Article(id=1198656292517671289, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198656283525087620, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0329, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=research-article, receivedDate=1679068800000, receivedDateStr=2023-03-18, revisedDate=1683820800000, revisedDateStr=2023-05-12, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763711530093, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1699718400000, pubDateStr=2023-11-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763711530093, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763711530093, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763711530093, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198656283525087620, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='11', pageStart='1', pageEnd='3476', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='null', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763711527949, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763711688683, updator=13701087609, preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198656957746872553, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198656283525087620, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198656957746872554, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198656283525087620, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null}, startPage=3296, endPage=3310, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198656293322977695, articleId=1198656292517671289, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Advances and applications of quantitative systems pharmacology modeling and virtual clinical trials in modern drug development, columnId=1190335348648547107, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=Reviews, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Quantitative systems pharmacology (QSP) modeling is an emerging computational medicine approach with growing applications and significance in modern drug development. QSP models are generally formulated based on multiscale disease mechanisms and drug-target interactions, which makes them capable of integrating multimodal data from the preclinical and clinical space. This also enables them to generate quantitative characterization of the dynamic disease progression as well as high-throughput predictions of drug-induced efficacy and toxicity signals. Therefore, QSP modeling and model-based virtual clinical trials have been widely implemented to guide drug development, in scenarios such as target identification and assessment, clinical trial design, evaluation of combination therapy and biomarkers, and personalized medicine. In US and Europe, QSP modeling has been developing rapidly in the past 10 years and is now an integral part of the model-informed drug development paradigm; however, in China it is still a nascent field. Here we will present a comprehensive review of the recent advancements of QSP and its impact in modern drug development through a number of case studies. This review will provide guidance for the future drug development efforts and the growth of QSP practice in China.

, correspAuthors=Chen ZHAO, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, authorCompany=null, fund=null, authors=null, authorsList=Chen ZHAO, Gai-ling LI, Ya-ning WANG), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198656294740652511, articleId=1198656292517671289, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=新药研发中的定量系统药理学(QSP)模型与虚拟临床试验: 发展及前沿应用, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

基于定量系统药理学(quantitative systems pharmacology, QSP)模型的药物转化研究是国际上新兴的前沿药物研发范式。通过构建覆盖多个生理尺度中疾病关联机制及药物-靶点相互作用的数学模型, QSP可系统性整合多模态的临床前和临床层面数据, 并从机制角度动态描述疾病发生发展过程及定量预测药物干预后产生的药效和不良反应。因此, QSP模型模拟和其衍生的虚拟临床试验分析已被用于指导新靶点和新治疗策略的发现与评估、临床试验方案设计、生物标志物筛选和个体化治疗等, 其可在多个层面高效提升药物的临床转化成功率。QSP的理念在欧美发达国家的新药研发产业已经历十余年的发展和实际应用, 并已逐渐成为现代模型引导药物研发模式中的重要部分, 而其在国内仍处于起步初期。本文将全面介绍QSP这一前沿方向的内涵与进展及其在全球创新药研发中的实际应用案例, 为推动我国QSP领域的发展以及原创新药的研发提供重要参考与指导。

, correspAuthors=赵宸, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=
*赵宸, E-mail:
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Beijing: NMPA Center for Drug Evaluation, 2021., articleTitle=null, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1198960268140180460, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198656292517671289, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=null, volume=null, issue=null, pageStart=null, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[90], rfOrder=89, authorNames=null, journalName=null, refType=null, unstructuredReference=NMPA Center for Drug Evaluation. Guidance Document-Model-informed Drug Development[R]. 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Chin J Clin Pharmacol Ther (中国临床药理学与治疗学), 2018, 23: 961., articleTitle=The value and general consideration of pharmacometric study in new drug development, refAbstract=null), Reference(id=1198960268354089973, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198656292517671289, doi=null, pmid=null, pmcid=null, year=2020, volume=25, issue=null, pageStart=1, pageEnd=null, url=null, language=null, rfNumber=[92], rfOrder=91, authorNames=Li J, Yang J, Wang Y, journalName=Chin J Clin Pharmacol Ther (中国临床药理学与治疗学), refType=null, unstructuredReference= Li J , Yang J , Wang Y . Applications of model-informed drug development (MIDD) on new drug research and development[J]. 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QSP survey paper Scope of survey Major conclusion
Nijsen et al., 2018,
CPT: PSP
Surveyed 20+ leading pharma companies in the IQ Consortium regarding application of QSP in R&D ① More than 80% of surveyed companies have started to use QSP modeling in R&D since 2015 or earlier, and 87% of companies consider QSP to play an "important/very important" role in R&D;
② Most companies report that they develop both medium-sized fit-for-purpose QSP models and large-scale QSP disease platform models; development times of QSP models are typically 3-12 months, with disease platform models being more demanding in terms of complexity and time spent.
Ermakov et al., 2019,
CPT: PSP
Surveyed 100+ modelers in leading pharma companies regarding the use of modeling tools and software ① 2/3 of respondents are QSP modelers; a significant portion of surveyed companies indicate that their QSP teams include 5-10 or 10+ personnels;
② Top 3 QSP Modeling Software: MATLAB, R, NONMEM;
③ Types of QSP Models: primarily ODE-based (95%), followed by statistical (44%), stochastic (29%), PDE (19%) and ABM (14%).
Bai et al., 2021,
AAPS J
US FDA held a QSP symposium with ~20 leading pharma companies, in which representatives from 8 companies presented R&D case studies of QSP ① The eight cases presented covered many major disease areas and multiple drug modalities: in five cases the role of QSP was rated "Good", in another two cases the role of QSP was rated "Excellent" which means QSP significantly facilitated their clinical development;
② Current application scenarios of QSP spanned various key stages from pre-clinical to clinical to post-market evaluation; from the regulatory standpoint, the QSP model building protocols and the methods of virtual patient generation as well as virtual clinical trials need further standardization.
Chan et al., 2022,
J PKPD
Surveyed 88 QSP modelers from 20+ leading pharma companies regarding the current practices of QSP in drug development ① Over 1/3 of respondents indicate that they primarily develop complex disease platform models; virtual patients/virtual clinical trials are the most common analyses for QSP models used in clinical stage;
② Multimodal preclinical and clinical data are often used during the formulation of QSP models, but the use of RWE and multi-omics data is uncommon;
③ O ver 50% of respondents indicate that their departments or companies never publish QSP models or never publish the complete model with data.
Lemaire et al., 2022,
Clin Pharmacol Ther
Surveyed 130+ scientists from leading pharma companies regarding the impact of using QSP in immuno-oncology drug development ① Approximately 46% of respondents are QSP modelers, 33% are clinical pharmacologists (non-QSP), and the remainder includes clinicians, statisticians, pharmacologists, etc;
② Top 5 drug development questions addressed by QSP: dose/regimen design, combination strategy evaluation, clinical trial simulation and design, biomarker assessment, patient stratification;
③ Top 3 challenges of QSP modeling: collection-analysis-sharing of experimental data, relatively long time required for model building, no uniform standards for model validation and evaluation of model predictive performance.
), ArticleFig(id=1198960251375547272, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198656292517671289, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

Summary of recent industry surveys regarding QSP in drug development. ODE: Ordinary differential equation; PDE: Partial differential equations; ABM: Agent-based model; RWE: Real world evidence

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
QSP survey paper Scope of survey Major conclusion
Nijsen et al., 2018,
CPT: PSP
Surveyed 20+ leading pharma companies in the IQ Consortium regarding application of QSP in R&D ① More than 80% of surveyed companies have started to use QSP modeling in R&D since 2015 or earlier, and 87% of companies consider QSP to play an "important/very important" role in R&D;
② Most companies report that they develop both medium-sized fit-for-purpose QSP models and large-scale QSP disease platform models; development times of QSP models are typically 3-12 months, with disease platform models being more demanding in terms of complexity and time spent.
Ermakov et al., 2019,
CPT: PSP
Surveyed 100+ modelers in leading pharma companies regarding the use of modeling tools and software ① 2/3 of respondents are QSP modelers; a significant portion of surveyed companies indicate that their QSP teams include 5-10 or 10+ personnels;
② Top 3 QSP Modeling Software: MATLAB, R, NONMEM;
③ Types of QSP Models: primarily ODE-based (95%), followed by statistical (44%), stochastic (29%), PDE (19%) and ABM (14%).
Bai et al., 2021,
AAPS J
US FDA held a QSP symposium with ~20 leading pharma companies, in which representatives from 8 companies presented R&D case studies of QSP ① The eight cases presented covered many major disease areas and multiple drug modalities: in five cases the role of QSP was rated "Good", in another two cases the role of QSP was rated "Excellent" which means QSP significantly facilitated their clinical development;
② Current application scenarios of QSP spanned various key stages from pre-clinical to clinical to post-market evaluation; from the regulatory standpoint, the QSP model building protocols and the methods of virtual patient generation as well as virtual clinical trials need further standardization.
Chan et al., 2022,
J PKPD
Surveyed 88 QSP modelers from 20+ leading pharma companies regarding the current practices of QSP in drug development ① Over 1/3 of respondents indicate that they primarily develop complex disease platform models; virtual patients/virtual clinical trials are the most common analyses for QSP models used in clinical stage;
② Multimodal preclinical and clinical data are often used during the formulation of QSP models, but the use of RWE and multi-omics data is uncommon;
③ O ver 50% of respondents indicate that their departments or companies never publish QSP models or never publish the complete model with data.
Lemaire et al., 2022,
Clin Pharmacol Ther
Surveyed 130+ scientists from leading pharma companies regarding the impact of using QSP in immuno-oncology drug development ① Approximately 46% of respondents are QSP modelers, 33% are clinical pharmacologists (non-QSP), and the remainder includes clinicians, statisticians, pharmacologists, etc;
② Top 5 drug development questions addressed by QSP: dose/regimen design, combination strategy evaluation, clinical trial simulation and design, biomarker assessment, patient stratification;
③ Top 3 challenges of QSP modeling: collection-analysis-sharing of experimental data, relatively long time required for model building, no uniform standards for model validation and evaluation of model predictive performance.
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新药研发中的定量系统药理学(QSP)模型与虚拟临床试验: 发展及前沿应用
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赵宸 1, 2, * , 李改玲 3 , 王亚宁 4
药学学报 | 综述 2023,58(11): 3296-3310
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药学学报 | 综述 2023, 58(11): 3296-3310
新药研发中的定量系统药理学(QSP)模型与虚拟临床试验: 发展及前沿应用
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赵宸1, 2, * , 李改玲3, 王亚宁4
作者信息
  • 1.南京医科大学药学院, 江苏 南京 210000
  • 2.南京医科大学第一附属医院, 江苏 南京 210000
  • 3.科盛达 (上海) 医药咨询有限公司, 上海 200000
  • 4.武汉朗来科技发展有限公司, 湖北 武汉 430000

通讯作者:

Advances and applications of quantitative systems pharmacology modeling and virtual clinical trials in modern drug development
Chen ZHAO1, 2, * , Gai-ling LI3, Ya-ning WANG4
Affiliations
  • 1. School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210000, China
  • 2. First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210000, China
  • 3. Certara Inc, Shanghai 200000, China
  • 4. Createrna Science and Technology, Wuhan 430000, China
出版时间: 2023-11-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0329
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基于定量系统药理学(quantitative systems pharmacology, QSP)模型的药物转化研究是国际上新兴的前沿药物研发范式。通过构建覆盖多个生理尺度中疾病关联机制及药物-靶点相互作用的数学模型, QSP可系统性整合多模态的临床前和临床层面数据, 并从机制角度动态描述疾病发生发展过程及定量预测药物干预后产生的药效和不良反应。因此, QSP模型模拟和其衍生的虚拟临床试验分析已被用于指导新靶点和新治疗策略的发现与评估、临床试验方案设计、生物标志物筛选和个体化治疗等, 其可在多个层面高效提升药物的临床转化成功率。QSP的理念在欧美发达国家的新药研发产业已经历十余年的发展和实际应用, 并已逐渐成为现代模型引导药物研发模式中的重要部分, 而其在国内仍处于起步初期。本文将全面介绍QSP这一前沿方向的内涵与进展及其在全球创新药研发中的实际应用案例, 为推动我国QSP领域的发展以及原创新药的研发提供重要参考与指导。

定量系统药理学  /  虚拟临床试验  /  机制建模与模拟  /  模型引导的药物研发  /  转化医学

Quantitative systems pharmacology (QSP) modeling is an emerging computational medicine approach with growing applications and significance in modern drug development. QSP models are generally formulated based on multiscale disease mechanisms and drug-target interactions, which makes them capable of integrating multimodal data from the preclinical and clinical space. This also enables them to generate quantitative characterization of the dynamic disease progression as well as high-throughput predictions of drug-induced efficacy and toxicity signals. Therefore, QSP modeling and model-based virtual clinical trials have been widely implemented to guide drug development, in scenarios such as target identification and assessment, clinical trial design, evaluation of combination therapy and biomarkers, and personalized medicine. In US and Europe, QSP modeling has been developing rapidly in the past 10 years and is now an integral part of the model-informed drug development paradigm; however, in China it is still a nascent field. Here we will present a comprehensive review of the recent advancements of QSP and its impact in modern drug development through a number of case studies. This review will provide guidance for the future drug development efforts and the growth of QSP practice in China.

quantitative systems pharmacology  /  virtual clinical trial  /  mechanistic modeling and simulation  /  model-informed drug development  /  translational medicine
赵宸, 李改玲, 王亚宁. 新药研发中的定量系统药理学(QSP)模型与虚拟临床试验: 发展及前沿应用. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (11) : 3296 -3310 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0329
Chen ZHAO, Gai-ling LI, Ya-ning WANG. Advances and applications of quantitative systems pharmacology modeling and virtual clinical trials in modern drug development[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (11) : 3296 -3310 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0329
在现代药物研发模式中, 临床试验是药物上市前必经的关键验证性环节。权威统计数据显示, 新药临床试验的整体成功率(从Ⅰ期启动至成功获批上市) 通常为10%左右, 且不同疾病领域中的临床成功率又有显著差异, 如肿瘤领域不到5%[1, 2]。同时, 新药临床试验的费用支出巨大且需要显著的时间投入: 2010~2020十年内美国食品药品监督管理局(Food and Drug Administration, FDA) 批准上市的共四百余个新药物的平均临床研究周期长达8~9年, 不同阶段临床试验的花费可达数百万美元(每个Ⅰ期研究) 至数千万美元(每个Ⅲ期研究)[3, 4]。此外, 全球临床试验格局呈现愈加拥挤和激烈的竞争趋势: 仅以肿瘤免疫领域中的PD1/PDL1抗体为例, 截至2021年底全球在clinicaltrials.gov网站注册的在研PD1/PDL1相关临床试验(包括单药和联用等) 已有近5 000项, 且该数字是2017年统计数据的接近3倍[5]。因此, 如何运用新方法和新工具提升药物研发中的临床试验成功率, 是全球制药企业和药品监管机构共同关心并持续探索的一项核心挑战。
围绕这一挑战, 并在基于大量前期研究工作的前提下, 定量系统药理学(quantitative systems pharmacology, QSP) 的新概念于2011年在美国国立卫生研究院的会议上被正式提出: 来自美国多所大学、药企以及FDA的专家小组共同讨论并形成了具有重要行业意义的QSP白皮书, 其将QSP定义为融合了经典药理学药动药效(pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics, PK/PD) 概念与系统生物学机制性数学建模思维的一种新型模型驱动的药理学研究方法[6]。通过构建覆盖分子、信号通路、细胞、组织、人体等多个生理尺度中疾病关联机制及药物-靶点相互作用的数学模型, QSP可系统性整合不同模式与维度的临床前及临床数据, 从机制的角度定量、动态地描述与预测疾病发生发展过程中的多尺度生理病理调控事件以及药物通过干预其靶点而产生的药效和毒性方面的生物学指标变化, 从而前瞻性地对临床试验进行高通量模拟分析以设计最优临床研究方案和避免临床试错, 实现更加高效且精准的由模型引导的药物临床开发(图 1)。因此, 在新药研发中QSP模型相比于传统的简单PK/PD模型被认为将具有更加广泛的应用场景, 尤其是在临床前靶标发现和确证、成药性评价及早期临床开发等关键阶段。经过十余年由方法学探索到案例验证到实际研发应用的逐步发展, QSP在欧美一线药企中已成为现代模型引导药物研发模式(model-informed drug development, MIDD) 中的重要组成部分[7, 8]
QSP作为一个伴随创新药开发而萌生的新兴研究方向, 其在欧美发达国家的制药企业和学术机构中已经历了十余年的快速发展, 而中国药企由于研发能力和发展阶段等客观原因普遍对QSP的前沿理念和方法了解较少, 具备相关科研背景的专业人才亦较为缺乏, 整体仍处于起步初期阶段。因此, 本文希望通过结合笔者们在海外多年的相关药物研究经历, 为国内同道们系统性地介绍和深入阐释QSP在国际前沿创新药开发中的实际应用和发展, 进一步推动QSP的方法理念在我国原创新药研发中的落地并使其更好地服务于我国日益蓬勃发展的生物医药产业。
如前所述, QSP的核心要素之一为系统生物学的机制性建模理念。系统生物学的数学模型研究方法于2000年前后开始兴起: 通过机制性地定量描述复杂生物信号通路中的生化反应和蛋白激活等调控事件, 早期的系统生物学模型展示了其对细胞生理和靶点干预模拟的潜力[9]。在同一时期, 欧美制药公司及高校的研究人员已开始逐渐探索类似的机制性建模理念在模拟更高层面如组织及人体生理病理及疾病-药物系统中的应用: 多家欧美大中型药企开始增加QSP相关的研发投入[10], 在服务领域也形成了如Entelos等第一批系统药理模拟咨询公司。
虚拟临床试验(virtual clinical trial) 是QSP模型研究方法中的关键环节。基于QSP模型涵盖的多尺度机制、变量和指标, 通常研究人员会运用多维实验数据进行模型优化并得出最佳的参数集, 从而可以较准确地定量描述患者体内的疾病进展情况和药物治疗响应, 即一个标准的“虚拟患者” (virtual patient)。然而, 许多重大疾病具有多机制高复杂性和患者应答高异质性等特点(如肿瘤患者在相同药物治疗后可出现完全响应/部分响应/稳定疾病/进展疾病等不同结局), 导致模型模拟出的“平均”标准患者有时不具有代表性和临床意义。因此, 在研究和分析单个虚拟患者应答的基础上, QSP模型也强调构建具有临床相关性的虚拟患者群体以分析群体层面生理病理异质性所导致的潜在药物治疗差异[11]。虚拟临床试验是指在参照真实临床试验流程、终点评价等规范的基础上, 在QSP模型衍生的虚拟患者群体中前瞻性地对不同给药剂量和方案下的临床疗效与毒性、不同药物联用治疗策略的可行性、生物标志物的关联性等关键因素进行预测和模拟, 并通过分析模拟结果指导实际将开展临床试验的设计与优化, 从而加速药物的临床验证进程。以上研究理念紧密围绕新药临床试验展开, 并在特定场景下可与另一概念——虚拟临床数据分析(对已有临床数据通过模拟临床的方式进行重新取样和统计分析以检验特定假设的有效性) 互为补充, 从不同角度推动药物的研发和评价。同样, 虚拟患者的概念也可被用于针对性地构建虚拟动物如基于QSP模型的虚拟小鼠等[12, 13], 从而充分融合动物实验数据以指导临床前的靶点评价。
建模工具方面, 近期的两项行业调查均显示QSP科学家更偏向于使用操作自由度较高的通用建模软件(如MATLAB、R、MoBi等) 而非传统的PK/PD建模专用软件[10, 14]。这一结果可归因于QSP模型的特质——即研究人员通常需要根据不同的目标构建不同的模型并从头设计全新的模型公式, 因此QSP建模需要高度灵活透明并可从底层数学公式入手的操作软件; 这一方面与群体PK/PD及基于生理的药代动力学模型(physiologically-based pharmacokinetic model, PBPK model) 对特定软件中已有内置框架的依赖性相比具有显著差异。此外, 相比于群体PK/PD或PBPK模型, QSP模型因为其较高的复杂度和其需要描述来自多个生理维度的大量多模态实验数据, 其模型开发通常需要更长的时间周期。并且, QSP模型在描述基本药物代谢/转运机制基础上更加关注疾病本身的发生发展机制以及疾病-药物之间的相互作用机制, 因此从药物如何起效(即PD) 的角度而言, QSP模型在论证成药性、设计临床剂量与方案、模拟临床结果、探索生物标志物以及反向转化等方面均具备独特优势[15]。知识体系方面, 大部分QSP建模科学家具有药学、工程类或计算生物学等交叉学科背景; 2011年的白皮书中也倡导QSP的研究生教育应注重生理、病理、药理、系统生物学以及计算机建模模拟、基础编程等多学科的融合[6, 10]
总体而言, 随着2011年QSP白皮书的正式形成, QSP模型与虚拟临床试验的研究方法获得了更多药企和监管机构的关注并迎来了重要的发展阶段(表 1)。2018年的行业调查显示, QSP在欧美日三十余家代表性制药企业中的应用场景已涵盖临床前到临床开发中的多个阶段, 且近90%受访药企认为QSP在其研发中起到“重要/非常重要”的作用[10]。在2020年FDA与20家欧美日一线跨国药企代表召开的QSP会议中, 由8家药企展示了各自近年来的代表性QSP应用案例: 其中7个获与会人员一致认可, 且在2个案例中QSP被认为极大加速了对应药物的临床开发[16]。2021年FDA官方发表的统计文章中也显示QSP模型分析已逐渐成为新药临床与上市申报材料中的重要部分: 其覆盖面包括十余个不同疾病领域, 且数量由2013年的不到5项增长至2020年的近60项[17]。2022年的一项研究报告调查了欧美20余家药企的近百名QSP建模科学家, 其结果显示QSP模型的常见应用场景包括临床剂量选择和给药方案设计、指导生物标志物的采集和关联的患者分层分析、评估药物联用治疗可行性、指导竞争赛道中的药物差异化开发策略、临床前的靶点优化, 以及提升对疾病-药物系统互作机制的理解和指导临床前实验等多个方面[18]。综上, 欧美发达国家的制药企业主导了近年来QSP领域的技术发展并从中切实受益, 围绕QSP在肿瘤免疫[11, 19]、神经退行性疾病[20, 21]等重点领域的应用也已形成了多篇重要的行业综述文章。
本章中将通过近年来国际上的代表性具体案例阐述QSP与虚拟临床试验的研究方法在全球前沿新药研发与监管审评中的实际应用, 涵盖临床前药物靶点和成药性评价、临床前-临床剂量转化与设计、临床试验方案优化与模拟、生物标志物筛选、组合治疗策略评估、以及安全性评价等多个方面。依据模型应用的疾病领域, 将分为肿瘤、神经退行性疾病、心血管与代谢性疾病、自体免疫类疾病、基因和RNA治疗、药物不良反应评价, 新冠疫苗及治疗药物共七大模块分别进行介绍。
在抗肿瘤新药Mosunetuzumab (全球首个CD3xCD20双特异性抗体) 的研发过程中, 美国基因泰克(Genentech) 的团队运用QSP建模和虚拟临床试验分析前瞻性地论证了一种全新临床给药方案的可行性, 并在后续的首次人体临床试验中成功验证了该模型设计新型给药方案的临床价值。
在这一研究中, Hosseini等[22]构建了描述非霍奇金B细胞淋巴瘤发生发展机制及Mosunetuzumab在人体中转运代谢及该药物如何与疾病机制相互作用的QSP模型, 并逐步运用多组临床前动物实验数据以及另一关联药物在非霍奇金B细胞淋巴瘤中的早期临床试验数据对模型本身和虚拟患者群体的预测性能进行了校准和优化。随后, 该模型被用于定量模拟多种不同给药方案下患者群体层面的抗肿瘤疗效以及细胞因子释放综合征(cytokine release syndrome, CRS) 这一核心不良反应事件的发生率, 并通过综合分析虚拟临床试验的结果得出了核心结论——即在首个周期内如采用低剂量多次递增的新方案将能有效降低CRS发生率并提高总体给药剂量和潜在抗肿瘤治疗效果。
基于上述分析, 基因泰克在Mosunetuzumab的Ⅰ期首次人体临床试验中即向FDA申报并获准实施了该新型给药方案, 临床结果证实了模型预测关键CRS指标的准确性, 以及新方案给药组相比于传统方案组成功实现了患者给药剂量的数倍以上提升, 并最终反映在新方案组中客观缓解率和完全缓解率等抗肿瘤疗效指标的翻倍以及两组患者中几乎相同的CRS发生率[23]。因此, 抗肿瘤疗效和CRS两个维度的数据均证实了QSP模型所设计新型给药方案的准确性和临床价值, 而该First-in-Class药物基于Ⅰ期的优异临床结果获得了FDA授予的突破性疗法认定, 使得其临床开发进程得到了显著提速, 最终于2022年成功提前获批上市[24]
在首个人表皮生长因子受体3 (human epidermal growth factor receptor 3, HER3) 抗体Seribantumab的药物研发过程中, QSP模型在其靶点确证方面发挥了重要作用。美国Merrimack公司的研发团队聚焦于经典的HER1-4信号通路网络开展了一系列机制性QSP建模研究[25, 26], 并通过模型敏感性分析结合实验验证率先揭示了HER3受体在这一复杂信号网络中尤其是控制癌细胞存活和耐药方面的重要作用。Merrimack公司围绕HER3这一模型确证的新靶点随即进行了对应抗体Seribantumab的开发和优化, 并进一步运用系统模型分析得出了关联的预测性生物标志物以指导该药物在肿瘤临床试验中的适应症和患者群体选择[27]。该药物被认为是首个由系统建模指导靶点选择并成功进入临床的抗肿瘤药物, 目前由美国Elevation Oncology公司接棒研发并处于临床Ⅱ期阶段(2022年该药获FDA快速通道认证), 被用于治疗具有NRG1 (即HER3配体) 融合突变的泛癌种患者。
近年来围绕实体瘤肿瘤免疫治疗这一前沿热点, 美国约翰霍普金斯大学的Aleksander Popel团队通过一系列建模研究系统性地构建了首个大规模、全机制的肿瘤免疫QSP计算模型平台和对应的虚拟临床试验分析体系(笔者之一为该项目重要成员)。该平台基于肿瘤-免疫互作系统中的大量细胞、细胞间和细胞内生理病理机制搭建, 并融合了不同药物治疗模式和对应的作用机制(包括单克隆抗体、双特异性抗体、小分子药物、化疗药物、表观遗传药物等), 以及在操作层面实现了基于MATLAB软件的模块化高效模型构建流程。该系列研究共包括了十余篇论文, 除了将这一创新QSP模型体系从头搭建[28]并全面地运用于包括乳腺癌[29-32]、结直肠癌[33, 34]、肺癌[35]、恶性黑色素瘤[36]、肝癌[37]等不同癌种的临床试验模拟、药效预测、组合疗法评估、生物标志物筛选等具体问题, Popel团队还首次开拓了肿瘤免疫QSP模型与空间肿瘤ABM (agent-based model) 模型融合模拟的研究思路[38], 并在研究中成功整合了肿瘤病理组学和单细胞测序的相关实验数据[39, 40]。该系列研究被广泛认为是全球肿瘤免疫药物研发方面的首个公开的QSP模型平台解决方案[11], 且其从多个应用维度详实地证明了QSP和虚拟患者/虚拟临床试验的研究理念在现代药物研发中的重要价值和应用前景。
而在同一时期, 欧美一线药企如百时美施贵宝公司、Certara公司等也纷纷投入了大量研发资源用于开发肿瘤免疫方面的QSP模型平台和模拟分析方法[11, 41]。囿于知识产权和数据保密等原因, 由上述制药企业主导的模型开发和应用成果大多并未公开发表, 但从其披露的部分信息仍能看出欧美一线药企对该领域的持续关注和投入以及其在复杂疾病QSP建模方面已具备全球领先的技术实力。
该部分将主要围绕阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer's disease, AD) 的研究案例进行介绍。
美国艾伯维(Abbvie) 公司的Clausznitzer等[42]针对AD的β淀粉样蛋白形成等机制构建了一个包含脑组织、脑脊液和血浆三个房室的QSP模型, 并于模型中重点描述了胆固醇和鞘脂的代谢失常及其与淀粉样蛋白形成的关联。Clausznitzer等运用了健康人和AD患者的多个临床指标数据以及两个关联药物的临床治疗数据对模型进行了校准, 并进一步运用模型定量预测了特定小分子激动剂A-971432调控鞘脂代谢通路下游作用的关键节点—S1PR5 (sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 5) 对淀粉样蛋白形成的影响。模型结果显示该小分子激动剂能有效抑制脑内神经酰胺和淀粉样蛋白的产生, 同时其不会影响体内具有神经保护作用的S1P (鞘氨醇-1-磷酸) 的水平; 以上模拟结果均得到了小鼠实验的对应验证。该工作展示了AD药物研究中QSP模型在新靶点探索验证以及推动临床转化方面的潜在应用。
围绕AD中的β淀粉样蛋白形成和脑内运输, 基因泰克同样基于QSP研究方法构建了模型模拟平台。在Ramakrishnan等[43]开发的QSP模型中, 研究者们详细描述了β淀粉样蛋白从单体产生到形成低聚体到形成淀粉样纤维及最终形成斑块的完整过程, 以及β淀粉样蛋白在脑中不同部位的转运。进一步, 该模型被用于建立APOE4携带AD患者以及非携带AD患者的对应虚拟患者, 并模拟和重现了多个β淀粉样蛋白抗体(包括其公司内部的Crenezumab和Gantenerumab及其他竞争对手产品等共计四个单抗) 在实际AD临床试验中各自的治疗结果数据。
针对同样的科学问题, 美国Applied Biomath公司也开发了类似框架的QSP模型平台[44], 并在模拟了多个β淀粉样蛋白单抗治疗数据的基础上又增加了β-分泌酶抑制剂等三个小分子药物的作用机制并重现了其临床试验数据。以上两个QSP模型均被用于定量评估影响AD病情进展和药物疗效的潜在不同作用机制, 以及通过前瞻性的模型模拟进而设计更为准确和有效的临床试验。
渤健(Biogen) 在其AD新药Aducanumab的研发过程中同样运用了QSP建模和评估方法。由Lin等[45]开发的QSP模型充分借鉴了前述相关模型所包含的AD机制和架构, 并从治疗前患者病理状态和体内标志物水平、治疗后患者血液和脑部药物浓度及标志物变化等多个数据维度进行了模型的校准和优化, 并进一步运用了Aducanumab的早期临床研究数据验证了模型在动态预测药物治疗效果方面的性能。在应用场景方面, Lin等展示了该模型在前瞻性预测剂量-疗效动态关系以及评估不同临床给药剂量及方案等方面的可行性。
此外, 在Aducanumab的FDA关键临床药理审评过程中, 虚拟临床数据分析也起到了重要作用。针对Aducanumab的两项Ⅲ期临床试验(301和302研究) 出现的潜在矛盾结果以及2020年该药物召开专家委员会时收到的问题, 笔者之一带领的FDA临床药理审评团队运用以上手段进行了药物疗效的检验, 即假设301的阴性研究结果(Aducanumab疗效仅与安慰剂类似) 为该药物的真实疗效, 计算Aducanumab在302研究中出现整体阳性结果的假阳性概率。围绕该假设, 研究人员从Aducanumab已完成的临床研究中随机抽取安慰剂组的疗效数据并按照302研究的设计框架将以上数据随机分配至虚拟安慰剂组、低剂量组和高剂量组, 并在综合考虑三个随访时间点上获得的所有四个不同临床终点数据的基础上, 通过大量的反复采样模拟计算最终发现302研究中出现整体假阳性结果的概率小于千万分之一, 并提示301研究的阴性结果有可能是源于其方案修订前高剂量亚组数据的影响(统计学2类错误), 从而间接证明了该药物的有效性, 并结合Aducanumab的量效关系模型分析和综合了所有以降低β淀粉样蛋白为目标的单抗药物的荟萃分析, 为支持该药物的批准提供了依据[46]
辉瑞(Pfizer) 在2008年前后曾围绕GPR119 (G protein-coupled receptor 119) 这一靶点开发针对2型糖尿病的创新药物。GPR119在当时被认为是糖尿病领域具有重大潜力的明星靶点并吸引了欧美包括辉瑞在内的十余家知名药企纷纷投身于该靶点的激动剂开发[47]。然而, 尽管已有竞争对手产品在Ⅰ期试验中显示一定疗效潜力, GPR119靶点的整体成药性仍具有较大不确定性。因此, 为了准确预测其在研GPR119激动剂的临床疗效从而为后续临床开发计划提供决策依据, 辉瑞的研发人员针对2型糖尿病的生理病理机制以及GPR119和其他多个关联靶点及治疗药物的作用机制构建了一个较全面的QSP模型平台[48]。随后在基于模型的虚拟患者群体中, 研究人员前瞻性预测评估了其在研的GPR119激动剂对比其他已上市不同机制药物(包括西格列汀, 艾塞那肽) 在降低患者糖化血红蛋白方面的效用, 发现其潜在最优疗效仅与西格列汀持平且距艾赛那肽差距较大。综合该药效方面的重要模型预测及其他管线考量, 最终辉瑞决定及时停止了其在研GPR119激动剂的所有临床开发计划。而在后续的几年中, 欧美多家药企包括强生、葛兰素史克等在GPR119靶点上的糖尿病Ⅱ期临床试验均因效用不足而宣告失败, 侧面印证了辉瑞公司决策的前瞻性和正确性, 尤其考虑到该决策成功帮助辉瑞公司避免了在GPR119这一靶点上的大量无效研发投入[48]
同样在糖尿病领域, 在辉瑞公司针对另一重要靶点即SGLT2 (sodium-glucose cotransporter-2) 抑制剂Ertugliflozin的研发过程中, 其研究人员也运用了类似的QSP建模和虚拟临床试验分析等手段, 前瞻性地为该药的临床方案设计提供决策指导, 最终显著加速了其Ⅰ/Ⅱ期临床试验的衔接和推进以及该药物的最终上市[48, 49]
围绕降血脂靶点PCSK9 (proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin 9), 赛诺菲(Sanofi) 与再生元(regeneron) 在其PCSK9单抗Alirocumab的联合开发过程中, 构建并使用了一个大规模的生理QSP模型, 用于前瞻性地评价和预测其单药及组合治疗的临床效果[50]。该模型较为系统性地描述了胆固醇在人体全身的代谢以及动脉硬化斑块的形成过程。在基于模型设计的五组代表性虚拟患者中, 研究者们预测了不同药物方案治疗后(包括Alirocumab, 他汀类药物, 贝特类药物, Ezetimibe) 低密度脂蛋白胆固醇的下降效果, 以及对应的斑块大小变化。该模型及其后续延伸可被广泛应用于降血脂类药物的临床成药性评价及新组合疗法的探索等药物开发场景, 而Alirocumab也于2015年成为首个获批上市的PCSK9抗体。
同样针对PCSK9靶点, 阿斯利康(AstraZeneca) 的研究人员则运用了一个小型的QSP模型, 主要包括了血液里胆固醇的合成与代谢以及PCSK9对低密度脂蛋白受体的作用[51]。该模型融合了两种药物治疗模式, 即针对PCSK9的抗体和siRNA (small interfering RNA), 并运用了共计5种靶向PCSK9药物的十余组临床试验数据进行了模型在多个血液指标上的拟合。研究人员主要运用该模型评估了PCSK9的抗体与siRNA两种不同模式在治疗高胆固醇血症方面的疗效差异, 并指出PCSK9 siRNA类药物需达到90%以上的转录抑制率方能实现抗体类似的治疗效果。
围绕心肾系统, 美国佐治亚大学的Melissa Hallow课题组构建了首个较完整的QSP模型用于描述人体内的血压调控与电解质平衡[52]。该模型从机制和数学的角度整合了心肾系统的多个核心要素, 如肾血管及肾单元结构、肾脏的滤过和重吸收、心输出量与血压控制、离子平衡、体内调控系统如肾素-血管紧张素-醛固酮系统、管球反馈等, 进而为药物新靶点评价、分析最佳治疗患者群体特征、临床生物标志物解读以及预测药物长期疗效等提供了重要的模型模拟平台。在其后续的拓展与优化过程中, 该模型多次被药企用于定量评估不同靶向药物——如阿斯利康的SGLT2抑制剂Dapagliflozin[53]和武田制药的肾素抑制剂TAK-272等[54], 在临床上对血压调控和心肾保护的效用, 充分展示了心血管系统药物研发中QSP模型模拟的重要价值。
针对哮喘这一免疫系统和呼吸系统重要慢性疾病的药物研发, 基因泰克团队首创性地开发了一个融合多模型组分的药物临床预测评价平台。该平台的重要模块之一为描述哮喘病程进展的QSP模型。Gadkar等[55]构建的机制性QSP模型运用了近20组哮喘患者气道组织及血液中的细胞和细胞因子浓度数据以及IL-13抗体、IL-5抗体、IL-4Ra抗体、TSLP抗体和IL-33抗体的临床治疗数据进行了详细的模型校准与验证。研究者们运用该模型对基因泰克在研的ST2 (即IL-33受体) 抗体进行了临床疗效预测, 并通过综合分析模型预测值与临床实测结果之间的偏差, 提示了ST2通路在经典的2型炎症性哮喘机制之外或具有其他影响病情进展的重要作用。
为指导其吸入性JAK (Janus kinase) 抑制剂的开发, 基因泰克团队在该QSP模型的上游又耦连了一个基于生理的药代动力学模型, 用于准确描述药物吸入后的肺部暴露量并将其作为QSP模型的重要输入, 而QSP模型围绕哮喘疾病进展得出的各项细胞和分子指标则可作为第二步输入进入下游的气道流体力学模型, 从而还原和模拟患者的FEV1 (一秒用力呼气容积) 和FVC (用力肺活量) 等关键指标。最终, QSP模型输出的生理指标连同流体力学模型的呼气指标共同作为第三步输入进入了一个统计学进展模型, 用于模拟哮喘患者在临床试验中的年化加重率。因此, 以上涵盖多模型组分的临床模拟平台可与哮喘的真实世界临床试验在多个尺度的观察指标和终点上实现头对头的量化比较, 进而实际通过模型模拟指导药物的关键性质优化和临床试验设计[56]
类风湿性关节炎是常见的免疫类疾病, 患者群体巨大且药物需求广泛。早在十余年前, 美国最早的QSP建模服务公司之一Entelos (后被合并) 就已针对该疾病开发了对应的系统性QSP模型平台[57]。该平台机制性地囊括了关节中的滑膜组织及软骨等重要结构, 以及参与关节炎发生发展的几十种不同细胞因子和巨噬细胞、滑膜细胞、T细胞、内皮细胞、软骨细胞、破骨细胞等细胞类型。研究人员使用了五种不同药物方案下的临床患者疗效数据建立了该模型在类风湿性关节炎治疗方面的预测性能, 并进一步量化分析了模型所涵盖的十余个潜在靶点的成药性。
该模型平台后续被默克公司(Merck) 用于评估血液中的不同细胞因子作为类风湿性关节炎疾病进展生物标志物的可行性[58]。研究人员基于以上QSP模型构建出120名不同的类风湿性关节炎虚拟患者, 并在模拟疾病进展一年后挑选出骨质流失最严重与最不严重的两个四分位患者小组, 随后基于这两组虚拟患者中初始表达量差异最为显著的细胞因子得出了四个初步的候选生物标志物。而后, 研究者们使用了两个独立的患者队列数据成功验证了CXCL13和ANG2 (均为模型得出的标志物) 对区分骨质流失严重患者具有显著预测效力, 以及该生物标志物与类风湿性关节炎患者长期关节损伤的关联, 为后续相关药物研究提供了决策依据。
补体系统是人类先天免疫系统的重要组成部分, 且其在多种自体免疫疾病的发生发展中扮演重要角色。围绕补体系统中的潜在可成药靶点评价, 葛兰素史克(GSK) 公司的Bansal等[59]开发了一个系统性的QSP模型, 详细描述了人体血液中及细胞表面补体系统的组分、激活步骤、及多个正负调控因子。Bansal等运用该模型模拟了几种自体免疫疾病中由于特定补体组分失调所导致的全身性补体系统紊乱, 并针对性地量化评价了干预补体系统中多个不同靶点的潜在治疗效果, 以及考察了对应的药物治疗如经典小分子和大分子药物为实现临床效果所需达到的结合亲和力、给药周期和给药剂量等关键要素, 从而展示了QSP模型在指导该领域临床前靶点选择和评估药物临床可行性等方面的价值。
辉瑞公司的Rao等[60]针对血友病的基因治疗构建了一个基于生理机制的QSP模型用于进行药物剂量预测和临床试验模拟。该模型包含了以肝脏为靶向的腺相关病毒8型(adeno-associated virus 8, AAV8) 载体在静脉注射后的人体分布, AAV8病毒与其受体的结合、内吞、运输和脱壳, 以及所递送的凝血九因子基因的转录、翻译以及血液分布、消除等过程。研究人员使用了小鼠实验数据以及其在研B型血友病基因治疗药物Fidanacogene elaparvovec的小样本临床试验数据对模型的参数进行了优化, 并进一步预测了患者群体中更高给药剂量下的量效关系和患者血液中凝血九因子的长期表达水平。该模型可被进一步拓展用于指导其他肝脏靶向AAV基因治疗药物的开发(如针对A型血友病等)。
镰刀型细胞贫血症是一种重要的遗传疾病, 其病因为人体β-肽链的氨基酸点突变导致异常的镰状血红蛋白形成并产生大量镰刀状红细胞, 从而引起人体局部组织和器官的缺氧缺血和功能障碍。赛诺菲公司的Kaddi等[61]围绕镰刀型细胞贫血症的体外基因编辑治疗开发了一个QSP模型, 用于支持其候选药物SAR445136的临床开发。通过机制性地模拟人体中红细胞生成的各个环节以及SAR445136的作用机制(即体外编辑患者的造血干细胞以充分表达正常的胚胎血红蛋白后再进行回输), 研究者们定量重现了PRECIZN-1临床试验中观测到的患者治疗后数据。CSL Behring公司的Zheng等[62]也针对镰刀型细胞贫血症的治疗构建了类似的QSP模型并融入了血红蛋白由单链到四链的详细形成机制, 随后运用模型敏感性分析定量考察了包括剂量、基因转导效率、淋巴清除等可能影响基因编辑治疗效果的多个因素。以上两个QSP模型为探索镰刀型细胞贫血症基因编辑类药物的细胞剂量、干细胞植入效率、基因编辑效率、患者异质性等提供了重要的模拟评价平台。
美国Alexion公司与Applied Biomath的Apgar等[63]围绕Crigler-Najjar综合征的mRNA药物治疗开发了一个QSP模型, 以支持相关产品的临床转化与首次人体临床试验设计。Crigler-Najjar综合征由先天性的葡萄糖醛酸转移酶缺乏引起, 因此, Apgar等设计的模型包含了包裹葡萄糖醛酸转移酶mRNA的脂质纳米粒药物ALXN1540在体内的分布与消除、肝脏吸收、肝细胞中mRNA的释放和转录, 以及新产生的葡萄糖醛酸转移酶蛋白对胆红素的代谢等环节。研究人员使用了大鼠中获得的实验数据对模型参数进行了优化, 并在人体中定量模拟了不同给药方案下血液中胆红素的水平变化, 从而为人体临床试验的剂量设计提供了重要支持。
由Peterson和Riggs等[64]共同开发的骨生理QSP模型被广泛认为是现代模型引导药物研发模式(MIDD) 中的经典应用案例, 其不仅在药企端的创新药物开发中发挥了重要作用, 在FDA对新药物的安全性评审中也被作为核心模型评价工具并产生了实际决策影响。骨生理模型最早是美国安进(Amgen) 公司团队在开发其抗体药物Denosumab时为回答临床试验设计中的一系列问题而研发的多尺度QSP模型。其包含了详细的骨生理和钙离子稳态调控相关机制, 涉及骨、胃肠道、肾、甲状旁腺、血管等器官且囊括多种骨细胞、细胞因子、激素、转录因子、维生素及生物小分子等指标, 并被用于前瞻性模拟临床目标人群在Denosumab及甲状旁腺激素治疗后的骨密度变化和骨折风险等。除了在推动Denosumab的临床开发直至2010年上市过程中发挥了重要作用外, 该模型也被应用在多个其他关联药物的开发中, 如辉瑞公司的促性腺激素释放激素类似物项目和第一三共公司的口服钙敏感受体拮抗剂项目等[65]
2014年, FDA在针对美国NPS Pharmaceuticals公司的人重组甲状旁腺激素产品Natpara的上市审评中, 使用了以上骨生理模型对现有临床给药方案进行了评估并提出了新的优化方案[65, 66]。Natpara被用于治疗甲状旁腺功能减退症患者中的低钙血症, 其已完成的临床试验采取了25~100 μg每日一次的给药方案并实现了血钙水平的有效控制, 但有较大部分受试者出现了高钙尿症的表现, 因此该给药方案是否应进一步优化是评审关注的重点问题之一。针对这一问题, FDA运用了以上骨生理QSP模型并在进行了必要的额外模型验证后模拟了每日两次的Natpara给药, 发现50 μg每日两次的新方案将能有效控制血钙浓度以及大幅降低患者的尿钙水平, 有望实现更大程度的患者获益和更小的不良反应。最终基于该模型分析得出的关键结论, FDA在审评报告中要求NPS Pharmaceuticals增加上市后研究, 其中即包含两项测试新给药方案有效性和安全性的临床研究。该案例被认为是权威药品监管机构首次依靠复杂QSP模型进行关键审评决策的重要事件, 其对QSP领域持续的蓬勃发展产生了积极影响。
大分子药物的免疫原性是药物研发中的常见问题。抗体蛋白序列的生物信息学分析与体外MHC结合和免疫细胞活化实验是常用的大分子免疫原性评估手段, 然而以上方法无法被用于定量推测患者体内抗药抗体(anti-drug antibody, ADA) 产生的水平和动态变化以及其对治疗性抗体药物在药效方面的实际影响。因此, 基于机制性QSP模型的评估方法被提出并逐渐作为新的工具应用于大分子药物免疫原性评价和临床ADA水平模拟等场景[67]。围绕该应用目标, 最早由辉瑞公司的Chen等[68]构建了一个经典的多尺度机制性QSP模型, 其涵盖了体液免疫应答中树突细胞、B细胞、T细胞、浆细胞的细胞增殖、分化、激活、抗原呈递和识别、ADA分泌, 以及治疗性抗体和ADA的体内分布和结合互作等关键过程。基于该模型覆盖的广泛机制, 其模拟输出的血浆中免疫细胞计数、ADA浓度、治疗性抗体浓度、患者群体中的ADA阳性率等定量化指标均可与临床试验数据进行直接比较[69]
2017年, Certara公司牵头联合多家欧美知名药企成立了免疫原性QSP模型研究联盟, 旨在开发出通用的可满足临床申报标准的大分子免疫原性预测平台软件[67]。Certara公司的研究人员进一步拓展了Chen等模型中关于体液免疫的生理机制, 并添加了生物大分子体内分布的生理药代动力学PBPK模块(即Symcyp®平台), 以及进一步在模型中融合了联盟中各家药企已有的免疫原性数据, 包括不同抗体药物所对应的体外实验、动物实验和临床试验数据。目前, 已开发出的QSP平台(即Certara的IG Simulator) 实现了输入特定治疗性抗体药物对应的PK、免疫原性生物信息学预测以及体外细胞实验结果, 即可输出临床患者群体中该药物引起的潜在ADA表达水平变化、PK数据和ADA阳性率等预测, 并已在十余个单克隆抗体药物的数据中得到了验证[67]。该QSP平台于2022年被FDA引进用于研究和评估大分子药物的免疫原性; 研究人员仍在对其进行持续优化以进一步提升对更多新模式大分子药物的预测性能, 包括双特异性抗体、免疫细胞因子等[70]
评估药物对人体心血管系统的毒副作用是创新药物研发过程中必须关注的环节, 其中, 测试药物对心肌细胞上离子通道的阻滞以及评估其导致的尖端扭转型室性心动过速(torsades de pointes, TdP) 等潜在心律失常风险是核心重点。然而, 传统的评估手段如体外hERG通道阻滞实验以及临床上对QT间期的测量等均具有特异性低、标准不明确等缺点。因此, FDA于2013年牵头启动了CiPA (comprehensive in vitro proarrhythmia assay) 项目计划, 旨在建立一套标准化的可融合机制性心肌细胞定量系统计算模型与体外电生理实验的整合评价体系, 使得药物研发机构可以尽早地在临床前阶段进行更准确的TdP心律失常风险评估, 从而加速药物的安全性审评和避免不必要的临床试验[71]。研究人员整体使用了美国圣路易斯华盛顿大学O'Hara等[72]开发的机制性心肌细胞系统生理模型作为计算部分的基础, 并在运用了一组含12个药物的数据集(主要为各药物在体外对相关心脏离子通道的阻滞数据和TdP风险分类数据) 进行了适当模型优化后, 设计了新的基于模型模拟多个离子通道电流的前瞻性TdP风险打分评估标准。随后, 该模型和评估标准在一个包含16个药物的新数据集中得到了较准确的验证, 且其相比于文献中常见的其他打分标准具有显著优势。综上, CiPA的计算模型研究方法以及其针对人多能诱导干细胞分化心肌细胞的实验工作充分展示了新型体外方法对推测临床患者发生药物相关TdP风险的可行性[73], 其围绕药物致心律失常风险的临床前多模态整合评估所传递出的核心理念已被纳入国际上最新的ICH E14/S7B指导原则并在全球范围内逐步落地执行[74]
肝脏是人体药物代谢的重要器官, 而药物的肝毒性也是药物安全性评价的核心重点之一。尽管体外实验方法已被广泛应用于临床前的药物肝毒性评价, 其结果的解读与预测患者临床层面出现的潜在肝损伤事件之间仍存在明显鸿沟。针对以上难题, 美国于2011年启动了一项涉及学术机构、药企和FDA三方的合作研发项目——DILIsim计划。该计划通过数年的努力开发出了DILIsym®模型软件(现为美国SimulationsPlus公司一部分)——即首个基于机制性定量系统药理-毒理模型的小分子药物临床肝毒性预测平台[75]。该平台围绕小分子药物引发肝毒性的基本生物学原理和机制, 包含了药物分布与代谢、肝细胞生命周期、脂代谢与脂毒性、氧化应激反应、胆汁酸的处置与毒性、线粒体功能、生物标志物分泌以及免疫反应等子模块。与以上CiPA模型和免疫原性平台类似, DILIsym®模型使用不同小分子药物对应的体外实验数据(活性氧水平、线粒体毒性、胆汁酸转运体抑制) 以及药物的代谢分布数据作为特异性输入, 并进一步通过结合PBPK模块以预测输出不同种属动物以及不同人群中药物引发的肝毒性指标变化, 如谷丙转氨酶、谷草转氨酶、胆红素等, 从而为药物的临床肝毒性评价提供重要量化依据。该模型平台已在多个药物的肝毒性评估与临床申报中发挥了重要作用, 并已被FDA引进用于研究和评价药物的肝毒性机制[76]
在新冠疫情席卷全球之际, Certara公司首创性地开发构建了其基于机制性QSP模型的新冠疫苗临床模拟平台[77]。该平台基于Certara公司已有的免疫原性平台(IG simulator) 拓展而来并新增了包括mRNA脂质纳米粒疫苗递送、AAV疫苗递送等多个生理模块, 从而系统性地描述了外源性疫苗诱导人体免疫反应的各个环节和细胞分子机制, 且其模型输出中诸如中和抗体滴度、T细胞免疫强度、免疫记忆/长期免疫等指标均可和真实临床试验中患者的实测指标形成直接对应和量化比较。在针对全球两大mRNA新冠疫苗mRNA-1273 (Moderna) 和BNT162b2 (辉瑞/BioNTech) 的临床试验模拟中, 该QSP模型平台前瞻性地提出预测——接种间隔7或8周将能最有效维持患者体内的抗体滴度, 而这一预测后续得到了PITCH研究的验证[78]。该QSP模型平台为评价疫苗临床试验中的关键问题——如人体剂量选择、儿童老人等特殊群体的剂量调整、接种周期选择、不同模式疫苗的混打可行性等提供了高效率的全新解决方案, 并已被实际应用于多个新冠疫苗产品的临床开发中。
美国礼来公司在其新冠中和抗体Bamlanivimab的临床开发中创新性地构建了病毒复制动力学模型并依据模型分析结果指导了其关键临床剂量的选择[79]。该病毒复制动力学模型除包含经典的抗体二房室分布外, 还涵盖了病毒感染肺泡细胞、细胞内病毒复制、病毒释放、细胞死亡, 以及抗体结合并中和病毒等机制。模型模拟结果显示Bamlanivimab给药700 mg即可实现较大程度的病毒清除, 而进一步增加给药剂量带来的额外抗病毒获益则较小。研究者们同时也构建了详细的抗体组织分布PBPK模型; PBPK模型预测给药剂量175~500 mg为潜在临床有效剂量, 即该剂量下患者肺部组织的药物浓度可维持在体外病毒清除实验的IC90浓度值以上。综合病毒动力学模型以及PBPK模型的分析结果, 最终Bamlanivimab的首次人体临床试验采纳700 mg作为临床起始剂量。该新冠治疗药物后续于2021年2月获FDA紧急使用授权(Bamlanivimab与Etesevimab联用), 其临床治疗剂量确定为700 mg。
辉瑞公司的研究人员围绕抗新冠病毒治疗性药物的开发构建一个系统性的QSP模型平台[80, 81]。该模型涵盖了参与调控新冠病毒感染及炎症反应的近十种免疫细胞和十余种细胞因子之间的生理病理相互作用, 以及上述过程介导的肺组织损伤和炎症相关的临床生物标志物的产生与释放, 包括C反应蛋白、铁蛋白、表面活性蛋白D等。研究人员首先通过不同的模块测试确保模型在模拟病毒感染后的多项生理病理指标变化方面与真实患者感染后的反应具有定量可比性; 同时, 针对重要临床观测指标如病毒载量、干扰素、白介素6等, 模型生成的虚拟患者群体可较准确描述临床患者群体中所观测到的数值范围。随后, 研究人员引入了多种潜在治疗性药物的作用机制, 包括礼来与再生元公司的抗体鸡尾酒疗法和默克公司的小分子抗病毒药物, 并运用了对应的临床试验数据对QSP模型生成的虚拟患者群体的临床表现进行了优化与定量验证。
在辉瑞公司的重磅新冠药物Paxlovid的临床推进过程中, QSP模型在多个关键节点上的使用极大加速了Paxlovid首次人体临床研究与后续验证性研究之间的无缝衔接。在Paxlovid“与时间赛跑”的临床开发进程中, 研究人员运用上述QSP模型和虚拟临床试验得出关键前瞻性预测——连续5天的治疗方案可带来显著临床获益且具有最优性价比, 而该方案随后被成功运用在Paxlovid的关键性Ⅱ/Ⅲ期临床试验里(EPIC-HR), 其科学性和有效性最终得到了临床结果的充分验证[82, 83]。以上结果展示了该系统性QSP模型可作为评估新冠治疗药物临床可行性的高通量方法学平台以及其在现代模型引导药物研发模式中的重要价值。
2019年, 时任FDA临床药理办公室主任的Zineh博士撰文讨论了QSP领域的发展。从监管层面的角度, Zineh[84]认为QSP对药物研发的指导价值正通过越来越多的案例得到充分体现, 其已成为MIDD理念的重要组成部分且将在未来持续处于稳步上升的发展状态。目前欧美发达国家药企围绕QSP与虚拟临床试验的研究理念正进一步加大研发投入和扩充技术团队, 许多一线跨国药企如辉瑞、百时美施贵宝、阿斯利康等公司中的QSP部门已有10余人的规模并覆盖了公司内所有疾病领域的新药研发, 产业中也涌现出越来越多的CRO (contract research organization) 类公司。
QSP领域未来的技术发展方向大致可分为以下几个层面。一是继续深化细化特定病种的大规模QSP模型平台。该类平台往往针对特定疾病领域构建(如文中提及的肿瘤免疫模型平台、糖尿病模型平台等), 通常包含较广泛全面的疾病相关生理病理机制以及多个治疗性靶点, 因此其有较大潜力融合多个不同药物的多尺度数据以及患者的多组学数据等, 从而建立具有高度临床相关性的虚拟患者群体并通过虚拟临床试验回答诸如新靶点的有效性、最优联合治疗策略、生物标志物等临床试验中的关键问题。其可被多次迭代性地用于评估和指导某一(类) 疾病领域中不同靶点、不同模式药物的开发, 因此在这一方向上的投入对药企具有显著的长期价值。二是QSP模型与其他建模手段的融合。QSP模型通常基于常微分方程和生物学机制构建, 其演算结果具有输入-输出确定性(deterministic) 和可解释性的特点, 因此其可与强调概率性的统计进展建模、强调空间异质性和随机性的ABM (agent-based modeling) 建模, 以及强调物理性质的流体力学建模等进行有机融合, 从而达到对更多疾病宏观及微观特征的多尺度定量定性重现。本文中介绍的哮喘QSP模型平台即为一个QSP与多种其他建模手段融合的代表性案例。另外, QSP模型也可与机器学习算法融合进行模型参数估计、模型指标降维分析、基于代理模型(surrogate model) 的快速模拟等方面的探索[85]。其他与药物研发关联紧密的发展方向还包括QSP模型与器官芯片/微生理系统的融合[86, 87]等。
2020年FDA与欧美日一线跨国药企代表召开的QSP会议中详细讨论了QSP领域目前发展面临的挑战[16]。参会人员意见可总体归纳为三个方面: 模型的范围和复杂度, 模型的校准与验证, 以及模型的临床预测性能。首先, QSP模型基于其本身围绕疾病-药物互作机制的特点, 针对不同疾病/不同靶点机制/不同药物开发的模型在内容与结构上通常具有很大差异, 很难像群体PK或PBPK模型一样拥有特定的通用结构或模式。另外, QSP模型的总体机制复杂度较高, 尤其是大型多靶点的QSP疾病模型平台。这些原因导致QSP模型的第三方评估(如监管机构对模型的审评) 通常需要耗费大量时间且需要高度专业的人员。围绕这一问题, 提升模型的公开度是解决方案之一, 如鼓励工业界和学术界对QSP模型的发表和共享。然而, 考虑到QSP模型的知识产权及其包含的药企独家数据等原因, 该倡议的推行仍需全行业共同努力: 2022年的QSP行业调研显示仅17%欧美药企表示会公开发表完整模型内容, 有超过50%的药企表示“从不公开发表模型内容”或“从不发表完整的模型内容”[18]
关于模型的校准与验证, QSP模型因其研究目标多为较完整地描述某一疾病-药物互作系统, 其通常会包含较多机制和通路(在数学公式化后则成为模型变量和参数)。在模型校准过程中, 研究人员通常会尽可能搜集和使用模型内容相关的已发表公开数据以及药企内部的实验数据(包括细胞实验、动物实验、临床试验等)。如何评价不同来源数据的质量则是不容忽视的问题, 考虑到每一组纳入的数据均会不同程度驱动模型的整体表现。此外, QSP模型包含的生理变量和参数较多, 通常难以实现所有参数的可识别性和约束性, 而该因素会影响QSP模型预测的可信度。针对该问题, 除常用的模型敏感性/不确定性分析外[88], 建立虚拟患者群体以分析群体层面的参数变异导致的模拟结果差异也是重要解决方案之一。在模型验证方面, 考虑到QSP模型的多样性, 从业人员需进一步探讨制订出更加广泛适用的模型验证标准。
在模型的临床预测能力方面, 一个挑战即为QSP模型对临床试验中常见的复合终点和打分指标的描述能力, 如肿瘤临床试验中的患者死亡(及对应的总生存期)、AD中的认知功能评分等。尽管QSP模型相较于传统极简PKPD模型在描述该类复合指标的内涵方面具有明显机制性优势, 其固有的输入-输出客观确定性仍限制了其对复合终点/指标中随机性和主观性的考量。潜在解决方案包括采用机器学习方法或不同种建模手段的融合以建立更稳健的“生物标志物-复合评分指标”间的因果关联等。
总体而言, 为进一步提升QSP模型在指导新药临床试验与申报中的价值, 与会专家们倡议QSP行业应在未来践行更加标准化的模型“立项-构建-校准-验证-应用”论证流程和报告撰写格式以更好地应对监管机构的审评, 同时在评价模型的预测性能与基于模型决策的风险方面也需要建立更加统一的量化标准[16]
2021年, 国家药品监督管理局药品审评中心(CDE) 发布了《创新药临床药理学研究技术指导原则》, 其中的模型研究部分总体以讨论群体PKPD、PBPK为主, 在“其他前沿方法”章节中首次提及了QSP并鼓励企业在科学合理的条件下运用该类新技术进行研究探索[89]。此外, 综合笔者们近年来与国内大量行业头部药企的交流和反馈, 即便在国内本土的代表性药企中, 也仅有少部分设有从事基础药理建模模拟的技术岗位与人员, 在QSP方向上的布局则更是处于初期的起步状态。值得注意的是, 如进一步考虑群体PKPD和PBPK模型对现有商业软件的依赖, 则笔者推测其中仍有部分人员并不完全具备从底层数学和生理逻辑开展从头建模的能力, 而该能力在开展QSP建模研究中至关重要。以上相关行业文件和信息(如上述指导原则和CDE于2020年底发布的《模型引导的药物研发技术指导原则》等[90]) 从侧面反映了国内药企目前MIDD的主要运用状态, 即以群体PKPD模型为主并逐渐涉及到PBPK模型, 而在QSP等领域仍处于起步初期并存在技术人才缺乏的问题, 其整体在MIDD的前沿方向上与欧美发达国家相比仍有一定差距。
人才储备方面, 目前欧美发达国家药企对QSP人才的需求持续增加, 而全球具备相关科研实力的高校课题组数量有限, 导致高层次专业人才主要向欧美集聚并形成正向循环, 如笔者之一博士所在的约翰霍普金斯Popel课题组近几年已为欧美各大制药企业和CRO输送了十余名QSP博士科学家。当下, 国内对定量药理学的认知已逐渐与国际接轨[91, 92], 人才需求显著增加, 培养能力与条件逐步向好, 但考虑到传统定量药理与QSP之间仍存在一定的理念和方法学差异, 本土QSP人才的培养仍需时间。另一方面, 更多海归专业人才的加入亦将能很好地推动QSP的方法理念在国内药物研发环境中的落地与认可。综上, 我们期待在不远的将来QSP的模型研究方法也能为中国的原创新药研发提供新的技术平台并发挥关键推动作用。
致谢: CDE临床药理部王玉珠博士和李健博士对本文提出了宝贵意见。
作者贡献: 赵宸主要负责论文的框架设计、资料收集与主体撰写; 所有作者均参与了论文设计、撰写与修改。
利益冲突: 所有作者均声明无利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金项目(82204545)
  • 工信部、药监总局揭榜挂帅项目(人工智能辅助诊疗器械临床试验平台)
  • 江苏特聘医学专家人才项目
  • 中国科协青年人才托举工程项目(YESS20210160)
  • 江苏省前沿引领技术基础研究重大项目(BK20222008)
  • 江苏省科技厅创新能力建设项目(BM2021004)
  • 南京市生命健康科技专项(20210010)
  • 南京医科大学高层次引进人才基金(NMUR20210006)
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2023年第58卷第11期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0329
  • 接收时间:2023-03-18
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-11-12
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  • 收稿日期:2023-03-18
  • 修回日期:2023-05-12
基金
国家自然科学基金项目(82204545)
工信部、药监总局揭榜挂帅项目(人工智能辅助诊疗器械临床试验平台)
江苏特聘医学专家人才项目
中国科协青年人才托举工程项目(YESS20210160)
江苏省前沿引领技术基础研究重大项目(BK20222008)
江苏省科技厅创新能力建设项目(BM2021004)
南京市生命健康科技专项(20210010)
南京医科大学高层次引进人才基金(NMUR20210006)
作者信息
    1.南京医科大学药学院, 江苏 南京 210000
    2.南京医科大学第一附属医院, 江苏 南京 210000
    3.科盛达 (上海) 医药咨询有限公司, 上海 200000
    4.武汉朗来科技发展有限公司, 湖北 武汉 430000

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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