Article(id=1199783103049855607, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1199783099115598386, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0093, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1706457600000, receivedDateStr=2024-01-29, revisedDate=1714579200000, revisedDateStr=2024-05-02, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763980182659, onlineDateStr=2025-11-24, pubDate=1731340800000, pubDateStr=2024-11-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763980182659, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-24, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763980182659, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763980182659, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1199783099115598386, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2024', volume='59', issue='11', pageStart='2897', pageEnd='3178', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763980181720, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1764225007568, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1200809973203726680, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1199783099115598386, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1200809973203726681, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1199783099115598386, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=2926, endPage=2940, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1199783103381205635, articleId=1199783103049855607, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Advances in the development of novel E3 ubiquitin ligase ligands, columnId=null, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is responsible for protein degradation in both normal and pathological states. E3 ligases selectively attach ubiquitin to specific substrates, which is essential for regulating cellular homeostasis. The function of E3 ligases has been associated with a variety of diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular disease. The discovery of E3 ligands can help regulate E3 ligases, thus expanding new ideas for disease treatment. Targeted protein degradation (TPD) drugs, including proteolysis targeting chimera (PROTAC), have become increasingly popular in recent years due to their dependence on E3 ligands. In this paper, we review the discovery techniques of E3 ligands, including activity-based protein mapping, fragment-based drug discovery, and library-based methods, and briefly introduce the protein interaction detection techniques involved in the ligand discovery techniques, in the hope of providing certain ideas for the future discovery of E3 ligands as well as the treatment of diseases.

, correspAuthors=Xiao-wu DONG, Jin-xin CHE, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2024 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Chen-xi WANG, Yang LU, Xiao-wu DONG, Jin-xin CHE), CN=ArticleExt(id=1199783111333605454, articleId=1199783103049855607, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=新型E3泛素连接酶配体开发方法的研究进展, columnId=1199783099958653494, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=专题报道: 蛋白成熟与翻译后修饰的化学干预, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

泛素-蛋白酶体系统(ubiquitin-proteasome system, UPS) 负责正常和病理状态下的蛋白质降解, 其中, E3连接酶可以选择性地将泛素连接到特定底物, 对调节细胞稳态至关重要, 其功能与癌症、心血管疾病等多种疾病相关。E3配体的发现有助于调控E3连接酶从而拓展疾病治疗的新思路。与此同时, 近几年兴起的靶向蛋白降解(targeted protein degradation, TPD) 药物尤其是蛋白水解靶向嵌合体(proteolysis targeting chimera, PROTAC) 对E3配体有着相当大的依赖。本文对E3配体的发现技术包括基于活性的蛋白质图谱、基于片段的药物发现、基于文库的方法进行了综述, 并简要介绍了配体发现技术中所涉及的蛋白质相互作用检测技术, 希望为未来E3配体的发现以及疾病的治疗提供一定的思路。

, correspAuthors=董晓武, 车金鑫, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*董晓武, E-mail: ;
车金鑫, E-mail:
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E3 ubiquitin ligase Structure of ligand Discovery method Interaction detection method Kd Reference
CRBN Established drug FP 121.6 nmol·L-1 [12, 13]
Structural modification SPR 445 nmol·L-1 [14, 16]
Structural modification SPR 264 nmol·L-1 [14, 16]
VHL Software design and structural modification ITC 5 μmol·L-1 [15]
Noncovalent fragment screen DSF, NMR / [17]
Noncovalent fragment screen DSF, NMR 7 mmol·L-1 [17]
Noncovalent fragment screen DSF, NMR 5 mmol·L-1 [17]
RNF114 ABPP LC-MS / [18, 19]
RNF4 ABPP LC-MS / [20]
IAP Noncovalent fragment screen NMR, LOGSY, STD > 5 mmol·L-1 [21, 22]
KEAP1 X-ray crystallographic screening, FBDD ITC 1 nmol·L-1 [23]
FBDR FP, SPR 1 mmol·L-1 [24]
FRDR FP, SPR 1 mmol·L-1 [24]
PRC1 Noncovalent fragment screen 1H-15N HSQC, NMR 7 mmol·L-1 [25]
FBDD 1H-15N HSQC, NMR 12 μmol·L-1 [25]
FBDD 1H-15N HSQC, NMR 3 μmol·L-1 [25]
NEDD4-1 Covalent fragment screen MS / [26]
HOIP Covalent fragment screen MS > 400 μmol·L-1 [27]
DCAF1 DEL DSF, SPR 11 μmol·L-1 [28]
GID4 DEL DSF, ITC 6 μmol·L-1 [29]
), ArticleFig(id=1200375562125570940, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1199783103049855607, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

E3 ubiquitin ligase and its corresponding ligand. ABPP: Activity-based protein profiling; CRBN: Cereblon; VHL: Von Hippel-Lindau; FP: Fluorescence polarization; SPR: Surface plasmon resonance; RNF114: Ring finger protein 114; RNF4: Ring finger protein 4; IAP: Inhibitor of apoptosis proteins; KEAP1: Kelch-like ECH-associated protein-1; PRC1: Polycomb repressive complex 1; NEDD4-1: Neural precursor cell expressed developmentally downregulated 4-1; HOIP: HOIL-1-interacting protein; DCAF1: DDB1 and CUL4 associated factor 1; GID4: GID complex subunit 4 homolog; ITC: Isothermal titration calorimetry; DSF: Differential scanning fluorimetry; NMR: Nuclear magnetic resonance; MS: Mass spectrometry; LOGSY: Ligand observed via gradient spectroscopy; STD: Saturation transfer difference; HSQC: Heteronuclear singular quantum correlation

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
E3 ubiquitin ligase Structure of ligand Discovery method Interaction detection method Kd Reference
CRBN Established drug FP 121.6 nmol·L-1 [12, 13]
Structural modification SPR 445 nmol·L-1 [14, 16]
Structural modification SPR 264 nmol·L-1 [14, 16]
VHL Software design and structural modification ITC 5 μmol·L-1 [15]
Noncovalent fragment screen DSF, NMR / [17]
Noncovalent fragment screen DSF, NMR 7 mmol·L-1 [17]
Noncovalent fragment screen DSF, NMR 5 mmol·L-1 [17]
RNF114 ABPP LC-MS / [18, 19]
RNF4 ABPP LC-MS / [20]
IAP Noncovalent fragment screen NMR, LOGSY, STD > 5 mmol·L-1 [21, 22]
KEAP1 X-ray crystallographic screening, FBDD ITC 1 nmol·L-1 [23]
FBDR FP, SPR 1 mmol·L-1 [24]
FRDR FP, SPR 1 mmol·L-1 [24]
PRC1 Noncovalent fragment screen 1H-15N HSQC, NMR 7 mmol·L-1 [25]
FBDD 1H-15N HSQC, NMR 12 μmol·L-1 [25]
FBDD 1H-15N HSQC, NMR 3 μmol·L-1 [25]
NEDD4-1 Covalent fragment screen MS / [26]
HOIP Covalent fragment screen MS > 400 μmol·L-1 [27]
DCAF1 DEL DSF, SPR 11 μmol·L-1 [28]
GID4 DEL DSF, ITC 6 μmol·L-1 [29]
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新型E3泛素连接酶配体开发方法的研究进展
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王晨曦 , 陆扬 , 董晓武 * , 车金鑫 *
药学学报 | 专题报道: 蛋白成熟与翻译后修饰的化学干预 2024,59(11): 2926-2940
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药学学报 | 专题报道: 蛋白成熟与翻译后修饰的化学干预 2024, 59(11): 2926-2940
新型E3泛素连接酶配体开发方法的研究进展
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王晨曦, 陆扬, 董晓武* , 车金鑫*
作者信息
  • 浙江大学药学院, 药物发现与设计研究所, 浙江 杭州 310000

通讯作者:

*董晓武, E-mail: ;
车金鑫, E-mail:
Advances in the development of novel E3 ubiquitin ligase ligands
Chen-xi WANG, Yang LU, Xiao-wu DONG* , Jin-xin CHE*
Affiliations
  • Institute of Drug Discovery and Design, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310000, China
出版时间: 2024-11-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0093
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泛素-蛋白酶体系统(ubiquitin-proteasome system, UPS) 负责正常和病理状态下的蛋白质降解, 其中, E3连接酶可以选择性地将泛素连接到特定底物, 对调节细胞稳态至关重要, 其功能与癌症、心血管疾病等多种疾病相关。E3配体的发现有助于调控E3连接酶从而拓展疾病治疗的新思路。与此同时, 近几年兴起的靶向蛋白降解(targeted protein degradation, TPD) 药物尤其是蛋白水解靶向嵌合体(proteolysis targeting chimera, PROTAC) 对E3配体有着相当大的依赖。本文对E3配体的发现技术包括基于活性的蛋白质图谱、基于片段的药物发现、基于文库的方法进行了综述, 并简要介绍了配体发现技术中所涉及的蛋白质相互作用检测技术, 希望为未来E3配体的发现以及疾病的治疗提供一定的思路。

泛素-蛋白酶体系统  /  配体发现  /  E3泛素连接酶  /  相互作用

The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is responsible for protein degradation in both normal and pathological states. E3 ligases selectively attach ubiquitin to specific substrates, which is essential for regulating cellular homeostasis. The function of E3 ligases has been associated with a variety of diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular disease. The discovery of E3 ligands can help regulate E3 ligases, thus expanding new ideas for disease treatment. Targeted protein degradation (TPD) drugs, including proteolysis targeting chimera (PROTAC), have become increasingly popular in recent years due to their dependence on E3 ligands. In this paper, we review the discovery techniques of E3 ligands, including activity-based protein mapping, fragment-based drug discovery, and library-based methods, and briefly introduce the protein interaction detection techniques involved in the ligand discovery techniques, in the hope of providing certain ideas for the future discovery of E3 ligands as well as the treatment of diseases.

ubiquitin-proteasome system  /  ligand discovery  /  E3 ubiquitin ligase  /  interaction
王晨曦, 陆扬, 董晓武, 车金鑫. 新型E3泛素连接酶配体开发方法的研究进展. 药学学报, 2024 , 59 (11) : 2926 -2940 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0093
Chen-xi WANG, Yang LU, Xiao-wu DONG, Jin-xin CHE. Advances in the development of novel E3 ubiquitin ligase ligands[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2024 , 59 (11) : 2926 -2940 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0093
蛋白质是细胞功能的主要执行者, 发挥信号传递、骨架维持、反应催化等功能。目前已从人体细胞中鉴定出约20 000种蛋白质, 它们在蛋白质网络中的平衡对维持细胞的健康状态极为重要。单个蛋白质的功能失调或分解可能导致细胞的疾病状态, 因此发现调节失调蛋白质的小分子是药物发现过程中的关键策略[1]。泛素-蛋白酶体系统(ubiquitin-proteasome system, UPS) 是一种常见的翻译后调节机制, 负责正常和病理状态下的蛋白质降解。泛素通过涉及E1泛素激活酶、E2泛素结合酶、E3泛素连接酶的一系列酶促反应共价结合并标记靶底物(图 1)。随后, 修饰的底物被26S蛋白酶体复合物识别降解[2]。泛素(ubiquitin, Ub) 通过维持体内平衡和应对各种压力刺激来调节细胞功能。因此, 泛素化过程的失调可能导致多种人类疾病, 如癌症、代谢性疾病、神经退行性疾病、免疫相关疾病等[3-5]
E3泛素连接酶主要分为三类: RING型、HECT型和RBR型。RING E3连接酶是最大的一类, 分为单体RING (monomeric RING fingers) 和多亚基E3连接酶(multi-subunit E3 ligase), 在人类细胞中有600多种不同的亚型[6]。由于RING结构域的存在, 它们能够与靶标和E2泛素结合酶相互作用, 从而催化Ub转移到靶标上[7]。HECT E3泛素连接酶家族分为Nedd4、HERC、其他HECTs三类, 它们接受来自E2的活化Ub形成硫酯中间体, 然后将Ub转移到底物上[8]。RBR泛素连接酶包含一个包含RING1和RING2结构域的保守催化区, 以及一个介于RING1、RING2之间的结构域。RING1识别E2-Ub共轭物, 然后将Ub转移到RING2的催化半胱氨酸上成为硫酯中间体, 最后转移到底物上[9]。E3泛素连接酶在神经退行性疾病、感染、炎症和癌症中发挥着重要作用。在癌症中, E3泛素连接酶通过调节肿瘤启动子或抑制因子的降解促进癌症的发生发展[10]。此外, E3泛素连接酶在心血管疾病的进程中也起着重要作用, E3泛素连接酶的失调会加重心血管疾病[11]。因此, E3配体的发现对于调控E3连接酶进而治疗相关疾病以及开发新型治疗手段有着重要意义。
Cereblon (CRBN) 和Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) 在人体普遍表达, 它们的配体发现较早。沙利度胺最早是作为镇静剂被使用, 后来因为严重的致畸作用而退出市场[12]。之后沙利度胺经进一步的研究被重新开发为一种免疫调节药物(immunomodulatory imide drug, IMiD), 并在2010年被证明是CRBN的配体[13]。2011年, 沙利度胺的衍生物泊马度胺和来那度胺也被证明是CRBN的配体[14]。VHL蛋白是一种多亚单位RING E3连接酶, 2012年, Buckley等[15]使用从头设计软件BOMB指导合成羟脯氨酸类似物, 发现了VHL的配体。随着人们对E3泛素连接酶的认识加深和检测技术的发展, 各种E3配体被发现(表 1[12-29])。然而, E3泛素连接酶自身的多样性和复杂性使得寻找特定的E3配体变得困难, 且传统的筛选方法可能无法高效地识别出与特定E3泛素连接酶相互作用的配体, 需要更加精密和高通量的筛选技术。同时, 还需要考虑E3配体在体内的稳定性和安全性。因此, 尽管人体内有600多种E3泛素连接酶, 只有有限的小部分E3配体被发现。与此同时, 近几年兴起的靶向蛋白降解(targeted protein degradation, TPD) 药物如PROTAC也被E3配体的缺乏所限制。由此, 本文综述了E3配体的发现技术用于鉴定或设计E3配体, 并简要介绍了AlphaScreen等蛋白质相互作用检测的技术, 希望对扩大E3连接酶在疾病治疗中的应用以及推动TPD领域的发展提供一定的帮助。
基于活性的蛋白质谱(activity-based protein profiling, ABPP)[30]是化学蛋白质组学方法之一, 它使用小分子化学探针, 使之与感兴趣的化合物结合竞争, 用于生命系统中靶点的直接鉴定, 其中包括经典的竞争性同位素串联正交蛋白水解(isotopic tandem orthogonal proteolysis-enabled, isoTOP) ABPP、Fluopol ABPP和rdTOP-ABPP等方法[31-36]。ABPP可被用于多个方面, 包括发现酶的选择性和体内活性抑制剂, 监测特定的酶活性, 鉴定和表征蛋白质功能, 研究各种疾病状态下酶活性的上调和下调[37-39], 也有文献[18-20]报道用以鉴定E3连接酶的配体。
以isoTOP ABPP为例, ABPP的工作流程如图 2所示。首先分别使用对照或共价配体进行标记处理蛋白质组。接下来向蛋白质组中加入末端带有炔基的反应性探针, 用于标记蛋白质, 已被共价配体结合的位点将无法再与探针结合。然后通过叠氮-炔环加成的点击化学方法, 向对照组和共价配体组中分别加入轻/重同位素TEV可裂解生物素叠氮标签。再将两组蛋白质组以1∶1的比例组合, 经过生物素富集、胰蛋白酶消化和洗脱等步骤, 得到肽段, 用以基于质谱的同位素肽比率分析。如果轻重同位素的比率等于1, 则说明蛋白未与任何化合物共价结合; 而若比率大于1, 则说明小分子在蛋白位点与探针发生了竞争性结合, 从而帮助鉴定蛋白质的小分子配体[18, 34, 40]
ABPP技术中探针是重要的一环, 其主要由反应基团(也称为弹头, 可以与目标蛋白的活性位点相互作用)、连接基团(延长链长以减少报告标签对反应性基团的影响)、报告标签(提供检测和测量反应基团标记的蛋白质的手柄) 这三部分组成, 可以通过这些部分的改造来进行ABPP技术的衍生[41]。在弹头端, 许多亲电反应基团, 如环氧化物、氨基甲酸酯、二硫化物、杂环脲等被广泛应用, 而当小分子通过非共价相互作用与蛋白质反应时, 可以使用光亲和探针来捕获相互作用。含有光活性基团的光亲和探针能够通过紫外线照射产生高反应性和瞬态自由基来标记酶袋中的近端残基[42, 43], 最常用的光活性基团是二苯甲酮、二氮嗪和芳香族叠氮化物。连接基团则需要考虑空间位阻的最小化、调节探针的溶解度和膜可渗透性、增强探针的反应基团和特定蛋白质选择性进行选择。对于报告标签, 较为常用的是生物素标签、荧光标签、生物正交标签, 但各有优劣, 比如细胞内的内源性生物素化蛋白, 可以增强生物素标签噪声信号并引起干扰。荧光标签具有比生物素更干净的背景, 并且可以避免额外的内源性生物素化的蛋白质信号。但是一些较长激发波长的荧光团如Cy5, 虽然具有相对较低的背景, 但总是体积庞大且带电, 显著影响探针的化学性质[41]。生物正交标签如上文提到的炔烃和叠氮化物, 可以通过点击化学策略监测或可视化靶标[44], 可能避免直接探针体积庞大带来的相关问题, 如非特异性标记和低细胞摄取, 但是其相较于前两种标签所需的实验步骤更多[45]
由此, 除了isoTOP ABPP, 还有许多其他的ABPP策略。Fluopol ABPP是基于荧光标签标记的探针的ABPP (图 3A), 当无竞争性小分子存在时, 荧光探针与靶蛋白反应, 荧光团信号强烈且一致; 而当竞争性小分子存在时, 荧光探针无法与靶蛋白反应, 探针被释放并且信号被减小, 通过对荧光信号的检测, 可以快速鉴定出靶蛋白相关配体[35]。Fluopol ABPP受限于已经开发出基于同源活性的探针的酶, 且阻断探针标记可能并不等同于在所有情况下抑制酶的催化活性, 加之Fluopol ABPP需要大量的纯化蛋白, 这可能对某些酶具有挑战性。不过Fluopol ABPP在蛋白质量不受限制的情况下, 其探针量很少, 成本较低[35]
rd TOP-ABPP将基于同位素的二甲基化标记法与TOP-ABPP技术相结合(图 3B), 用于具有位点特异性精度和三重定量的定量化学蛋白质组学。对三种不同条件下的蛋白质组样本进行基于活性的生物正交探针标记, 通过铜催化的叠氮-炔烃加成使样品与可裂解的生物素标签偶联, 并进行胰蛋白酶消化。所得的带有探针标记的肽分别通过三重还原二甲基化进一步同位素衍生, 合并珠子并进行珠上串联正交裂解后, 对释放出的加成肽进行LC-MS/MS分析, 从而准确量化三个样品的探针标记和/或修饰。rdTOP ABPP引入还原二甲基化的同位素标记, 该方法不需合成固有同位素编码特征的可裂解标签, 同时与不同类型的可裂解叠氮化物-生物素富集标签高度兼容, 提供了一种有效且经济的策略[36]
通过使用isoTOP ABPP的方法, Spradlin等[18, 19]鉴定了nimbolide可以作为RING finger E3连接酶RNF114的配体。Nimbolide可以与底物结合口袋中的功能性半胱氨酸结合, 影响底物识别和泛素化, 从而稳定肿瘤抑制因子p21和p57。随后将nimbolide与JQ1通过linker连接产生降解BRD4 (bromodomain-containing protein 4) 的PROTAC, 证实了将RNF114用于靶向蛋白质降解技术的可行性。此外, 还采用基于凝胶的中高通量ABPP方法, 筛选出了针对RNF114的半胱氨酸共价配体库, 以鉴定能复制代谢产物但合成更容易获得的化合物[19]
2019年, Ward等[20]利用ABPP鉴定了与E3泛素连接酶RNF4反应的半胱氨酸反应性小分子CCW16, 为设计基于RNF4的降解物提供了化学起点。并且进一步优化了CCW16的效力, 将这种潜在的RNF4募集物与JQ1相结合形成双功能降解器CCW28-3。在2021年的一项研究中, Yan等[46]将SP3 (sample-preparation)-FAIMS (field asymmetric waveform ion mobility spectrometry) 化学蛋白质组平台集成到isoTOPABPP工作流程中。他们将增强肽标记与单孔固相增强样品制备(SP3) 相结合的工作流程与在线高场不对称波形离子迁移谱(FAIMS) 分离标记肽相结合, 其中, SP3提高标记肽的覆盖率和减少化学蛋白质组学研究所需的蛋白质材料的量, FAIMS应用快速内部补偿电压实现肽的在线分离。将SP3-FAIMS化学蛋白质组学方法应用到ABPP, 可以高通量发现亲电化合物标记的半胱氨酸, 大大加快了ABPP的效率以及扩展了范围。除了在针对半胱氨酸的配体发现方面取得成功, ABPP在靶向赖氨酸方面也取得了进展。Hacker等[32]在2017年鉴定了一种具有胺活性的戊烯酸磺基四氟苯基酯探针, 该探针成功地共价修饰了人类蛋白质组中9 000多个赖氨酸残基。这导致了可被共价配体靶向的功能性赖氨酸的发现, 从而扩大了ABPP的范围。这些新发现都为ABPP在E3配体的发现上提供了借鉴思路和方法。
随着探针上多样性报告标签的发现以及各种新兴检测技术的发展, 新型ABPP具有更加快速、经济、高效的特征, 比如rd TOP-ABPP避开了isoTOP-ABPP中可切割轻重标签试剂合成不易的问题。期待ABPP技术在E3配体的发现上有更多的发展和应用。
基于片段的筛选(fragment-based drug discovery, FBDD) 是寻找新的蛋白质结合口袋和新配体的重要方法[47, 48]。FBDD中使用的筛选文库由称为片段的小分子组成, 这些小分子大致符合现在广泛公认的三规则(Ro3) [49, 50]。Ro3包括: 相对分子质量(molecular weight, MW) < 300 Da, cLogP (consensus LogP) ≤ 3, 氢键供体(hydrogen bond donor, HBD) ≤ 3, 氢键受体(hydrogen bond acceptor, HBA) ≤ 3, 极表面积(polar surface area, PSA) ≤ 60 Å2。碎片筛选是一种高效的药物发现方法, 通过使用小尺寸和简单结构的分子库, 可以覆盖广泛的化学空间。这种方法对行业和学术研究人员都具有吸引力, 能够非常容易地获取, 并且具有可持续性。与传统的高通量筛选方法不同, 碎片筛选不会受先前探索目标的偏向, 因此在评估新蛋白质结合位点的可连接性方面至关重要。由此, FBDD在E3配体的发现上发挥了巨大的作用, 通过非共价片段筛选、共价片段筛选、基于片段的解构重建方法(fragment based deconstruction-reconstruction, FBDR) 发现了一系列E3配体。
VHL蛋白是一种多亚单位RING E3连接酶, 在常氧条件下, VHL靶向识别脯氨酰羟基化的缺氧诱导因子-1α (hypoxia-inducible factor-1α, HIF-1α) 蛋白使其泛素化。VHL不仅因为在各种癌症中作为肿瘤抑制蛋白发挥作用而被广泛研究, 还作为少数几个已经报道了经验证的小分子配体的E3连接酶之一而受到关注[15, 51-53]。2018年, Lucas等[17]使用差示扫描荧光法(differential scanning fluorimetry, DSF) 从Maybridge文库中筛选出超过1 200个片段(图 4A), 以及使用一维1H NMR光谱从同一文库中随机挑选出144个片段, 通过NMR光谱和随后的X射线晶体学验证, 总共有82个片段从这两个初级筛选中被选择为先导化合物。随后在第二轮NMR实验中, 通过WaterLOGSY (water-ligand observed via gradient spectroscopy)、STD (saturation transfer difference)和CPMG (Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill) 对这82个主要先导化合物进行二次验证筛选, 总共验证了18个先导化合物。随后将这18个片段以高浓度浸泡到apo-VCB (VHL, elongin C and elongin B) 复合物的晶体或通过HIF1α结合的VCB的晶体中, 产生三个配体MB235、MB1200、MB756结合的晶体。
E3泛素连接酶IAP (inhibitor of apoptosis proteins) 作为一类细胞凋亡负调控因子, 常常在癌细胞中过表达, 并与预后不良密切相关[54-56]。2015年, Chessari等[21]对IAP进行了片段库筛选(图 4B), 并鉴定了非肽命中化合物1, 它与IAP的结合亲和力在弱毫摩尔离解常数范围内。之后, Johnson等[22]通过结构优化最终获得了化合物ASTX660, 其在纳摩尔水平上抑制cIAP1 (cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein 1) 和XIAP (X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein)。
KEAP1 (Kelch-like ECH-associated protein-1) 是一种cullin RING E3连接酶, 负责NRF2 (nuclear factor erythroid2-related factor 2) 的泛素化和随后的蛋白酶体降解, NRF2是抗氧化反应的主要调节因子[57, 58]。虽然已经报道了许多能够阻断NRF2泛素化和降解的KEAP1抑制剂[59, 60], 但是这些化合物存在安全性以及物理化学性质上的问题[61, 62]。2016年, Davies等[23]进行了针对KEAP1的片段筛选(图 4C)。他们使用小鼠KEAP1-Kelch结构域构建体, 使用约330个片段库进行高通量X射线晶体学筛选, 鉴定了三个与Kelch结构域不同位置结合的片段(2~4), 筛选表明非亲电性和中性片段可以与KEAP1的Kelch结构域结合。随后, 他们以羧酸片段2为基础进行基于结构的药物设计(structure-based drug design, SBDD), 最终得到了具有1.3 nmol·L-1亲和力的化合物KI-696。
PRC1 (polycomb repressive complex 1) 具有E3泛素连接酶活性, 可催化组蛋白H2A赖氨酸119单泛素化(histone H2A lysine 119 mono-ubiquitination, H2AK119ub), 其E3连接酶活性与异二聚体蛋白RING1B和BMI1有关[63, 64]。为了鉴定PRC1的E3连接酶活性的抑制剂, Shukla等[25]设计了RING1 B和BMI1 RING结构域的融合物RING1 B–BMI1f, 使用1H-15N HSQC实验筛选约1 000个分子的片段库, 得到一个最有效的先导化合物RB-1 (图 4D), 它与RING1 B–BMI1f弱结合, 结合亲和力为7  mmol·L-1。随后对RB-1进行了优化, 将噻吩环改为更易溶解的吡咯环, 开发出了药效更强的RB-2, 通过NMR测量得到其Kd为11.5 μmol·L-1并通过H2A泛素化实验得到其半抑制浓度(half-maximum inhibitory concentration, IC50) 为12 μmol·L-1。随后, 通过使用RING1 B–BMI1f–RB-2的结构模型, Shukla等[25]用异丙基取代乙基, 用氯吲哚取代氯苯基, 设计了一种更有效的化合物RB-3。RB-3抑制H2 A泛素化, IC50为1.6 μmol·L-1, 其效力大约是RB-2的5倍。
共价配体是药物发现中的一种新兴范式, 它们比非共价配体具有显著优势[65]。共价蛋白配体加合物可以延长配体在目标上的作用时间。与非共价配体不同, 共价配体不需要特定的结合口袋就能发挥作用。这种化学计量的1∶1结合方式可以增加小分子药物的有效半衰期, 从而可能提高药物效力, 减少所需剂量, 并潜在减少临床不良反应的发生[66]。值得注意的是, 共价弹头的反应性和选择性需要平衡, 以避免由于混杂的非选择性相互作用而产生毒性和脱靶结合[67, 68]
神经前体细胞表达发育性下调蛋白4-1 (neural precursor cell expressed developmentally downregulated 4-1, NEDD4-1) 是E3连接酶HECT家族的一种大型多结构域E3连接酶[69]。其功能障碍与多种人类病理有关, 包括帕金森病[70]、心血管疾病[71]和癌症[69, 72]。因此, NEDD4-1被认为是重要的药物靶点。2015年, Kathman等[26]通过质谱法针对NEDD4-1的分离HECT结构域筛选了一个亲电片段库, 确定了两个片段56 (图 5A), 这两个片段以α, β-不饱和甲酯为共价弹头, 与627位的半胱氨酸(cysteine, Cys) 即Cys627选择性反应。将化合物6与NEDD4-1共结晶, 产生第一个报道的由小分子结合的HECT E3连接酶的晶体结构, 然后将化合物6优化为7, 荧光偏振技术(fluorescence polarization, FP) 显示其效力是6的22倍。
HOIP (HOIL-1-interacting protein) 是一种来自E3连接酶RBR家族的E3连接酶类, 是线性泛素链组装复合物(linear ubiquitin chain assembly complex, LUBAC) 的关键催化成分[73]。HOIP可识别线性泛素链决定结构域(linear ubiquitin chain-determining domain, LDD) 结构域中的泛素分子, 从而促进泛素从RING2中的保守半胱氨酸转移到接受泛素的α-氨基上, 形成线性连接[74, 75]。LUBAC在NF-κB信号通路的调节中起着关键作用, 从而影响免疫和炎症反应的调节, 其失调与炎症、癌症等许多疾病有关[76]。因此, HOIP被是一个重要的药物靶点。Johansson等[27]通过LCMS针对HOIP的分离RBR结构域筛选了104个亲电片段的小型定制文库, 希望找到能够与HOIP催化位点内Cys885的共价结合的片段, 从中鉴定出了以α, β-不饱和甲酯为共价弹头的化合物8。随后HOIP RBR与化合物8孵育(图 5B), 以时间和浓度依赖的方式对蛋白质进行单标记, 得到其Kd > 400 μmol·L-1
对于已经报道了许多配体的E3连接酶, FBDR方法可以发挥更大的作用[77]。通过解构一种强效抑制剂, 可以为基于知识的片段筛选提供信息, 与传统的片段筛选相比, 这组片段通常更精简, 并且可以导致更高的命中率[78]。再次以KEAP1举例, Pallesen等[24]选择了六类已知的小分子KEAP1-Nrf2 PPI抑制剂, 根据Ro3将它们分解成片段, 从而获得77个片段的解构文库。这些片段在四种正交分析中进行了测试, 得到了17个高优先级先导化合物, 随后对其与KEAP1-Kelch结构域的结合进行了X射线晶体学表征, 最终得到两个片段910 (图 5C)。将两个片段合并为一种新的先导化合物11, 其结合力是亲本片段的220~380倍。经过之后的SBDD合成了许多新的高效抑制剂, 包括化合物12
综上所述, FBDD方法在E3连接酶配体的发现方面取得了显著进展, 但是也遇到了一些困难。由于E3配体与蛋白之间的结合通常较弱, 寻找具有足够亲和力的小分子片段具有一定挑战性, 结合多种生物物理和化学筛选技术可以提高发现成功的概率。同时, 大量的小分子片段的生物活性验证昂贵且费时。最后, 将有活性的小分子片段重新组装成活性化合物也存在挑战, 包括构建合适的连接点和活性的优化, 这可能需要结构生物学的指导。随着NMR、X射线晶体学和冷冻电镜等筛选技术和结构生物学技术的不断进步, FBDD方法将持续在配体发现中发挥重要作用。
针对生物靶标筛选大规模化学文库是化学生物学研究和药物发现中最重要的发现模式之一[79]。最近, DNA编码化学文库(DNA encoded compound library, DEL) 作为一种新的筛选平台出现, 补充了传统的高通量筛选(high throughput screening, HTS)。在DEL中, 每种化合物都共价连接到一个独特的DNA标签上(图 6A), 作为化合物化学结构的标识符。将打上DNA标签的文库与固定在固体支持物上感兴趣的靶蛋白一起孵育。一些化合物被结合在固体支持物上, 而不与靶标结合的化合物则被冲走。将结合在固体支持物的分子洗脱下来, 通过PCR扩增和超高通量DNA测序技术读取DNA标签的序列来解码所选化合物的化学结构[80, 81]。根据编码策略, DEL可分为DNA记录文库和DNA定向文库。在DNA记录文库中, 文库化合物的每一步化学合成后都会立即进行标记步骤, 以记录化学成分。最早的DNA记录文库都是采用“分离-混合-分离”策略对DEL进行基于固相的编码, 后来, 研究人员表明溶液相DEL也可以通过相同的策略添加DNA标签来标记(图 6B)[82]。在DNA定向文库中, DNA分子不仅编码标签, 而且作为模板, 基于序列互补性来指导构建块之间的化学反应。这种方法得益于邻近效应, 因为DNA双链体的形成使构建块更紧密, 化学反应可以在高效摩尔浓度下进行[83]。Gartner等[84]开创了用于DEL合成的DNA模板合成(DNA-templated synthesis, DTS) 方法, 并在之后进行改进的应用, 合成了一个由超过13 000个DNA连接的合成大环化合物组成的化合物库[85]。除了合成, DEL的选择也至关重要。由于与靶蛋白孵育的编码文库的量不能超过一定的DNA总量, 单个文库成员随着文库大小的增加而被稀释, 而且只有极少量的结合化合物能在洗涤中存留下来, 这导致当前的文库生产和筛选方案产率很低[86]。McGregor等[87]开发了一种溶液相位选择方法, 应用相互作用依赖性PCR (interaction-dependent PCR, IDPCR), DNA标记的靶蛋白和小分子之间的相互作用导致DNA杂交和发夹结构的形成, 该发夹结构在引物延伸和DNA扩增后编码结合分子和靶蛋白, 可以评估DNA标记的靶蛋白和DNA小分子缀合物的复杂混合物之间的结合。DNA程序化亲和标记(DNA-programmed affinity labeling, DPAL) 也是一种溶液相选择方法, 无需修饰或固定靶蛋白, 也与细胞裂解物中的靶点兼容。在DPAL中, 具有5′-叠氮苯基光交联部分的DNA寡核苷酸(DNA oligonucleotide with a 5′-azidophenyl photocrosslinking moiety, PC-DNA) 通过互补区与DNA编码的小分子库杂交[80]。杂交后, 靶蛋白的结合迫使PC-DNA的光活性化学基团接近靶蛋白, 辐照触发PC-DNA与靶蛋白的光交联。
Shi等[88]应用DPAL并通过关键的凝胶纯化步骤将结合物与非结合物分离以鉴定小分子配体。DCAF1是两种不同E3连接酶(CRL4DCAF1和EDVP) 的底物受体, 在细胞周期调节、细胞分裂、细胞增殖、脂质代谢等正常生理功能以及蛋白质降解中起着关键的生理作用, 被认为是各种癌症的药物靶点[89-91]。Li等[28]使用DCAF1的WDR结构域来筛选59个DNA编码化学文库的1 140亿个化合物, 通过相似性搜索和机器学习算法对数据进行处理, 经DSF和表面等离子体共振(surface plasmon resonance, SPR) 测定, Z1391232269被选为先导化合物(图 5D), 其SPR Kd为11 μmol·L-1。随后经过一系列结构优化和改造, 得到了有效的DCAF1-WDR结构域小分子配体13。2022年, Chana等[29]针对重组GID4筛选了DEL开放程序提供的44亿化合物DEL, 随后, 将GID4 WT样品中富集的904个分子的前200个先导化合物通过BB3构建块分成五个家族, 从每个家族中选择一个高分代表性分子用于在没有DNA标签的情况下进行再合成, 由此得到5个先导化合物。将这5个先导化合物经DSF和FP验证后, 选定化合物14进行后续等温滴定量热法(isothermal titration calorimetry, ITC) 分析和SAR分析(图 5E)。
类似地, 化合物文库可以用PNA (peptide nucleic acid) 编码[92]。PNA作为编码低聚物在化学上比DNA稳定得多, 因此能够使用更广泛的化学方法来制备文库[93]。但是PNA与PCR扩增和当前测序技术不兼容, 所以PNA编码的文库一般与微阵列杂交, 通过将阵列与标记的蛋白质孵育来鉴定最佳的结合物[93]。由于DNA和PNA编码的化合物文库允许快速鉴定结合物, 而不考虑结合位点的活性或位置, 因此已成功应用于发现以前被认为不可药用的蛋白质的变构配体或结合物。然而, 尽管一些制药和生物技术公司正在积极使用基于DECL的方法寻找新的E3配体, 但尚未报道使用DECL鉴定的含有配体的分子降解物[47]
噬菌体展示技术是为尚未鉴定出天然底物和配体的靶蛋白获得肽配体的最佳方法之一。在该技术中, 将随机合成的DNA文库插入噬菌体中的噬菌体外壳蛋白基因中(图 6C), 使用大肠杆菌和M13K07辅助噬菌体扩增噬菌体文库, 使多种融合蛋白显示在噬菌体外部, 编码DNA被噬菌体包裹。随后就像DEL中一样, 将获得的“噬菌体文库”与固定化靶标一起孵育, 然后洗涤以去除未结合的噬菌体。剩余的噬菌体被洗脱, 然后用于感染新鲜细菌细胞并在培养基中振荡细胞过夜, 以扩增下一个周期的噬菌体。经过几轮选择后, 积累具体对靶标高亲和力肽的噬菌体, 并可以对其进行DNA测序以鉴定这些肽, 通过酶联免疫吸附实验(enzyme linked immunosorbent assay, ELISA)、生物膜干涉技术(bio-layer interferometry, BLI)、ITC、X射线晶体学等研究其生物化学性质[80, 94, 95]。与DEL一样, 噬菌体文库只能用无细胞测定系统进行筛选(例如重组纯化的靶蛋白), 体外筛选靶蛋白意味着DEL是鉴定结合配体的一种选择方法。为此, 基于噬菌体展示鉴定的肽作为研究特定E3连接酶募集用于靶向蛋白质降解的化学工具, 可以快速开发肽PROTAC[47]
在E3配体的发现过程中, E3泛素连接酶与配体的之间相互作用力是一个重要的参考因素, 所以相互作用检测方法的选择尤其重要。比如上文提到的基于片段的药物发现中, 小尺寸的片段导致它们与蛋白质的结合亲和力较弱。因此, 碎片往往使用生物物理技术进行高浓度筛选, 如NMR、SPR (图 7A)、DSF和X射线晶体学等。除了以上提到的这些基于蛋白水平的技术和质谱分析法(mass spectrometry, MS)、FP (图 7B) 这些常用的检测方法外, 还包括如AlphaScreen技术这类细胞内的临近效应检测技术。
AlphaScreen技术是一种基于珠的近距离检测方法(图 7C), 可使用同质协议检测分析物。“供体”珠含有酞菁光敏剂, 其在680 nm的高能照射后将环境氧激发成单线态。供体珠的激发每秒产生约60 000个氧单线态, 可扩散到约200 nm的最大距离。当E3连接酶和配体产生相互作用时, “供体”珠和“受体”珠相接近, “供体”珠发射的单线态氧可被“受体”珠在520~620 nm处读取。当添加未标记的脱颗粒肽或结合E3连接酶的小分子配体时, “供体”珠和“受体”珠保持在一定距离, 发射被抑制, 从而确认特异性结合并用于高通量筛选[96, 97]。与FP和时间分辨荧光共振能量转移技术(time-resolved fluorescence resonance energy transfer, TR-FRET) 相比, AlphaScreen避免了分析中常见的由化合物自发荧光和光散射引起的伪影, 减少了潜在的荧光干扰。
各种检测方法都有自己的优缺点, 比如MS虽然被广泛应用于ABPP的方法中, 其无需设置配体浓度梯度, 但是难以区分共价结合和非共价结合; 微量热涌动技术(microscale thermophoresis, MST) (图 7D) 蛋白质使用量低, 不需固定蛋白质, 但是需要的蛋白质纯度高, 且蛋白质无法回收。所以尽管各种方法已经应用到很多E3酶配体的发现中, 但是往往一种E3配体的发现会有好几种检测方法混用。在VHL的基于片段的筛选中, Lucas等[17]进行了三次初级片段筛选, 其中两次通过DSF, 一次通过NMR。为了发现UHRF1的抑制剂, Chang等[98]使用三种不同的技术: DSF、AlphaScreen、TR-FRET, 针对UHRF1的分离TTD (tandem Tudor domain) 筛选了一个约2 300个片段的文库。Parkin是属于RBR E3连接酶家族的一种神经保护蛋白, 为了鉴定能够稳定功能活性Parkin的激动剂, Regnström等[99]使用全长Parkin通过SPR筛选了5 260个片段组成的定制文库, 随后使用Parkin的R0RBR结构域将选择的先导化合物进一步用STD NMR实验以确定片段的结合位点。CRBN是一种广泛表达的多亚单位RING E3连接酶, 大部分PROTAC的设计中都采用了CRBN的配体。Boichenko等[100]采用了基于知识的方法来探索的“CRBN的化学配体空间”。由于尿苷和沙利度胺的尿嘧啶和戊二酰亚胺环之间的相似性, 他们采用FRET测定法筛选大量4~7元环匹配分子对(MMP) 片段, 以揭示CRBN结合的关键药效团。
E3连接酶在UPS系统中发挥重要作用, 其显著参与癌症、心血管疾病等多种疾病的发展, E3连接酶配体的发现为疾病的治疗提供了新的思路和策略。同时, E3连接酶配体是PROTAC的关键组成部分之一, 发现和优化多样的E3连接酶配体可以扩大PROTAC类药物的适用范围, 为增强蛋白质的降解效率, 提高特异性和安全性提供更多可能。基于此需求, 本文介绍了一些配体的发现方法。ABPP是化学蛋白质组学方法之一, 从传统的isoTOP ABPP的方法鉴定nimbolide作为RING finger E3连接酶RNF114的配体, 到之后Fluopol ABPP、rdTOP ABPP的发展, ABPP在E3配体的发现中持续发挥作用。FBDD是通过筛选由小分子片段组成的库进而发现高亲和力配体的方法, 其中包括共价筛选和非共价筛选。通过FBDD, 大量E3酶的配体被发现, 比如VHL、UHRF1、PRC1、KEAP1、Parkin等。值得注意的是, FBDR通过解构一种强效抑制剂, 可以为基于知识的片段筛选提供信息, Pallesen等[24]用此方法结合SBDD找到了KEAP1的高效抑制剂。此外, 本文还介绍了一些基于文库的筛选方法, 比如DNA编码化学文库、PNA编码化学文库以及噬菌体文库, 这些文库都是给化合物打上标签, 经过结合洗脱, 根据标签读出亲和力强的化合物。尽管以上方法在E3配体的发现中发挥了作用, 但是仍然存在问题与挑战, 比如ABPP仅限于含有反应弹头的化合物, FBDD和DEL等基于文库的方法仅限于无细胞系统, 虽然筛选出了与E3相互作用强的配体, 但是在细胞内可能不一定形成稳定的三元复合物。因此, 今后仍需要对现有方法进行改进和探究, 同时结合学科前沿技术积极开发E3配体发现的新方法。基因编辑、蛋白质工程和高通量筛选等生物化学和分子生物学技术帮助研究E3泛素连接酶的结构和功能, 分子对接模拟、构效关系预测和机器学习算法等生物信息学和计算生物学可以预测E3泛素连接酶的潜在配体结构, 再结合化学和药学技术设计并合成具有潜在活性的E3泛素连接酶配体, 并进行相关的药效研究, 伴随着学科交叉的深入以及各领域技术的更新, 期待更多的E3配体在疾病治疗中得以应用, 推动TPD等领域的发展。
作者贡献: 王晨曦负责资料收集与撰写; 陆扬负责提供文章选题和全文思路; 董晓武和车金鑫负责文章的意见提出和修改。
利益冲突: 本文作者声明没有利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金(82173660)
  • 浙江省重点研发计划(2023C03111)
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2024年第59卷第11期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2024-0093
  • 接收时间:2024-01-29
  • 首发时间:2025-11-24
  • 出版时间:2024-11-12
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  • 收稿日期:2024-01-29
  • 修回日期:2024-05-02
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国家自然科学基金(82173660)
浙江省重点研发计划(2023C03111)
作者信息
    浙江大学药学院, 药物发现与设计研究所, 浙江 杭州 310000

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*董晓武, E-mail: ;
车金鑫, E-mail:
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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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