Article(id=1198656220635688964, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198656209390764948, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0320, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1678982400000, receivedDateStr=2023-03-17, revisedDate=1684252800000, revisedDateStr=2023-05-17, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763711512955, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1697040000000, pubDateStr=2023-10-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763711512955, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763711512955, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763711512955, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198656209390764948, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='10', pageStart='2835', pageEnd='3150', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1697040000000', pubDateStr='2023-10-12', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763711510274, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1763711659007, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198656833280897539, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198656209390764948, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198656833280897540, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198656209390764948, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=2952, endPage=2960, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198656221017370663, articleId=1198656220635688964, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Research advances on dihydrofolate reductase inhibitors in the treatment of tumors and bacterial infections, columnId=null, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

Dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) is a well-known key target in the treatment of tumors, bacterial infections, and parasitic infections; and it plays a critical role in the biosynthesis of cellular DNA. DHFR inhibitors interfere with one-carbon metabolism by inhibiting substrate binding to DHFR, thereby inhibiting cell proliferation. Research on DHFR inhibitors has continued since the 1940s. To date, a variety of DHFR inhibitors have come into the market, primarily used for anti-tumor, antibacterial, antiparasitic, and anti-inflammatory therapy. This review summarizes the research progress of DHFR inhibitors with antitumor or antibacterial effects in recent years based on the classification of single-target and dual-target and looks forward to the opportunities and challenges faced by the work in this field.

, authors=null, authorsList=Can-tong CHEN, Lei HUANG, Ji-chen GUAN, Fang-fang LAI, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Fang-fang LAI, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198656222812532866, articleId=1198656220635688964, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=二氢叶酸还原酶抑制剂在肿瘤和细菌感染治疗中的研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

二氢叶酸还原酶(dihydrofolate reductase, DHFR) 是治疗肿瘤、细菌感染和寄生虫感染的广为人知的关键靶点。DHFR在细胞DNA生物合成中发挥重要作用, 其抑制剂通过抑制底物与DHFR结合, 干扰一碳代谢, 从而抑制细胞增殖。DHFR抑制剂的研究从20世纪40年代持续至今, 已有多种DHFR抑制剂上市, 主要用于抗肿瘤、抗菌、抗寄生虫和抗炎的治疗。本文以单靶点和双靶点为分类依据综述了近年来具有抗肿瘤或抗菌作用的DHFR抑制剂的研究进展, 并展望了该领域研究所面临的机遇与挑战。

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*来芳芳, Tel: 86-10-63165207, E-mail:
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Enzymes are shown in brown. GTP: Guanosine triphosphate; DHP-PPi: Dihydropteridine phosphate; DHP: Dihydropteroate; pABA: p-Aminobenzoic acid; DHPS: Dihydropteroate synthase; DHFS: Dihydrofolate synthase; SHMT2: Serine hydroxymethyl transferase 2; Ser: Serine; Gly: Glycine; THF: Tetrahydrofolate; dUMP: Deoxyuridine monophosphate; dTMP: Deoxythymidine monophosphate; MTHFD2/2L: Methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase 2/2-like; MTHFR: Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase , figureFileSmall=8Qu1BU3dQE1UcxS4WuBg8A==, figureFileBig=7RSa3Mt0kLkq2vdY0JIz6Q==, tableContent=null), ArticleFig(id=1198960256232555099, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198656220635688964, language=EN, label=null, caption=null, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Generic name Company Target Main indication
Methotrexate Antares Pharma DHFR, TS, 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase Rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, lymphoblastic leukemia, other types of lymphoma and solid malignancy
Pemetrexed Eli Lilly and Company DHFR, TS, glycinamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase Mesothelioma, non-small cell lung cancer
Pralatrexate Acrotech Biopharma Llc DHFR, TS Peripheral T-cell lymphoma
Trimetrexate Medimmune Oncology Inc DHFR Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia
Trimethoprim Monarch Pharmaceuticals Llc DHFR Bacterial infection
Brodimoprim Helsinn DHFR Bacterial infection
Pyrimethamine Vyera Pharmaceuticals Llc DHFR Malaria, toxoplasmosis
Proguanil Ayerst Laboratories DHFR Malaria
), ArticleFig(id=1198960256379355748, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, articleId=1198656220635688964, language=CN, label=Table 1, caption=

DHFR inhibitors on the market. DHFR: Dihydrofolate reductase; TS: Thymidylate synthase

, figureFileSmall=null, figureFileBig=null, tableContent=
Generic name Company Target Main indication
Methotrexate Antares Pharma DHFR, TS, 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase Rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, lymphoblastic leukemia, other types of lymphoma and solid malignancy
Pemetrexed Eli Lilly and Company DHFR, TS, glycinamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase Mesothelioma, non-small cell lung cancer
Pralatrexate Acrotech Biopharma Llc DHFR, TS Peripheral T-cell lymphoma
Trimetrexate Medimmune Oncology Inc DHFR Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia
Trimethoprim Monarch Pharmaceuticals Llc DHFR Bacterial infection
Brodimoprim Helsinn DHFR Bacterial infection
Pyrimethamine Vyera Pharmaceuticals Llc DHFR Malaria, toxoplasmosis
Proguanil Ayerst Laboratories DHFR Malaria
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二氢叶酸还原酶抑制剂在肿瘤和细菌感染治疗中的研究进展
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陈灿彤 , 黄蕾 , 关霁晨 , 来芳芳 *
药学学报 | 综述 2023,58(10): 2952-2960
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药学学报 |综述 2023 , 58 (10) : 2952 -2960
二氢叶酸还原酶抑制剂在肿瘤和细菌感染治疗中的研究进展
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陈灿彤, 黄蕾, 关霁晨, 来芳芳*
作者信息
  • 中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 天然药物生物活性物质与功能国家重点实验室, 北京 100050
通讯作者:
*来芳芳, Tel: 86-10-63165207, E-mail:
Research advances on dihydrofolate reductase inhibitors in the treatment of tumors and bacterial infections
Can-tong CHEN, Lei HUANG, Ji-chen GUAN, Fang-fang LAI*
Affiliations
  • State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Functions of Natural Medicines, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
出版时间: 2023-10-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0320
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二氢叶酸还原酶(dihydrofolate reductase, DHFR) 是治疗肿瘤、细菌感染和寄生虫感染的广为人知的关键靶点。DHFR在细胞DNA生物合成中发挥重要作用, 其抑制剂通过抑制底物与DHFR结合, 干扰一碳代谢, 从而抑制细胞增殖。DHFR抑制剂的研究从20世纪40年代持续至今, 已有多种DHFR抑制剂上市, 主要用于抗肿瘤、抗菌、抗寄生虫和抗炎的治疗。本文以单靶点和双靶点为分类依据综述了近年来具有抗肿瘤或抗菌作用的DHFR抑制剂的研究进展, 并展望了该领域研究所面临的机遇与挑战。

二氢叶酸还原酶  /  抗肿瘤  /  抗细菌感染  /  双靶点  /  二氢叶酸还原酶抑制剂

Dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) is a well-known key target in the treatment of tumors, bacterial infections, and parasitic infections; and it plays a critical role in the biosynthesis of cellular DNA. DHFR inhibitors interfere with one-carbon metabolism by inhibiting substrate binding to DHFR, thereby inhibiting cell proliferation. Research on DHFR inhibitors has continued since the 1940s. To date, a variety of DHFR inhibitors have come into the market, primarily used for anti-tumor, antibacterial, antiparasitic, and anti-inflammatory therapy. This review summarizes the research progress of DHFR inhibitors with antitumor or antibacterial effects in recent years based on the classification of single-target and dual-target and looks forward to the opportunities and challenges faced by the work in this field.

dihydrofolate reductase  /  anti-tumor  /  antibacterial  /  dual-target  /  dihydrofolate reductase inhibitor
陈灿彤, 黄蕾, 关霁晨, 来芳芳. 二氢叶酸还原酶抑制剂在肿瘤和细菌感染治疗中的研究进展. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (10) : 2952 -2960 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0320
Can-tong CHEN, Lei HUANG, Ji-chen GUAN, Fang-fang LAI. Research advances on dihydrofolate reductase inhibitors in the treatment of tumors and bacterial infections[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (10) : 2952 -2960 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0320
二氢叶酸还原酶(dihydrofolate reductase, DHFR) 普遍存在于所有生物中, 是一种利用还原型烟酰胺腺嘌呤二核苷酸磷酸(reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, NADPH) 将体内叶酸(dihydrofolate, FA) 或二氢叶酸(dihydrofolate, DHF) 还原为四氢叶酸(tetrahydrofolate, THF), 从而调节THF再生的生物所需的重要氧化还原酶。自20世纪中叶以来, DHFR作为治疗靶点的潜力已得到证实, 近年来的研究趋势表明, DHFR是治疗多种疾病的一个优良靶点, 在发现和设计新药方面将继续受到重视。
目前已上市的DHFR抑制剂(表 1) 在抗肿瘤、抗菌、抗疟原虫及其他原生动物中有广泛应用。甲氨蝶呤(methotrexate, MTX, 表 1) 以高亲和力结合并抑制DHFR, 从而抑制THF生成, 干扰胸腺嘧啶核苷酸及腺嘌呤核苷酸的合成, 阻断DNA和RNA生物合成, 达到抗肿瘤效果。甲氧苄啶(trimethoprim, TMP, 表 1) 为选择性抑制细菌DHFR的广谱抗菌剂, 可与抑制二氢蝶酸合酶(dihydropteroate synthase, DHPS) 的磺胺类药物, 如磺胺甲噁唑(sulfamethoxazole, SMZ) 等联用, 抑制细菌叶酸合成代谢通路。乙胺嘧啶(pyrimethamine, Pyr, 表 1) 对弓形虫和疟原虫的DHFR有较高亲和力, 可以抑制叶酸合成, 是一种用于预防和治疗弓形虫病和疟疾的抗寄生虫药物。此外, 以MTX为代表的DHFR抑制剂也被用于治疗自身免疫性疾病, 如类风湿性关节炎(rheumatoid arthritis, RA) 和银屑病。
然而, 已上市的DHFR抑制剂虽然已经相对成熟, 但也存在一些局限性, 如仅作用于单靶点导致的耐药性频发、某些药物溶解性或渗透性差及缺乏选择性导致的毒副作用等。抗微生物耐药性(antimicrobial resistance, AMR) 对全球公共卫生的威胁越来越大, 根据世界卫生组织的统计, 每年约有70万人死于AMR, 预计未来几年这一数字将迅速上升[1], 而单靶点抗生素的使用正是造成AMR频率加快的原因之一。在肿瘤治疗中, 靶向叶酸代谢通路的抑制剂通常具有较高的细胞毒性, 因此需要联合治疗来降低毒性或在低剂量下获得高疗效, 如果单一抑制剂的剂量过高, 会产生让患者无法忍受的毒副作用[2]。双靶点抑制剂在应对这些问题中显示出巨大潜力, 它可以增加靶点的命中率并提高疗效, 扩大治疗窗口以降低毒性反应。此外, 肿瘤细胞或细菌在DHFR抑制剂的诱导下发生代偿性改变时, 双靶点抑制剂可以有效延缓耐药的发生。本文简单归纳了目前已上市的DHFR抑制剂, 以单靶点和双靶点为分类依据综述了近年来具有抗肿瘤或抗菌作用的DHFR抑制剂的研究进展, 并展望了该领域的研究工作所面临的机遇与挑战。
DHFR分子质量为18~25 kDa, 是一种相对较小的水溶性蛋白[3]。迄今为止, 蛋白质数据库(protein data bank, PDB) 已经收集了500多个从真核生物和原核生物获得的单独或与不同配体复合的DHFR结构。通过对不同生物DHFR的氨基酸序列进行比对, 科学家发现了一系列严格保守的氨基酸残基, 其中大部分残基在催化机制中发挥着重要作用, 几乎所有残基都参与构成底物或辅酶结合位点。研究者也发现不同DHFR物种之间的同源性相当低(小于30%), 但同时具有很高的结构相似性[3], 因此其活性位点腔内的轻微结构差异可能导致物种特异性抑制[4]。DHFR的三级结构由一个β折叠主导, 它包含7条平行β链和1条反平行β[5], 所有酶亚型都包含至少4个α-螺旋, 其中一个构成底物结合位点, 还有两个组成辅酶的结合位点[3]。Met20环(与人DHFR中的Leu22环等效) 是DHFR的一个重要结构, 它有利于稳定NADPH的烟酰胺环, 从而促进氢化物从NADPH转化为DHF, 并且能够打开、关闭或封闭酶的活性位点[6]。在大肠杆菌DHFR中, 可以观察到等效的Met20环构象在催化过程中配体结合阶段的开放、闭合或封闭[7], 而人和其他所有脊椎动物DHFR结构的Leu22环则处于关闭的构象中, 这一事实表明大肠杆菌与人DHFR采用不同的动力学机制[8]。在原生动物寄生虫中, DHFR和胸苷酸合成酶(thymidylate synthase, TS) 以双功能酶DHFR-TS的形式表达, 而在其他生物体中它们以单独的蛋白质形式表达, 有证据显示弓形虫DHFR活性位点口袋中的疏水环境可用于药物设计, 以提高抗叶酸抑制剂的效力和选择性[7]
FA是一种水溶性B族维生素, 又称维生素M, 由喋啶环、对氨基苯甲酸和谷氨酸残基组成, 在DNA合成与甲基化、蛋白质代谢、红细胞生成和成熟等环节中十分重要, 其缺失会抑制细胞生长和增殖[9]。大多数细菌、酵母和植物具有内源性叶酸生物合成途径, 而哺乳动物没有从头合成叶酸的能力, 需要通过膳食摄入FA[10]。摄入的FA本身不具有生物活性, 通过DHFR的两次催化作用先还原为DHF, 再转化为体内活性形式THF, 作为底物参与叶酸循环代谢。叶酸代谢支持着用于激活和转移生物合成过程中一碳单位的一碳代谢[11]。与THF结合的一碳单位可以处于不同的氧化状态: 5, 10-亚甲基四氢叶酸(5, 10-methylene-THF)、5-甲基四氢叶酸(5-methyl-THF) 和10-甲酰基四氢叶酸(10-formyl-THF) 之间相互转换, 它们各自支持不同的生物功能[12], 对胸苷酸、氨基酸和嘌呤的从头合成至关重要[13](图 1)。丝氨酸、甘氨酸和肌氨酸等来源的一碳单位在丝氨酸羟甲基转移酶(serine hydroxymethyltransferase, SHMT) 作用下通过与THF分子5和10位氮原子共价结合形成5, 10-methylene-THF, 进入叶酸循环[10]。TS通过5, 10-methylene-THF依赖性反应将脱氧尿苷一磷酸(deoxyuridine monophosphate, dUMP) 转化为脱氧胸苷一磷酸(deoxythymidine monophosphate, dTMP), 同时得到DHF, SHMT使用5, 10-methylene-THF将丝氨酸转化为甘氨酸[14], 5, 10-methylene-THF通过亚甲基四氢叶酸还原酶(methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase, MTHFR) 的NADPH依赖性反应产生5-methyl-THF, 并被钴胺素依赖性蛋氨酸合酶消耗生成甲硫氨酸参与甲硫氨酸循环[10]。此外, 5, 10-methylene-THF还通过亚甲基四氢叶酸脱氢酶(methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase, MTHFD) 的作用得到10-formyl-THF, 10-formyl-THF参与嘌呤合成, 同时也能不可逆地氧化为CO2, 产生NADP还原当量, 有研究表明叶酸介导的NADPH产生可能在线粒体氧化还原稳态中尤为重要[15]
叶酸类似物MTX是目前作为抗癌药物应用得最广泛的DHFR抑制剂, 用于白血病治疗时, 大剂量的MTX会导致FA缺乏进而抑制嘌呤和嘧啶的从头合成, 导致循环白细胞的减少[16]。MTX疗效受到与剂量有关的毒副作用和抗性发展的限制, 缺乏肿瘤选择性也导致了该药物的使用局限性。因此, Woźniak等[17]设计了肿瘤靶向MTX递送系统来解决这些限制因素, 以提高MTX的安全性和疗效。相较于正常细胞, 新生肿瘤细胞对葡萄糖(glucose, GLU) 的摄入量升高, 这有赖于葡萄糖转运体(glucose transporters, GLUTs) 的过度表达[18]。将GLU、连接体和MTX通过易受水解酶作用的可裂解键连接合成GLU-MTX偶联物, 该偶联物对乳腺癌、肺癌和结直肠癌等5种癌细胞系有很强的细胞毒作用, 而对健康成纤维细胞没有影响。在肿瘤微环境中GLU-MTX显示出增强的选择性[19], 与未结合的MTX相比, 该偶联物的摄取量增加了17倍。GLU-MTX也引起了乳腺癌小鼠体内肿瘤生长的明显延迟。此外, 一种GLUT1抑制剂显著干扰了GLU-MTX诱导的生长抑制, 这表明GLU介导该药物的摄取。
Liang等[20]合成了一系列由MTX类似物衍生的DHFR抑制剂作为放疗增敏剂。选出其中具有最强DHFR抑制作用的化合物作为放疗增敏剂与X射线放疗相结合处理肿瘤细胞, 结果表明该组合对宫颈癌细胞的抗增殖活性比单独用药或单独用X射线治疗要突出得多, 同时该化合物显示出比MTX更高的选择性和放射增敏作用。体外实验显示, 该化合物与X射线的组合通过激活caspase-8、9和3以及活性氧(reactive oxygen, ROS) 介导的线粒体功能紊乱引发细胞凋亡, 且该组合明显抑制了HeLa细胞的迁移能力。体内抗肿瘤效果表明, 该组合有效地抑制了肿瘤的生长, 同时没有引起明显的不良反应。
2021年, Ewida等[21]报道了一系列新的噻唑类化合物, 其中最优秀的化合物表现出与MTX相当的对DHFR的强效抑制作用, 它对MCF7乳腺癌细胞系显示出很好的细胞毒性, 可以诱导细胞周期停滞和细胞凋亡。此外, 与对照组相比, 在小鼠乳腺接种埃利希腹水癌实体瘤的动物模型中, 该化合物显示出显著降低体重和肿瘤体积的潜力。
中药中用于治疗癌症的最著名的中草药之一是紫草科的紫草, 其根提取物紫草素已被证明具有抗病毒、抗微生物和抗肿瘤作用, 一些研究表明紫草素对胃癌、乳腺癌、黑色素瘤和急性髓细胞性白血病有不同程度的抑制作用并诱导凋亡[22], 然而紫草素作用于肿瘤细胞的具体机制仍不明晰。Wang等[23]首次描述了乙酰紫草素抑制DHFR的能力, 乙酰紫草素对重组hDHFR的直接酶抑制IC50在微摩尔水平, 与抑制体外癌细胞生长的浓度在同一数量级。研究还发现, 乙酰紫草素可以通过caspase-3激活诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡, 还可以下调控制癌症生长和进展的关键介质, 如HER2、Src和STAT3。此外, 乙酰紫草素能延迟Δ16HER2转基因小鼠中的原位乳腺癌的发生, 减小肿瘤体积。
探索开发多靶点药物是一种有吸引力的替代联合疗法, 特别是用于治疗癌症等复杂疾病。TS是关键的叶酸依赖性酶, 催化胸苷酸从头生物合成的最后阶段, 抑制癌细胞中的TS可以阻断DNA生物合成并导致细胞死亡[24]。DHFR与TS偶联参与原核细胞和真核细胞中细胞增殖原料(如dTMP) 的合成, 因此, 同时抑制DHFR和TS可以增强抗癌药物的活性。Tian等[25]设计和合成了一系列新的6-取代吡咯并嘧啶类似物, 对6种癌细胞系的生物活性评估结果表明大多数化合物表现出微摩尔级别的抗增殖效力。活性最强的化合物可显著影响肿瘤细胞的细胞周期分布, 并在一定程度上诱导G2/M期阻滞, 在100 μmol·L-1时该化合物对DHFR的抑制率为66.7%, 随后靶向酶的鉴定实验提示该化合物的抗增殖活性可能通过对TS和DHFR的双重抑制起作用。
硫氧还蛋白还原酶(thioredoxin reductase, TrxR) 是控制细胞的氧化还原平衡的关键酶之一, 有助于细胞的生长和生存。在肿瘤细胞中, 过表达的TrxR会导致细胞异常增生和凋亡障碍, 促进肿瘤耐药发生。抑制TrxR可以使细胞内ROS的积累, 进而发挥细胞毒性作用。Gambini等[26]合成了两种金(I) 咪唑/膦配合物, 它们对人MDA-MB-231细胞和鼠A17细胞具有显著的抑制活性, 能够以剂量依赖的方式降低细胞活力, IC50值在低微摩范围内。在小鼠A17移植瘤模型中, 两种化合物具有很好的抗癌效果, 与同为金属基药物的顺铂相比, 肾毒性更小。将2种化合物与3种乳腺癌细胞共孵育后, 所有肿瘤细胞系中的DHFR和TrxR酶活性都受到了强烈的抑制, 提示DHFR和TrxR可能是该化合物的潜在靶点[27]
表皮生长因子受体(epidermal growth factor receptor, EGFR) 和人表皮生长因子受体-2 (human epidermal growth factor receptor-2, HER2) 具有酪氨酸激酶活性, 在许多癌细胞特别是乳腺癌、宫颈癌、结肠癌和肝癌细胞中过度表达, 因此学界普遍认为抑制EGFR和HER2在靶向治疗癌细胞方面有重要作用[28, 29]。达沙替尼是一种酪氨酸激酶抑制剂[30], Sabry等[31]对达沙替尼和含有噻唑的化合物进行了结构上的修改, 获得了新的具有预期多靶点抗癌活性的系列化合物。与索拉非尼相比, 6个化合物对测试的癌细胞系尤其是MCF-7显示出较好的抗癌活性, 且具有较高的安全性和选择性指数。对EGFR、HER2和DHFR多重抑制效果最好的化合物通过G1/S期的周期阻滞而不是坏死来诱导细胞毒性。体内抗乳腺癌研究显示, 随着体内凋亡生物标志物caspase-3免疫表达的恢复, 该化合物治疗组的肿瘤体积显著减小, 这表明治疗组的细胞凋亡可能是通过caspase依赖性途径引起的。
寄生虫与肿瘤细胞有许多共同的代谢途径, 这为将抗寄生虫药重新利用为抗肿瘤药奠定了基础。在已上市的DHFR抑制剂中, Pyr可以选择性作用于寄生虫DHFR, 在临床上被用于治疗原生动物寄生虫引起的感染, 如疟疾和弓形虫病。然而近年来, 一些研究发现Pyr对癌细胞具有良好的选择性和细胞毒活性, 可能有利于治疗不同类型的肿瘤, 如肝癌、肺癌、黑色素瘤、乳腺癌、卵巢癌和急性骨髓性白血病[32]。Pyr通过诱导细胞凋亡、阻滞细胞周期和破坏DNA发挥对肿瘤细胞的细胞毒作用, 在不同类型的癌症模型中, Pyr能抑制STAT3、NF-κB、DX2、MAPK和端粒酶等致癌蛋白的表达[33]。胸苷磷酸化酶(thymidine phosphorylase, TP) 是一种核苷代谢酶, 与肿瘤的迁移和侵袭有重要的联系, 相对于正常组织, TP在肿瘤组织中的表达升高[34], 且TP低表达与延长患者生存期相关[35]。有研究提出Pyr可以通过抑制肺癌细胞中hDHFR和TP, 进而抑制肺癌细胞的增殖、上皮-间充质转化、侵袭和转移[36]。最近, 在一项Ⅰ/Ⅱ期临床试验中, Pyr治疗降低了慢性淋巴细胞白血病(chronic lymphocytic leukemia, CLL) 患者肿瘤组织中STAT3特征基因的表达, 50%的复发性CLL患者在服用Pyr后病情稳定[37]。目前研究Pyr抗肿瘤作用的临床试验还处于初级阶段, 未来还需要更多的临床前和临床研究将Pyr作为抗癌药物推广到临床治疗领域。
MTX是临床上广泛应用的抗肿瘤DHFR抑制剂, 但它在酶抑制实验中对细菌DHFR有更高效力[38]。然而, 由于MTX靶向性缺乏及细菌细胞壁的存在, MTX对人类细胞的细胞毒性和对细菌的低渗透性使其不适合作为安全有效的抗菌药物使用。铁载体是微生物分泌的一种低分子量铁螯合因子, 通过受体介导的主动摄取机制从环境中获取铁离子。Zhao等[39]将这种高效的细菌靶向载体与MTX偶联, 实现了细菌内的MTX积累从而有效抑制了细菌生长, 同时降低对正常人类细胞的细胞毒性。此外, 由于不同的细菌分泌并识别不同的铁载体, 这一偶联策略可以实现对不同细菌的选择性, 有利于减缓细菌耐药性的传播[40]
Yang等[41]报道了一种结核分枝杆菌DHFR (M. tuberculosis DHFR, Mtb DHFR) 抑制剂TA-C, 它对酶仅表现出适度的抑制活性, IC50约为1 μmol·L-1, 然而, TA-C对细胞具有显著的抗菌活性(MIC50 = 10~20 nmol·L-1)。后续研究表明, 在细胞内TA-C不仅靶向DHFR发挥抑制作用, 而且以前药形式被多个Mtb F420依赖性氧化还原酶还原为TA-C-acid[42]。TA-C-acid对Mtb DHFR的IC50相较于前药提高了100倍, 约为10 nmol·L-1, 但对于细胞的抗菌活性有所下降。TA-C的这种多靶点特性和可以被多个酶转化的前药属性使之在缓解耐药性方面颇具前景。
抗菌药耐药性的迅速产生和传播降低了许多曾经可靠的治疗方法的疗效, 已经成为治疗细菌感染的一个重要威胁。L28R是大肠杆菌DHFR基因folA中最常见的耐药突变之一, L28R突变在增加DHF亲和力的同时降低了TMP亲和力, 是对TMP耐药性形成最有利的基因突变, 它为导致耐药性的多种进化轨迹提供了可能。4'-DTMP可以抑制DHFR及其L28R变体, 抗生素敏感的大肠杆菌在4'-DTMP选择下获得抗性的速度比在TMP选择下慢得多, 此外4'-DTMP通过选择具有L28R突变的抗性基因型并将遗传轨迹转移到其他具有催化缺陷的抗性DHFR突变来阻碍抗性的进化[43]
Zhang等[44]应用综合的计算和实验方法发现了一种新的化合物CD15-3, 它能抑制大肠杆菌DHFR的野生型(wild type, WT) 和TMP抗性突变体L28R、P21L和A26T。在体外进化实验中, TMP抗性迅速出现并导致菌株IC50有8~200倍的提升, 而CD15-3诱导下大肠杆菌进化出的IC50仅比WT大2.7倍。CD15-3耐药菌株的全基因组序列分析显示, 大肠杆菌中编码DHFR的folA基因座没有突变, 几个外排泵的基因复制是导致对CD15-3产生适度抗性的原因。
金葡菌对TMP的耐药性主要是通过内源性TMP敏感染色体DHFR基因dfrB的点突变和获得先天耐药的质粒DHFR基因dfrA两种机制实现的[45, 46], 另外两个质粒编码的DHFR耐药基因dfrG和dfrK也会导致抗性发生, dfrG是主要的耐药性决定因素[47]。新的DHFR抑制剂对野生型和突变型金葡菌表现出强的细胞活性, 对野生型的MIC值小于0.001 μg·mL-1, 对3种临床分离的TMP耐药的耐甲氧西林的金葡菌的MIC值分别为2.5 μg·mL-1 (dfrA)、2.5 μg·mL-1 (dfrG) 和0.312 μg·mL-1 (dfrK), 该化合物对细菌野生型和TMP耐药突变型酶也表现出低纳摩尔级的酶活性[38], 是一个有前景的苗头化合物。
Iclaprim是由罗氏研发的一种小分子DHFR抑制剂, 以类似于TMP的方式结合并抑制细菌DHFR, 在亚微摩尔浓度下特异性和选择性地抑制革兰阳性(gram positive, G+) 和革兰阴性(gram negative, G-) 菌的DHFR, 而在超过5个数量级的高浓度下对hDHFR几乎没有抑制作用[48]。与TMP相比, iclaprim和DHFR之间更强的疏水相互作用导致两者亲和力增加, 使得其比TMP具有更强的活性, 并且与TMP不同, iclaprim能够在纳摩尔级别抑制耐药酶, 从而克服染色体基因中点突变引起的TMP耐药[49]。Iclaprim在体外对主要的G+病原体和一些G-呼吸道病原体具有活性[50], 其在体外血浆中的快速杀菌作用[51]有助于它被开发为单一疗法。同时, iclaprim在体外也与磺胺类药物如磺胺甲噁唑和磺胺嘧啶表现出明显的协同作用[52]。此外, 该药物在败血症、腹膜炎和肺炎的动物感染模型中显示出疗效[53]。两项Ⅱ期临床研究分别对疑似或确诊由G+病原体引起的医院获得性肺炎(hospital acquired pneumonia, HAP) 患者和复杂性皮肤和皮肤结构感染(complicated skin and skin structure infections, cSSSI) 患者进行了iclaprim和万古霉素治疗评估, 两者临床治愈率和安全性相当[54, 55]。两项Ⅲ期临床研究比较了iclaprim和利奈唑胺对cSSSI患者的临床治愈率, 分别为82.2%和85.3%[56]。随后两项Ⅲ期临床研究比较了iclaprim和万古霉素在急性细菌性皮肤和皮肤结构感染(acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections, ABSSSI) 患者中的疗效, iclaprim和万古霉素的合并早期临床反应分别为79.6%和78.8%, 表明与万古霉素相比, iclaprim在治疗ABSSSI方面到达了非劣效性(界值: 10%) 的主要终点[57]。Iclaprim的不良事件主要是恶心、腹泻和头痛, 目前的研究表明, 万古霉素相关的急性肾损伤的发生率在5%~42%[58], 用iclaprim替代万古霉素治疗ABSSSI可能会避免万古霉素相关的急性肾损伤[59]。Iclaprim目前正在开发中, 美国食品药品监督管理局(Food and Drug Administration, FDA) 于2015年授予iclaprim合格传染病产品和快速跟踪状态, 用于治疗ABSSSI和HAP, 于2017年授予iclaprim治疗囊性纤维化患者金葡菌肺部感染的孤儿药地位, 于2019年提出需要额外的数据进一步评估iclaprim的肝脏毒性风险。
双靶点药物在低治疗浓度下能达到较高的疗效, 同时能有效降低细菌的耐药频率, 因此许多研究都致力于开发双靶甚至多靶点抗生素。破坏细菌细胞膜和抑制细菌DHFR是抗菌药物常见的两种独立的作用机制, 而将这两种不同靶向的分子结合到同一化学骨架上可能获得比抗生素联合使用更强大的疗效。Martin等[60]表征了一种新化合物SCH-79797, 它可以杀死G+和G-菌, 并且具有无法检测到的低耐药频率。进一步研究表明, SCH-79797有两个独立的细胞靶点, 它通过抑制DHFR和破坏细胞膜完整性的双靶向作用机制表现出抗菌作用。IRS-16是在SCH-79797分子核心的基础上开发的衍生物, 它的抗菌活性增强, 但对哺乳动物细胞系的毒性没有增加, 同时IRS-16在小鼠阴道感染模型中也显示出对淋病奈瑟菌的疗效。
Li等[61]合成了一组DHFR和TS的双重抑制剂, 这些化合物对危及生命的耐药G-病原体表现出非常强的抗菌活性, 在体外与SMZ杀灭G-病原体表现出很强的协同作用, 代表性化合物OYYF-175在大肠杆菌引起的小鼠腹腔感染模型中有明显治疗效果。与结构相似的SCH-79797相比, OYYF-175具有更强的大肠杆菌DHFR抑制作用和抗菌活性, 这可能是OYYF-175通过抑制同一途径中的两种酶而发挥协同作用引起的。
DNA回旋酶是一种广泛存在于细菌内的Ⅱ型拓扑异构酶, 在哺乳动物细胞中不存在, 这使得该酶从选择性和毒性的角度成为开发潜在抗菌药物的理想靶标。DNA回旋酶在DNA复制中有至关重要的作用, 负责DNA两条链的瞬时断裂, 以及在DNA中引入负超螺旋[62]。Hassan等[63]探讨了一系列吡唑席夫碱化合物的免疫调节和体外抗菌活性, 其中最优秀的化合物对G+菌、G-菌和真菌都具有良好的活性, 且对两种癌细胞系有较强的抗增殖作用。对DHFR和DNA回旋酶的酶测定结果显示, 该化合物对两种酶的抑制作用分别强于标准药物TMP和环丙沙星, 表明该化合物有希望通过更深入的研究成为新药开发的候选药物。
细菌感染引发的炎症反应是不可忽视的临床症状, 因此开发兼具抗炎和抗菌活性的药物为细菌感染的治疗提供了新视野。环氧合酶2 (cyclooxygenase-2, COX-2) 是非甾体类抗炎药(nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, NSAIDs) 已知的靶点之一, Metwally等[64]开发的新化合物通过抑制COX-2和DHFR发挥抗炎和抗菌的双重作用。该化合物在卡拉胶诱导的大鼠足肿胀模型中表现出比参考药物塞来昔布更好的抗炎作用, 在体外对金葡菌和变形链球菌的抗菌效果强于氨苄西林。在COX-2和DHFR的直接酶抑制实验中, 该化合物表现出与标准药物相当或更优的IC50值, 提示该化合物有进一步开发的价值。
DHFR是广泛生物体内存在的参与叶酸代谢的酶, 与嘌呤和嘧啶合成相关, 是许多疾病中经过充分验证的重要靶点。本文对近几年合成和开发的、在临床前研究和临床试验阶段的具有抗肿瘤或抗菌作用的DHFR抑制剂进行了介绍。人DHFR与细菌DHFR存在结构和序列上的差异, 利用这种差异设计有选择性的DHFR抑制剂, 降低对人体的毒副作用是提高选择性的方法之一。合理探索骨架和靶标的结构、修改现有的抑制剂以适应新用途是一种合成DHFR抑制剂的有效方法, 因此许多团队利用结构骨架设计了很多有效的化合物, 呈现出很好的体外和体内生物活性。
DHFR抑制剂在临床广泛使用后耐药性问题日益严重, 因此急需针对耐药DHFR开发新的抑制剂。鉴于TMP是广泛应用的针对DHFR的抑制剂, 耐药频率高, 研发与DHFR结合特性和选择性优于现有抑制剂、对耐药DHFR有良好抑制作用、在体外和体内都有良好的增殖抑制活性的DHFR抑制剂的需求十分迫切。Iclaprim是针对TMP耐药的金葡菌DHFR设计的新型DHFR抑制剂, 它对野生型和耐药型DHFR都有强大的抑制作用, 目前已完成Ⅲ期临床试验, 未来可能用于治疗细菌和皮肤结构感染。
联合药物疗法或序贯治疗有助于耐药性频发的细菌感染和寄生虫感染的临床治疗, 然而联合用药存在不确定的药物相互作用, 可能增加治疗的潜在风险。以低药物浓度和长细胞内停留时间为特点的抗叶酸制剂递送系统可以延缓耐药的发生。此外, 双靶点治疗也是开发联合疗法和设计治疗方案以延长药物寿命的一种替代策略。双靶点的新一代DHFR抑制剂不仅能够同时结合不同靶点, 降低耐药发生频率, 还可以有效避免药物相互作用、生物分布与代谢的差异[65], 是开发DHFR抑制剂的一种有前途的方法。在靶点的选择上, 选择与DHFR在同一代谢通路的靶点, 如DHFR/TS, 可以使该通路被双重抑制, 这可能比抑制两个不同通路的独立靶点表现出更好的药物作用。在抗肿瘤化合物的靶点选择方面,同时抑制肿瘤细胞中过表达的、与生长、增殖和迁移相关的多个发挥协同作用的靶点, 如DHFR/TrxR、DHFR/TP和DHFR/EGFR/HER2, 可以治疗这种与细胞过度增殖相关的疾病。在抗菌化合物的靶点选择上, 抑制细菌内存在而哺乳动物中没有的特异性靶点, 如DHFR/细菌细胞膜和DHFR/DNA回旋酶, 有助于提升化合物的选择性和疗效。此外, 与单一靶点相比, 选择与炎症相关的靶点, 如DHFR/COX, 在易引起炎症的细菌感染的新药开发中更具优势。未来, 提高选择性和生物活性、降低耐药频率、开发多靶点药物、明确作用机制仍是DHFR抑制剂研发中令人感兴趣的研究方向。
作者贡献: 陈灿彤主要负责文章主要内容的撰写; 黄蕾和关霁晨负责文章格式和语法的修订; 来芳芳负责文章的立题和框架搭建。
利益冲突: 所有作者均没有利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金面上项目(82173854)
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2023年第58卷第10期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0320
  • 接收时间:2023-03-17
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-10-12
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  • 收稿日期:2023-03-17
  • 修回日期:2023-05-17
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国家自然科学基金面上项目(82173854)
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    中国医学科学院、北京协和医学院药物研究所, 天然药物生物活性物质与功能国家重点实验室, 北京 100050

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

Family
属数
Number of
genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of
total species (%)

Genus
种数
Number of
species
占总种数比例
Percentage of total
species (%)
鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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