 47]。在乳腺癌中, 早期研究发现PML在乳腺癌中低表达[23], 但是目前也有研究表明PML促进TNBC发展和转移[28]。这提示PML在不同亚型乳腺癌中发挥差异调控作用。As2O3是传统中药砒霜的有效成分之一, 可以与PML直接结合, 诱导PML寡聚化, 从而增强PML的降解, 或者通过产生活性氧的间接途径降解PML, 达到疾病治疗的作用[48-50]。同时As2O3也被发现能诱导乳腺癌细胞的凋亡[51], 进一步说明靶向PML降解是有效抑制乳腺癌疾病进展的潜在治疗策略。本研究以As2O3作为阳性对照探索CTSA抑制剂调控PML表达抑制TNBC进展的作用。CTSA抑制剂不会进一步促进As2O3对PML表达以及TNBC细胞增殖、侵袭和成球能力的抑制作用, 进一步表明, CTSA通过维持PML蛋白表达及核小体形成促进TNBC干细胞性状, 驱动肿瘤发生发展。综上所述, 本研究探索了CTSA/RNF4/PML-NBs在TNBC发生发展中的作用和机制, 为TNBC提供潜在治疗靶点, 但是CTSA在TNBC的高表达原因以及PML核小体促进TNBC发生发展的机制有待进一步研究。
作者贡献: 吴洁负责Western blot、qPCR、动物实验以及数据整理等实验工作; 张婷婷负责细胞实验和部分数据分析工作; 李珂为文章框架的构思者及负责人。
利益冲突: 所有作者均声明不存在利益冲突。
  • 国家重点研发计划(2022YFA1106100)
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(82222070)
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2024年第59卷第7期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0406
  • 接收时间:2024-04-27
  • 首发时间:2025-11-26
  • 出版时间:2024-07-12
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  • 收稿日期:2024-04-27
  • 修回日期:2024-05-17
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国家重点研发计划(2022YFA1106100)
国家自然科学基金资助项目(82222070)
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    中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院医药生物技术研究所, 北京 100050

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*李珂, E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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