Article(id=1198656354664677786, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198656343151313891, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0614, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1683734400000, receivedDateStr=2023-05-11, revisedDate=1688918400000, revisedDateStr=2023-07-10, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763711544910, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1702310400000, pubDateStr=2023-12-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763711544910, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763711544910, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763711544910, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198656343151313891, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='12', pageStart='3477', pageEnd='3726', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763711542164, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763711721609, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198657095835943176, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198656343151313891, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198657095840137481, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198656343151313891, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=3519, endPage=3527, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198656355000222132, articleId=1198656354664677786, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Amino acid metabolism of fibroblasts involved in the occurrence and development of pulmonary fibrosis, columnId=null, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Pulmonary fibrosis is a common pathological change in many chronic lung diseases, and its pathogenesis and characteristics are mainly caused by repeated lung alveolar injury leading to abnormal activation of fibroblasts and the accumulation of large amounts of extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition. Fibroblasts are not only responsible for constituting the interstitial structure of the lung but are also involved in the post-injury repairment in healthy lung tissue. In contrast, fibroblasts show a typical pro-fibrotic metabolic phenotype after differentiation into myofibroblasts during the development of pulmonary fibrosis. To synthesis large amount of collagen, the myofibroblasts have a strong metabolism characteristic of serine/glycine, glutamine, proline, and arginine. At the same time, the myofibroblast get the ability to resist cell apoptosis. As an important cell type for collagen degradation, fibroblasts reuse the amino acids of collagen to maintain cell metabolism. However, the myofibroblasts cannot degrade the ECM due to the suppression of autophagy activity, thus accelerating the progression of pulmonary fibrosis. This review attempts to summarize how amino acid metabolism of fibroblasts influence the pulmonary fibrosis.

, correspAuthors=Xiao-xi LV, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Yu-xin LIU, Fang HUA, Xiao-xi LV), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198656357219009051, articleId=1198656354664677786, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=成纤维细胞氨基酸代谢参与肺纤维化发生与发展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

肺纤维化是多种肺部疾病的共有病理改变, 其发病机制和特征主要是反复的肺泡损伤导致成纤维细胞异常活化引发大量细胞外基质堆积。成纤维细胞在健康肺组织中不仅负责构建完整的肺间质组分, 也参与正常的损伤后修复进程。而在肺纤维化进程中的效应细胞, 成纤维细胞向肌成纤维细胞分化后出现了典型的促纤维化代谢表型。由于肌成纤维细胞在大量合成胶原的过程中需要多种氨基酸原料, 因此其氨基酸代谢出现了丝氨酸/甘氨酸、谷氨酰胺、脯氨酸、精氨酸代谢旺盛的特征。与此同时在羟脯氨酸形成过程中, 肌成纤维细胞也获得了抵抗凋亡的能力。而作为分解胶原的重要细胞类型, 成纤维细胞在清除胶原片段的过程中还可重新利用多种降解后的氨基酸进行细胞代谢, 但若成纤维细胞自噬功能受到抑制, 则大量细胞外基质无法得到有效清除, 加剧了肺纤维化进程。本综述主要对于成纤维细胞氨基酸代谢表型对肺纤维化进程影响进行总结。

, correspAuthors=吕晓希, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*吕晓希, Tel: 86-10-83165034, E-mail:
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Metabolite of glycolysis convert to glycine <i>via</i> PHGDH, PSAT1, PSPH and SHMT; ② Glutamine degradation. Glutamine is metabolized to P5C catalyzed by GSL and P5CS, then transform to proline through the PYCR; ③ The arginine in urea cycle can turn into the P5C and proline continually; ④ Proline residues in the collagen proteins can be hydroxylated to produce the hydroxyproline. TCA: Tricarboxylic acid cycle; PSAT1: Phosphoserine aminotransferase 1; PHGDH: Phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase; PSPH: Phosphoserine phosphatase; SHMT: Serine hydroxymethyltransferase; GLS: Glutaminase; P5CS: <i>Δ</i>1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthase; <i>α</i>-KG: <i>α</i>-Ketoglutarate; PYCR: Pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase; PHD: Proline hydroxylase; ASS1: Argininosuccinate synthase 1 , figureFileSmall=5OHK/hUOB/yU4VKUKTs5CA==, figureFileBig=Wxs1fxrwBURrXJnHDPKMPA==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960231184167748, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198656354664677786, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=9L/73iOTeUaFPAcaFTzibw==, figureFileBig=y89ZczqsGdIwnYARw3mZeQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960231377105746, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198656354664677786, language=CN, label=Figure 2, caption= Fibroblast amino acid metabolism and myofibroblast activation. After exposure of the injury signal, the intracellular level of ONOO<sup>-</sup> is increased, which suppresses the activities of GSL and GSS, resulting in elevated oxidative level in fibroblast (left). Myofibroblast acquire the anti-oxidative stress and anti-apoptosis capacity by increasing the combination of proline and hydroxyproline with ROS, and these amino acids are also the substrates of collagen synthesis leading to ECM deposition. Glutamine can convert to proline to combine with ROS, and its metabolites can increase the expression of anti-apoptosis related genes (right). TGF-<i>β</i>: Transforming growth factor <i>β</i>; GCL: Glutamate cysteine ligase; GSS: Glutathione synthetase; GSH: Glutathione; ROS: Reactive oxygen species; ECM: Extracellular matrix , figureFileSmall=9L/73iOTeUaFPAcaFTzibw==, figureFileBig=y89ZczqsGdIwnYARw3mZeQ==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960231549072230, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198656354664677786, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=1LgB6IPwI70ewd18w+UjSQ==, figureFileBig=Ma1X+YSOCwnzlkMvdor1jg==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960231691678579, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198656354664677786, language=CN, label=Figure 3, caption= Fibroblast amino acid metabolism and collagen degradation. In healthy fibroblast, collagen fibrils can be recognized by integrins, and collagen fragments can be ingested by micropinocytosis and endocytosis after cleaved off by MMP. The collagen fragments can be degraded by autophagic pathway. After degradation, <i>trans</i>-3-hydroxy-<i>L</i>-proline could convert into proline by dehydratase. Proline plays an important role in providing ornithine to produce polyamines to support the rapid growth of tissues. Ornithine continues to participate in urea cycle. <i>Trans</i>-4-hydroxy-<i>L</i>-proline is metabolized to glycine and <i>α</i>-ketoglutarate, then the <i>α</i>-ketoglutarate can participate in TCA cycle. Proline and glycine are substrate for collagen synthesis (left). In myofibroblast, the activated TGF-<i>β</i> pathway leads to a Smad3-dependent increase in ATF4, which is a key transcription factor in amino acid biosynthesis, and the primary driver of ATF4 downstream of TGF-<i>β</i> is activation of mTORC1. mTORC1 is also a critical regulator of cell autophagy, and glutamine can activate the mTORC1 to inhibit the autophagy process (right). 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成纤维细胞氨基酸代谢参与肺纤维化发生与发展
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刘雨欣 , 花芳 , 吕晓希 *
药学学报 | 综述 2023,58(12): 3519-3527
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药学学报 | 综述 2023, 58(12): 3519-3527
成纤维细胞氨基酸代谢参与肺纤维化发生与发展
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刘雨欣, 花芳, 吕晓希*
作者信息
  • 中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 呼吸和共病全国重点实验室, 北京 100050

通讯作者:

*吕晓希, Tel: 86-10-83165034, E-mail:
Amino acid metabolism of fibroblasts involved in the occurrence and development of pulmonary fibrosis
Yu-xin LIU, Fang HUA, Xiao-xi LV*
Affiliations
  • Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Health and Multimorbidity, Beijing 100050, China
出版时间: 2023-12-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0614
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肺纤维化是多种肺部疾病的共有病理改变, 其发病机制和特征主要是反复的肺泡损伤导致成纤维细胞异常活化引发大量细胞外基质堆积。成纤维细胞在健康肺组织中不仅负责构建完整的肺间质组分, 也参与正常的损伤后修复进程。而在肺纤维化进程中的效应细胞, 成纤维细胞向肌成纤维细胞分化后出现了典型的促纤维化代谢表型。由于肌成纤维细胞在大量合成胶原的过程中需要多种氨基酸原料, 因此其氨基酸代谢出现了丝氨酸/甘氨酸、谷氨酰胺、脯氨酸、精氨酸代谢旺盛的特征。与此同时在羟脯氨酸形成过程中, 肌成纤维细胞也获得了抵抗凋亡的能力。而作为分解胶原的重要细胞类型, 成纤维细胞在清除胶原片段的过程中还可重新利用多种降解后的氨基酸进行细胞代谢, 但若成纤维细胞自噬功能受到抑制, 则大量细胞外基质无法得到有效清除, 加剧了肺纤维化进程。本综述主要对于成纤维细胞氨基酸代谢表型对肺纤维化进程影响进行总结。

肌成纤维细胞  /  胶原  /  自噬  /  氧化应激  /  细胞外基质

Pulmonary fibrosis is a common pathological change in many chronic lung diseases, and its pathogenesis and characteristics are mainly caused by repeated lung alveolar injury leading to abnormal activation of fibroblasts and the accumulation of large amounts of extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition. Fibroblasts are not only responsible for constituting the interstitial structure of the lung but are also involved in the post-injury repairment in healthy lung tissue. In contrast, fibroblasts show a typical pro-fibrotic metabolic phenotype after differentiation into myofibroblasts during the development of pulmonary fibrosis. To synthesis large amount of collagen, the myofibroblasts have a strong metabolism characteristic of serine/glycine, glutamine, proline, and arginine. At the same time, the myofibroblast get the ability to resist cell apoptosis. As an important cell type for collagen degradation, fibroblasts reuse the amino acids of collagen to maintain cell metabolism. However, the myofibroblasts cannot degrade the ECM due to the suppression of autophagy activity, thus accelerating the progression of pulmonary fibrosis. This review attempts to summarize how amino acid metabolism of fibroblasts influence the pulmonary fibrosis.

myofibroblast  /  collagen  /  autophagy  /  oxidative stress  /  extracellular matrix
刘雨欣, 花芳, 吕晓希. 成纤维细胞氨基酸代谢参与肺纤维化发生与发展. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (12) : 3519 -3527 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0614
Yu-xin LIU, Fang HUA, Xiao-xi LV. Amino acid metabolism of fibroblasts involved in the occurrence and development of pulmonary fibrosis[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (12) : 3519 -3527 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0614
肺纤维化是发生在肺间质的一种常见病理改变。临床中特发性肺纤维化(idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, IPF) 是一种慢性、进行性、纤维化性、间质性肺疾病(interstitial lung disease, ILD), 其病变早期以肺间质炎症为特征, 进而演进为肺纤维化及肺血管重塑, 最终导致患者呼吸衰竭与死亡[1]。虽然作为罕见病, IPF的患病率估计仅为每10万人中有2至29例不等[2], 但ILD患者人数众多, 多达2/3的ILD患者肺组织出现纤维化改变, 其中IPF患者诊断后的中位生存时间仅为2~3年[3]。除此之外, 多种肺部慢病如慢性阻塞性肺疾病、肺结核等也均伴有肺纤维化病变。
肺纤维化发病因素众多, 这些因素可以通过不同的体液细胞免疫途径或直接作用引起炎症因子释放, 导致肺泡损伤及异常修复, 进而导致成纤维细胞活化, 胶原及其他细胞外基质(extracellular matrix, ECM) 分泌增多、沉积, 肺血管重塑, 最终导致肺纤维化[4]。因此, 从细胞生物学的角度出发, 可以将疾病进程大致归结为上皮细胞损伤及炎症阶段、成纤维细胞迁移及活化阶段、组织重构及功能性修复失败阶段。炎性反应在肺间质病变早期阶段发挥着重要作用。在生理状况下, 肺部上皮细胞或内皮细胞受到损伤时, 先天性免疫及获得性免疫系统激活后, 修复损伤组织并重建稳态, 损伤修复随炎症的消退而停止。但反复、严重的损伤使免疫系统的修复功能失调, 最终引发持续的成纤维细胞活化和ECM堆积[5]。对早期肺纤维化的治疗以缓解炎症为主, 目前主要用于治疗的免疫调节药物包括皮质类固醇(糖皮质激素)、前体药物(硫唑嘌呤、环磷酰胺、霉酚酸酯) 和生物制剂(利妥昔单抗), 然而单纯的抗炎治疗并不能有效治疗肺纤维化, 说明炎症并非是肺纤维化持续存在的唯一原因[6]。至今为止, 美国食品药物管理局(Food and Drug Administration, FDA) 仅批准吡非尼酮和尼达尼布两种药物用于抗纤维化的治疗[7, 8]。然而, 这两种药物无法逆转肺纤维化, 只是起到延缓病情进展的作用, 还会产生一些不良反应包括腹泻和恶心(尼达尼布)、光敏性、疲劳、胃部不适和厌食(吡非尼酮) 等, 迫使患者停止治疗[9]。尽管高危患者可及时通过肺移植延长生存期[10], 也是从根本上解决肺纤维化的重要手段, 但合适供体的缺乏, 易引发气道并发症和移植后仅有59%的5年生存率极大限制了该治疗手段的临床应用[11, 12]。因此, 深入了解肺纤维化发病演进进程及细胞生物学功能变化将有助于发现全新治疗靶点, 制定有效干预策略。
成纤维细胞是结缔组织或器官间质中最常见的细胞类型, 其主要功能为分泌胶原蛋白、弹性蛋白等细胞外基质。在肺上皮细胞损伤后, 成纤维细胞在炎性环境的刺激下活化为肌成纤维细胞后通过释放大量ECM行使肺损伤后修复的功能[13]。肌成纤维细胞含丰富的内质网和高尔基体, 这些亚细胞结构与ECM的合成和分泌以及ECM的降解和清除密切相关[14]。肌成纤维细胞的细胞骨架重塑以及细胞表面整合素受体的表达也进一步调控了细胞运动和收缩[15]。在伤口修复的最终阶段, 肌成纤维细胞主要通过细胞凋亡途径去除。
除分泌ECM外, 成纤维细胞还拥有众多生物学功能。成纤维细胞可促进ECM蛋白共价交联或糖基化, 以及分泌修饰酶[如赖氨酰氧化酶、基质金属蛋白酶(matrix metalloproteinase, MMP)] 和MMP抑制剂来积极重塑ECM微观结构。成纤维细胞还可以通过自分泌和旁分泌调控组织免疫微环境, 也可作为祖细胞, 分化成间充质细胞[16]。肺损伤后, 成纤维细胞的异常活化导致不可逆的胶原沉积是肺纤维化病理改变的基础, 因此深入研究成纤维细胞活化的信号通路, 筛选可以抑制成纤维细胞活化甚至促进其凋亡的化合物都成为了抗肺纤维化药物研发的重要方向。
目前的抗肺纤维化治疗大体可分为抗炎治疗和抗纤维化治疗。FDA获批的两种抗纤维化药物吡非尼酮和尼达尼布均是针对成纤维细胞活化的药物。吡非尼酮可调节成纤维细胞内转化生长因子β (transforming growth factor β, TGF-β) 和肿瘤坏死因子α (tumor necrosis factor-α, TNF-α) 的信号通路, 抑制成纤维细胞增殖和胶原合成[17], 但其明确的分子机制仍有待进一步阐明。尼达尼布是一种受体酪氨酸激酶抑制剂, 可抑制血管内皮生长因子受体、成纤维细胞生长因子受体1~3和血小板衍生生长因子受体αβ相关的信号通路[7, 18, 19]。尽管吡非尼酮和尼达尼布仅可以延缓肺纤维化疾病进程, 且存在较大的不良反应, 但抑制肌成纤维细胞激活的多个潜在药物均在尝试通过临床研究获批IPF的适应症。如pamrevlumab (FG3019) 是结缔组织生长因子(connective tissue growth factor, CTGF) 的单克隆抗体, CTGF主要促进肌成纤维细胞活化, 广泛参与各种纤维化过程, 该药物正在进行IPF的III期临床研究, 同时也是目前唯一证明在IPF患者中有临床疗效的抗体药物[20]。Omipalisib是一种磷脂酰肌醇3激酶/哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶标(phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/mammalian target of rapamycin, PI3K/mTOR) 抑制剂, 能够抑制原代人肺成纤维细胞增殖和TGF-β诱导的胶原蛋白合成[21]。TD139能够抑制半乳糖凝集素-3 (galectin-3, Gal-3) 导致的具有促肌成纤维细胞活化能力的巨噬细胞募集和扩增[22]。PBI-4050是一种中链脂肪酸类似物, 通过调节巨噬细胞、成纤维细胞/肌成纤维细胞和上皮细胞功能来减少或逆转纤维化[23]
在肺纤维化进展过程中成纤维细胞的功能和角色发生显著变化, 在健康的肺组织中成纤维细胞通过合成IV型胶原维持基底膜结构, 而在纤维化病变时肌成纤维细胞分泌I、III、V型胶原的水平显著增加, 同时IV型胶原的表达也有所上升[24]。由于ECM中30%~70%的组成成分为胶原蛋白, 因此成纤维细胞胶原合成表型的改变对肺纤维化进展至关重要[25]。胶原蛋白分子由甘氨酸-X-Y的重复肽组成的3条α链螺旋而成。其中X和Y可以是任何氨基酸, 但通常分别是脯氨酸和羟化的脯氨酸(羟脯氨酸)[26]。因此, 在胶原蛋白中甘氨酸、脯氨酸及羟脯氨酸占胶原蛋白中氨基酸总量的57%之多[27]。即便除生物合成外, 胶原纤维的沉积和交联在纤维化疾病中也明显上调[25], 但胶原蛋白的大量合成仍然是肺纤维化出现的始作俑者。成纤维细胞在合成胶原蛋白的过程中需消耗大量甘氨酸及脯氨酸, 因此显著增强的丝氨酸/甘氨酸从头合成途经以及旺盛的谷氨酰胺、精氨酸向脯氨酸的转化均是肌成纤维细胞的典型代谢特征。此外, 成纤维细胞向肌成纤维细胞分化的过程中伴随着明显的能量代谢变化, 包括上调糖酵解途径和加强谷氨酰胺分解及精氨酸代谢, 它们最终都为丝氨酸/甘氨酸的从头合成与脯氨酸的合成提供了充足的能量, 进而促进胶原蛋白的合成[24]
细胞内丝氨酸和甘氨酸的从头合成可为胶原蛋白的合成提供重要原料。这一过程的起始步骤是由糖酵解中间体在磷酸甘油酸脱氢酶(phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase, PHGDH)、磷酸氨酸氨基转移酶1 (phosphoserine aminotransferase 1, PSAT1) 和磷酸盐磷酸酶(phosphoserine phosphatase, PSPH) 催化下转化为丝氨酸。甘氨酸则可由丝氨酸进一步代谢得到, 具体过程为丝氨酸经转羟甲基酶(serine hydroxymethyltransferase, SHMT) 催化, 最终形成甲叉四氢叶酸和甘氨酸。研究表明TGF-β与其受体结合, 可导致SMAD家族成员3 (SMAD family member 3, Smad3) 依赖性激活转录因子4 (activating transcription factor 4, ATF4) 和哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶标复合物1/翻译起始因子4E结合蛋白1 (mTOR/eukaryotic initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1, mTORC1/4EBP1) 轴激活。ATF4激活增加丝氨酸和甘氨酸从头合成关键酶的表达。同时, ATF4刺激葡萄糖转运蛋白1 (glucose transporter type 1, GLUT1) 的表达, 促进糖酵解合成葡萄糖衍生的甘氨酸生物合成, 及随后的胶原蛋白合成[28]。这些证据表明, 丝氨酸和甘氨酸的从头合成是TGF-β活化成纤维细胞的关键环节之一[29]。然而, 饮食中限制丝氨酸和甘氨酸不能抑制博来霉素(bleomycin, BLM) 所诱导的小鼠纤维化, 这说明靶向丝氨酸/甘氨酸代谢防治肺纤维化有待进一步证明[30]
除丝氨酸/甘氨酸代谢外, 谷氨酰胺代谢同样参与调控了成纤维细胞促纤维化表型。这个过程被称为“谷氨酰胺分解”, 首先涉及谷氨酰胺酶(glutaminase, GLS) 将谷氨酰胺转化为谷氨酸。然后谷氨酸通过谷氨酸脱氢酶(glutamate dehydrogenase, GLUD) 或氨基转移酶转化为α-酮戊二酸, 氨基转移酶包括谷氨酸-丙酮酸转氨酶(glutamic-pyruvic transaminase, GPT)、谷氨酸-草酰乙酸转氨酶(glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase, GOT) 和PSAT1。谷氨酰胺分解产生的α-酮戊二酸作为原料促进了三羧酸循环(tricarboxylic acid cycle, TCA) 进程, 加速核苷酸和脂肪酸的生物合成, 从而维持细胞能量供应和生物合成反应[31]。谷氨酰胺除了供应能量代谢, 其衍生的谷氨酸还可以通过Δ1-吡咯啉-5-羧酸合成酶(Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthase, P5CS), 将谷氨酸转化为吡咯啉-5-羧酸酯(pyrroline-5-carboxylate, P5C), 然后通过P5C还原酶(pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase, PYCR) 转化为脯氨酸, 进而作为原料合成胶原蛋白[32]
精氨酸是哺乳动物的一种半必需氨基酸, 可参与维持多种细胞功能, 包括细胞分裂、氨去除、一氧化氮合成、糖原生成、蛋白质合成和胶原蛋白合成等[33]。精氨酸可作为不同酶的底物参与机体代谢: ①在蛋白质合成所需的精氨酰-tRNA合成酶催化下产生不对称二甲基-L-精氨酸(asym-dimethylarginine, ADMA)、对称二甲基-L-精氨酸(symmetric dimethylarginine, SDMA) 及NG-单甲基-L-精氨酸(NG-monomethyl-L-arginine, L-NMMA); ②在NO合成酶(nitric oxide synthase, NOS) 的作用下形成NO及瓜氨酸; ③在精氨酸酶(arginase, Arg-1 and Arg-2) 的作用下生成尿素、鸟氨酸、脯氨酸、谷氨酸和多胺; ④在精氨酸-甘氨酸脒基转移酶的作用下产生肌酸; ⑤在精氨酸脱羧酶作用下催化形成胍丁胺和一氧化碳[34]。精氨酸虽然在IPF中的确切作用仍有争议, 但IPF患者血液中的确存在高水平的精氨酸及其代谢物。与正常肺组织相比, IPF患者的肺组织病变区域内的上皮细胞、成纤维细胞和肺泡巨噬细胞中精氨酸酶的表达增加[35, 36]。精氨酸剥夺增加了尼达尼布的功效并保护小鼠免受BLM诱导的肺纤维化[37]。同时精氨酸代谢所形成的肌酸、腐胺、亚精胺、4-羟脯氨酸和脯氨酸-羟脯氨酸二肽等组分促进了成纤维细胞三磷酸腺苷(adenosine 5'-triphosphate, ATP) 产生、ECM胶原蛋白形成和细胞增殖。精氨酸产物ADMA同样可通过上调Arg-1和胶原蛋白合成参与纤维化发展。ADMA可由二甲基精氨酸二甲基氨基水解酶(dimethylarginie dimethylaminohydrolase, DDAH) 进行调控。但抑制DDAH可以ADMA非依赖性方式减少成纤维细胞的胶原蛋白沉积, 这说明DDAH还参与调控成纤维细胞其他代谢途径[38]
胶原蛋白合成通常被认为是过量脯氨酸的代谢产物。谷氨酰胺和精氨酸可在P5CS或鸟氨酸转氨酶(ornithine aminotransferase, OAT) 的参与下转化为P5C, 最终形成脯氨酸。向培养的成纤维细胞中添加外源的P5C也可增加胶原的合成[39]。在肺纤维化和肝纤维化进展过程中, 由谷氨酰胺所合成的脯氨酸显著上调, 且成纤维细胞内PYCR1上调, 而将脯氨酸再循环回P5C的脯氨酸氧化酶(proline dehydrogenase, PRODH) 表达降低, 说明疾病进程中成纤维细胞可维持其促纤维化氨基酸代谢表型[40]。此外, PYCR1敲除可减少ECM含量及脯氨酸和羟脯氨酸水平, PYCR1突变患者可观察到胶原蛋白致密性降低和弹性蛋白含量降低的现象[41]。这说明脯氨酸代谢与ECM生产之间存在着直接联系[42]。除了细胞内合成的脯氨酸外, 细胞外脯氨酸同样是胶原蛋白合成的潜在原料来源。但外源性添加脯氨酸并不会增加培养成纤维细胞中的胶原蛋白水平[43]。这说明成纤维细胞合成胶原所需脯氨酸主要由自身合成提供。这一现象背后的可能性是脯氨酸合成在产生还原电位方面起着重要作用。PYCR1产生脯氨酸时将还原型烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, NAPDH) 或还原型烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NADH) 氧化为NADP+/NAD+, 这可以支持成纤维细胞糖酵解和磷酸戊糖途径的活化[44]。同样, P5C和脯氨酸的相互转化也产生了NADPH/NADP+, 这表明脯氨酸的产生可以在维持成纤维细胞氧化还原稳态中发挥作用[45] (图 1)。
成纤维细胞在特定情况下能激活分化为肌成纤维细胞, 产生过量的细胞外基质成分。肌成纤维细胞通常以α-平滑肌肌动蛋白(α-smooth muscle actin, α-SMA) 表达增加为特征, 同时表现出增殖能力提高且对凋亡具有抵抗能力。
正常生理状态下, 细胞在线粒体内或质膜上通过NADPH氧化酶作用产生活性氧(reactive oxygen species, ROS)。此外, 超氧化物可与一氧化氮(nitric oxide, NO) 反应形成各种活性氮(reactive nitrogen species, RNS)[46]。通常这些氧化应激所介导的生物反应是细胞信号传导和稳态所必需的, 与细胞对损伤的反应和细胞分化有关。在纤维化状态下, TGF-β诱导Nox4依赖性的ROS产生, 促进肌成纤维细胞活化、收缩、凋亡抵抗和ECM沉积[47]。对IPF患者的肺组织和生物体液的ROS进行量化后发现, 支气管肺泡灌洗液(bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, BALF)、血清和组织中ROS、羰基蛋白、异前列烷、乙烷、氮氧化物和亚硝基酪氨酸的浓度显著高于正常水平, 表明氧化应激和亚硝化应激均促进了IPF的发生和进展[48, 49]
谷胱甘肽是一种内源性的抗氧化剂, 主要由3种氨基酸组成: 谷氨酰胺、甘氨酸和半胱氨酸。谷胱甘肽具有还原型(G-S-H) 和氧化型(G-S-S-G) 两种形式。ROS通过与G-S-H中的巯基结合发生氧化还原反应, 使还原型谷胱甘肽转化为氧化型谷胱甘肽, 同时自身被氧化达到清除有毒物质或自由基的效果。IPF患者肺组织内还原型谷胱甘肽水平降低, 且氧化型谷胱甘肽水平升高, 说明肺纤维化患者体内由于还原型谷胱甘肽相对不足导致细胞出现氧化应激损伤[50]。谷氨酰胺的产生是谷胱甘肽合成的限速步骤, 谷氨酰胺也直接或间接负责合成谷胱甘肽中其他两种氨基酸成分—甘氨酸和半胱氨酸。然而, IPF患者肺组织及肺纤维化动物模型肺部中甘氨酸、谷氨酰胺和半胱氨酸水平较健康组织均显著增加。说明还原型谷胱甘肽水平降低不是由原料短缺引起的, 而可能是谷胱甘肽的合成速率受到限制[51]。谷胱甘肽的合成包括两个步骤, 首先谷氨酸半胱氨酸连接酶(glutamate cysteine ligase, GCL) 催化谷氨酸和半胱氨酸产生γ-谷氨酰半胱氨酸, 然后谷胱甘肽合成酶(glutathione synthetase, GSS) 催化γ-谷氨酰半胱氨酸和甘氨酸合成谷胱甘肽。这两种酶的活性降低导致了小鼠体内谷胱甘肽含量减少[51]。研究表明, 肺纤维化组织内一种增加的氧化应激产物过氧亚硝基阴离子(ONOO-) 可导致谷胱甘肽合成所需的酶发生特定的转录后修饰, 进而抑制其活性, 降低谷胱甘肽合成水平[52]。与此同时, 细胞内ROS水平升高可激活包括丝裂原活化蛋白激酶/细胞外信号调节激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase, MAPK/ERK) 通路、Smad蛋白、转录因子缺氧诱导因子1α (hypoxia-inducible factor-1α, HIF-1α) 和激活蛋白-1 (activator protein-1, AP-1), 诱导EMT促进肺纤维化。而作为EMT的主要效应分子, TGF-β又反馈性抑制谷胱甘肽合成中的限速酶, 加重细胞的氧化应激水平, 促进肌成纤维细胞活化[53]。乙酰半胱氨酸是抗氧化剂谷胱甘肽的前体, 可减轻ROS引起的肺损伤。在一年内使用高剂量乙酰半胱氨酸可减缓IPF患者的功能恶化, 是一种临床上广泛应用的抗氧化药物[54, 55]
肌成纤维细胞活化后, 由于胶原合成速率增加, 细胞内游离的脯氨酸和羟脯氨酸水平也同时上升, 这两种氨基酸具有抑制或清除氧自由基, 保护细胞免受氧化损伤的能力。游离脯氨酸和反式-4-羟基-L-脯氨酸通过芬顿反应抑制羟基自由基的产生[56]。游离反式-3-羟基-L-脯氨酸也可以与自由基形成复合物[57]。肌成纤维细胞在谷氨酰胺代谢过程中的分解产物能促进成纤维细胞中的抗凋亡基因表达, 同样有利于肌成纤维细胞的增殖和活化[58]。H2O2可以剂量依赖的方式在48 h内诱导IPF肺成纤维细胞α-SMA的表达[59]。从剂量反应曲线计算出对照肺成纤维细胞和IPF肺成纤维细胞对H2O2的LD50分别为28.7和136 μmol·L-1, 表明后者对H2O2引起的氧化应激的抵抗力显著强于对照肺成纤维细胞[60]。因此肌成纤维细胞具有高效清除氧自由基、抵抗细胞凋亡的特征(图 2)。
自噬是细胞维持正常能量代谢平衡的重要途径。通常自噬可通过分解长寿命蛋白和错误折叠蛋白来维持细胞蛋白质质量控制系统的稳定, 同时维持细胞营养和能量代谢[61]。肺间质中的胶原蛋白可通过MMP降解, 之后降解产生的片段可被特定的整合素受体识别或通过胞饮及其他受体介导的内吞方式被转运至巨噬细胞及成纤维细胞内, 这些成分被自噬体的双膜囊泡包裹, 然后自噬体与溶酶体融合, 内容物在自噬溶酶体中被降解[62-64]
通过自噬溶酶体途径降解的胶原蛋白可形成大量脯氨酸和羟脯氨酸及其他氨基酸成分, 这些游离的氨基酸可以重新被利用合成胶原蛋白, 维持细胞其他生化反应。羟脯氨酸在胶原蛋白中存在两种形式, 包括反式-4-羟基-L-脯氨酸和反式-3-羟基-L-脯氨酸。与反式-4-羟基-L-脯氨酸相比, 反式-3-羟基-L-脯氨酸在甘氨酸-X-Y三联体的X位上出现的频率很低[65]。反式-4-羟基-L-脯氨酸通过氧化酶产生甘氨酸、乙醛酸、乙醇酸和草酸盐, 由于哺乳动物饮食中缺乏甘氨酸, 因此即使动物体内胶原蛋白分解产生大量反式-4-羟基-L-脯氨酸, 但几乎不被排泄而是进入生产甘氨酸的代谢过程中[66]。反式-4-羟基-L-脯氨酸转化为顺式-4-羟基-D-脯氨酸后经过一系列代谢过程转变为α-酮戊二酸, 进入TCA循环从而参与细胞能量代谢过程[67]。反式-3-羟基-L-脯氨酸分解的主要产物为脯氨酸、谷氨酰胺和精氨酸[68], 其中后两者能够进一步转变为脯氨酸。除了继续作为胶原蛋白合成的底物, 脯氨酸还进入尿素循环产生多胺以支持组织的快速生长[69] (图 3)。
在纤维化形成后, 若大量的ECM无法得到有效清除则纤维化患者疾病难以得到转归。通常胶原蛋白的生成和降解保持着一定的平衡, 在维持组织结构完整的前提下脏器不会发生纤维化。但在肺纤维化患者中不仅发生胶原蛋白的过量生产, 胶原蛋白的降解水平也显著降低[25, 70, 71]。这说明在纤维化发展过程中, 一方面成纤维细胞活化成肌成纤维细胞从而产生大量ECM, 另一方面与成纤维细胞相比, 活化后的肌成纤维细胞胶原蛋白的降解能力降低。进一步的研究表明IPF患者肺组织中的自噬水平下降[72], 因此胶原蛋白降解水平的降低可能与自噬抑制密切相关。尽管IPF患者肺组织中发生了内质网(endoplasmic reticulum, ER) 应激、氧化应激和HIF-1α的升高, 但自噬并未被激活[73]。TGF-β是一种经典的促纤维化细胞生长因子, 在体外能抑制成纤维细胞中的自噬, 因此纤维化肺组织中的自噬水平降低可能与TGF-β的水平升高相关。mTOR信号通路被认为广泛参与各种细胞的自噬调节过程, PI3K-Akt [蛋白激酶B (protein kinase B, PKB)] 信号通路能诱导肺成纤维细胞增殖[74], 其下游靶标mTOR激活后抑制自噬使肌成纤维细胞丧失对于胶原蛋白过度合成的敏感性, 导致胶原蛋白合成和降解的平衡被打破, 促进成纤维细胞活化和维持其促纤维化表型[75]。此外, 自噬抑制导致功能失调的线粒体不能被清除, 细胞内大量活性氧堆积引发氧化应激, 因此自噬功能异常参与IPF的多个发病机制[76]
在抑制自噬的同时TGF-β还能够通过其下游信号通路增加ATF4的水平, ATF4是氨基酸代谢的主要转录调节因子, 促进从头合成丝/甘氨酸过程, 从而提供生产胶原蛋白所需的氨基酸底物, 以响应肌成纤维细胞分化。ATF4的活性同样依赖于mTOR信号的激活, 抑制PI3K可诱导ATF4[77]。此外, 谷氨酰胺分解产物α-酮戊二酸介导mTOR活化和脯氨酸羟基化以促进胶原蛋白稳定性[78]。抑制谷氨酰胺分解或转氨作用会损害谷氨酰胺介导的mTORC1再激活[79]。这些证据表明, 在肺纤维化中TGF-β一方面促进胶原蛋白合成所需氨基酸底物的大量合成, 另一方面抑制胶原蛋白的自噬降解过程, 从而保证损伤后肺组织内持续的修复过程。同时, 成纤维细胞氨基酸代谢和mTOR信号通路存在多个串扰位点, 影响细胞自噬核心复合物的形成(图 3)。
通常成纤维细胞在肺纤维化发病过程中被认为是最重要的效应细胞, 其异常活化引发ECM堆积, 促进疾病进展。然而越来越多的证据表明成纤维细胞在肺组织内扮演着胶原质量控制和肺生态维持的角色。成纤维细胞通过自噬等途径降解胶原后形成的羟脯氨酸等氨基酸原件同样可以作为能量来源供应细胞代谢。但活化后的成纤维细胞氨基酸代谢重编程不仅促进了胶原的合成, 也在羟脯氨酸形成过程中通过形成ROS加剧了肌成纤维细胞活化进程。因此成纤维细胞特定的氨基酸代谢表型是其维持促纤维化功能的重要原因。传统靶向成纤维细胞的治疗手段往往忽略了其在胶原合成及降解过程中的双刃剑角色, 因此发现特定调控成纤维细胞氨基酸代谢的药靶将有助于开发全新抗纤维化药物, 同时诱导成纤维细胞自噬活性也是有效清除ECM的治疗策略。BLD-2660是特异性抑制钙蛋白酶的药物, 目前处于II期临床研究中[80]。钙蛋白酶是一种钙依赖性半胱氨酸内肽酶, 有助于TGF-β下游信号传导, 同时有利于成纤维细胞产生胶原蛋白, 促进其增殖和迁移[81]。这些证据说明抑制TGF-β的抗纤维化药物可减少胶原合成, 但并非直接靶向成纤维细胞代谢表型。直接针对成纤维细胞代谢的抗纤维化药物还需进一步研究。
作者贡献: 刘雨欣负责文献检索和文章撰写; 花芳负责对文章结构逻辑进行构思; 吕晓希指导论文写作与修改, 对整体结构和质量进行把控。
利益冲突: 无任何利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金资助项目(82173875)
  • 中国医学科学院医学与健康科技创新工程项目(2021-1-I2M-026)
  • 中国医学科学院中央级公益性科研院所基本科研业务费(2022-JKCS-05)
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2023年第58卷第12期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0614
  • 接收时间:2023-05-11
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-12-12
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  • 收稿日期:2023-05-11
  • 修回日期:2023-07-10
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国家自然科学基金资助项目(82173875)
中国医学科学院医学与健康科技创新工程项目(2021-1-I2M-026)
中国医学科学院中央级公益性科研院所基本科研业务费(2022-JKCS-05)
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    中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 呼吸和共病全国重点实验室, 北京 100050

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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