Article(id=1198652614901596500, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, articleNumber=null, orderNo=null, doi=10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0539, pmid=null, cstr=null, oa=null, hot=null, price=null, onlineType=0, articleFormat=0, articleType=null, articleTypeStr=null, receivedDate=1682611200000, receivedDateStr=2023-04-28, revisedDate=1685116800000, revisedDateStr=2023-05-27, acceptedDate=null, acceptedDateStr=null, onlineDate=1763710653281, onlineDateStr=2025-11-21, pubDate=1691769600000, pubDateStr=2023-08-12, doiRegisterDate=null, doiRegisterDateStr=null, onlineIssueDate=1763710653281, onlineIssueDateStr=2025-11-21, onlineJustAcceptDate=null, onlineJustAcceptDateStr=null, onlineFirstDate=null, onlineFirstDateStr=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, createTime=1763710653281, creator=13701087609, updateTime=1763710653281, updator=13701087609, issue=Issue{id=1198652605778985059, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, year='2023', volume='58', issue='8', pageStart='0', pageEnd='2540', issueExtLink='null', onlineDate='null', pubDate='1691769600000', pubDateStr='2023-08-12', beforeIssueId=null, nextIssueId=null, price=null, status=1, issueComplete=1, articleOrder=1, issueType=-1, specialIssue=null, createTime=1763710651106, creator='13701087609', updateTime=1763710739504, updator='13701087609', preIssue=null, nextIssue=null, articleTotal=null, ext={EN=IssueExt(id=1198652976601596347, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, language=EN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=), CN=IssueExt(id=1198652976601596348, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, issueId=1198652605778985059, language=CN, specialIssueTitle=, coverIllustrator=null, specialIssueEditor=, specialIssueAbout=)}, issueFiles=null, downloadFileDto=null}, startPage=2203, endPage=2217, ext={EN=ArticleExt(id=1198652615191003503, articleId=1198652614901596500, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=EN, title=Recent advances of antiviral drugs based on multispecific binding strategy, columnId=null, journalTitle=Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, columnName=null, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

To address the continuous emergence of drug-resistant strains of viruses and the outbreaks of novel virus infections, developing new antiviral drugs based on novel strategies has become an important and urgent research topic. In recent years, the rapidly developing multi-specific binding strategy has become a focus and been widely applied in antiviral. This review summarizes the recent progress of the multi-specific binding strategy in the antiviral field from the perspective of medicinal chemistry and discusses existing challenges as well as future opportunities for antiviral drug discovery.

, authors=null, authorsList=Yang ZHOU, Shu-jing XU, Dang DING, Shuo WANG, Xin-yong LIU, Peng ZHAN, authorCompany=null, correspAuthors=Peng ZHAN, authorNote=null, correspAuthorsNote=null, copyrightStatement=Copyright ©2023 Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica. All rights reserved., copyrightOwner=null, extLink=null, articleAbsUrl=null, sourceXml=null, magXml=null, pdfUrl=null, pdf=null, pdfFileSize=null, pdfExtLink=null, richHtmlUrl=null, mobilePdfUrl=null, reviewReport=null, pdfFirstPage=null, abstractGraph=null, abstractGraphContent=null, abstractVideo=null, citation=null, cebUrl=null, magXmlContent=null, mapNumber=null, fund=null), CN=ArticleExt(id=1198652623969681530, articleId=1198652614901596500, tenantId=1146029695717560320, journalId=1189982191388893191, language=CN, title=基于多特异性结合策略的抗病毒药物研究进展, columnId=1190335349655180086, journalTitle=药学学报, columnName=综述, runingTitle=null, highlight=null, articleAbstract=

为应对病毒耐药株的不断涌现和新型病毒感染性疾病的暴发, 基于新策略的抗病毒药物研发成为重要且紧迫的研究课题。近年来, 快速发展的多特异性结合策略已成为研究的焦点, 并在抗病毒领域得到了广泛应用。本文从药物化学角度综述了多特异性结合策略在抗病毒领域的前沿进展, 并对其面临的挑战及未来前景进行了讨论。

, authors=

#共同第一作者.

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*展鹏, E-mail:
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基于多特异性结合策略的抗病毒药物研究进展
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周洋 # , 徐淑静 # , 丁当 , 王硕 , 刘新泳 , 展鹏 *
药学学报 | 综述 2023,58(8): 2203-2217
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药学学报 |综述 2023 , 58 (8) : 2203 -2217
基于多特异性结合策略的抗病毒药物研究进展
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周洋#, 徐淑静#, 丁当, 王硕, 刘新泳, 展鹏*
作者信息
  • 山东大学药学院药物化学研究所, 化学生物学教育部重点实验室, 山东 济南 250012
通讯作者:
*展鹏, E-mail:
Recent advances of antiviral drugs based on multispecific binding strategy
Yang ZHOU, Shu-jing XU, Dang DING, Shuo WANG, Xin-yong LIU, Peng ZHAN*
Affiliations
  • Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China
出版时间: 2023-08-12 doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0539
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为应对病毒耐药株的不断涌现和新型病毒感染性疾病的暴发, 基于新策略的抗病毒药物研发成为重要且紧迫的研究课题。近年来, 快速发展的多特异性结合策略已成为研究的焦点, 并在抗病毒领域得到了广泛应用。本文从药物化学角度综述了多特异性结合策略在抗病毒领域的前沿进展, 并对其面临的挑战及未来前景进行了讨论。

病毒  /  多特异性结合策略  /  抗病毒药物  /  药物化学  /  药物设计

To address the continuous emergence of drug-resistant strains of viruses and the outbreaks of novel virus infections, developing new antiviral drugs based on novel strategies has become an important and urgent research topic. In recent years, the rapidly developing multi-specific binding strategy has become a focus and been widely applied in antiviral. This review summarizes the recent progress of the multi-specific binding strategy in the antiviral field from the perspective of medicinal chemistry and discusses existing challenges as well as future opportunities for antiviral drug discovery.

virus  /  multispecific binding strategy  /  antiviral drug  /  medicinal chemistry  /  drug design
周洋, 徐淑静, 丁当, 王硕, 刘新泳, 展鹏. 基于多特异性结合策略的抗病毒药物研究进展. 药学学报, 2023 , 58 (8) : 2203 -2217 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0539
Yang ZHOU, Shu-jing XU, Dang DING, Shuo WANG, Xin-yong LIU, Peng ZHAN. Recent advances of antiviral drugs based on multispecific binding strategy[J]. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica, 2023 , 58 (8) : 2203 -2217 . DOI: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0539
病毒感染性疾病严重危害人类健康与社会发展。冠状病毒2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, SARS-CoV-2) 造成的新型冠状病毒感染(corona virus disease 2019, COVID-19) 夺去了数百万人的生命, 对人类健康和公共卫生安全带来了重大影响[1, 2]。人类免疫缺陷病毒(human immunodeficiency virus, HIV)、流感病毒(influenza virus)、乙肝病毒(hepatitis B virus)、埃博拉病毒(Ebola virus) 等引发的传染性疾病问题也亟待解决[3-6]。此外, 随着耐药性毒株的不断涌现, 世界正在面临着病毒感染的重大挑战[7-9]。因此, 迫切需要新的策略来预防和治疗当前以及未来可能出现的病毒感染性疾病。
自20世纪70年代, 药物设计逐渐发展为“一药一靶”的模式, 据此数百种药物应运而生。经典的药物设计一般是先明确一个靶点, 然后针对该靶点进行药物筛选和设计; 药物与靶点直接结合, 通过促进或者抑制靶点的功能来发挥作用; 另外, 经典药物通常在全身发挥作用, 不具有组织特异性。与之不同的是, 多特异性结合策略是在经典理性药物设计的基础上, 增加了另外一重功效: 一种是将靶标定位到细胞特定的效应器, 使该效应器对靶标进行调节, 比如蛋白水解靶向嵌合体(proteolysis targeting chimera, PROTAC); 另一种是让药物在特定位点发挥作用, 目的主要是减少药物不良反应, 比如抗体药物偶联物(antibody-drug conjugate, ADC)[10]。近年来, 快速发展的多特异性药物已成为研究热点[11, 12], 本文以药物化学的角度, 从PROTAC、抗体募集分子(antibody recruiting molecule, ARM)、ADC、抗病毒药物递送系统和核糖核酸酶靶向嵌合体(ribonuclease targeting chimera, RIBOTAC) 等方面总结了抗病毒药物研发的多特异性结合策略(图 1), 以期对当下及未来的抗病毒药物研发提供指导。
PROTAC的概念最早是在2001年由Craig Crews教授及合作者提出[13]。它能够利用生物体内天然存在的蛋白清理系统, 降低蛋白水平而非抑制其功能, 从而达到治疗疾病的目的。PROTAC分子是一种异双功能分子, 由三部分构成: 目标蛋白(protein of interest, POI) 配体、E3泛素连接酶(E3 ubiquitin ligase, E3) 配体及二者中间的连接链(图 2)[14]。E3泛素连接酶配体包括诸多类型, 其中, cereblon (CRBN)、von Hippel-Lindau (VHL)、三重基序蛋白25 (tripartite motif-containing protein 25, TRIM25) 及鼠双微体2 (murine double minute 2, MDM2) 目前最为常见[15, 16]。另外, 连接链(linker) 的性质对PROTAC的结构刚性、疏水性和溶解性均有很大的影响, 烷基链和聚乙二醇(PEG) 链最为常用[17]。PROTAC降解POI经泛素-蛋白酶体系统(ubiquitin-proteasome system, UPS) 实现, 其大致过程如下: PROTAC分子一端与POI结合, 另一端招募E3泛素连接酶, 形成三元复合物。之后E3泛素连接酶介导泛素从E1活化酶(E1 ubiquitin-activating enzyme, E1) 和E2结合酶(E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme, E2) 转移到POI, 多泛素化的POI被细胞内蛋白酶体识别并降解[18, 19]。PROTAC分子则被释放出来, 参与下一个POI的降解过程。相较于需在体内具备较高的浓度才能够占据靶标活性位点的传统小分子, PROTAC以一种“事件驱动”的作用模式, 在催化量即可发挥作用, 从而避免产生药物的脱靶毒性[20, 21]。PROTAC还能够在“不可成药蛋白”上解决小分子难以实现的靶向性问题, 例如细胞内的支架蛋白、转录因子调节蛋白或者表观遗传相关蛋白[22]。此外, 耐药性是小分子抑制剂在临床用药过程中不可避免的问题, PROTAC只需与活性位点弱结合, 在克服药物耐药性方面的优势也逐渐显现[23, 24]。近年来, PROTAC策略已逐渐应用于抗病毒药物领域。
2014年, Montrose等[25]报道了一项关于PROTAC技术在降低HBV X蛋白含量方面的研究, 其中, 新型细胞渗透性PROTAC (1, 图 3) 效果显著。此化合物包括X蛋白N端的寡聚化结构域(oligomerization domain)、X蛋白C端的不稳定结构域(instability domain) 以及融合聚精氨酸细胞穿透肽(polyarginine cell-penetrating peptide, CPP) 三部分(图 3)。寡聚化结构域能够拮抗X蛋白的促凋亡功能, CPP提高PROTAC的细胞渗透性, 不稳定结构域使X蛋白成为蛋白酶体降解的目标。研究显示, 1在HepG2肝癌细胞中可降解表达全长和C端截断两种形式的X蛋白。然而, 这种基于肽的PROTAC在抑制HBV复制和治疗慢性肝炎方面仍需进一步研究。
Telaprevir (2, 图 4) 是首个直接靶向丙型肝炎病毒(hepatitis C virus, HCV) NS3/4A蛋白酶的可逆共价抑制剂, 然而, 它与靶标亲和力低, 且易产生耐药性[26, 27]。为解决上述缺陷, 2019年, de Wispelaere等[28]根据telaprevir与HCV NS3/4A蛋白酶的晶体结构(PDB code: 3SV6), 选择在telaprevir溶剂开口区的吡嗪环上连接CRBN配体, 进而设计出了靶向降解病毒蛋白的PROTAC分子DGY-08-097 (EC50 = 748 nmol·L-1, 3, 图 4)。蛋白质印迹实验(Western blot assay) 和基于定量质谱的蛋白质组学研究表明, 3以浓度依赖性的方式降低细胞内NS3蛋白, 且具有抑制和降解的双重作用。此外, 3保留对两种突变体(HCV-NS3-V55A和HCV-NS3-A156S) 的活性, 在一定程度上解决了telaprevir的耐药性问题。该研究验证了PROTAC是抗病毒药物研发的一种有效策略。
2022年, Li等[29]以靶向血凝素(hemagglutinin, HA) 的齐墩果酸(oleanolic acid, OA, 4, 图 5) 为POI配体, 选择CRBN (化合物C1~C3, 5, 图 5) 和VHL (化合物V1~V6, 6, 图 5) 两种E3连接酶进而设计出了两类新型五环三萜类PROTAC分子, 实现了此技术在抗流感领域的首次应用。机制验证实验显示, V3对HA具有浓度依赖性的降解作用(EC50 = 1.44 μmol·L-1), 且降解过程依赖蛋白酶体。高分辨质谱分析光交联复合物实验进一步证明, 4倾向于在非活性位点结合, 而V3能够以降解的全新模式发挥抗病毒作用, 而不是抑制它的功能。
2022年, Xu等[30]基于现有抗流感病毒上市药物神经氨酸酶(neuraminidase, NA) 抑制剂奥司他韦(oseltamivir, OSV, 7, 图 6) 设计出了PROTAC化合物8e (8, 图 6)。在MDCK细胞中, 该化合物对野生型流感病毒株H1N1显示出较好的活性和较低的细胞毒性(EC50 = 0.33 μmol·L-1, CC50 > 50 μmol·L-1)。蛋白质印迹实验显示, 8能够显著降低NA的表达水平, 且阴性对照化合物8e-neg (9, 图 6) 不具有该作用, 这提示8的抗病毒活性可能是由NA降解引起的。进一步的机制验证实验表明, 8是通过泛素-蛋白酶体途径以浓度依赖性的方式来降解NA。此外, 它还能够有效对抗OSV耐药H1N1毒株(H1N1 H274Y), 这同样证实了PROTAC策略有望解决抗病毒药物的耐药性问题。
2022年, Zhao等[31]报道了一种名为APL-16-5 (EC50 = 0.28 μmol·L-1, CC50 > 100 μmol·L-1, 10, 图 7) 的抗甲型流感病毒(influenza A virus, IAV) 微生物代谢物。机制实验显示, 10与E3泛素连接酶TRIM25和IAV聚合酶PA亚基结合, 从而导致PA蛋白的泛素化, 最终在蛋白酶体中降解。因此, 10通过蛋白酶体依赖性的方式诱导流感病毒PA降解。
周期蛋白依赖性激酶(cyclin-dependent kinase, CDK) 抑制剂SNS032 (EC50 = 0.105 ± 0.004 μmol·L-1, 11, 图 8) 具有显著的抗人巨细胞病毒(human cytomegalovirus, HCMV) 活性[32, 33]。2021年, Hahn等[33]11为先导化合物设计了一种抗HCMV的PROTAC分子THAL-SNS032 (EC50 = 0.025 μmol·L-1, CC50 = 0.125 μmol·L-1, 12, 图 8)。12是由11通过连接链连接CRBN配体沙利度胺得到的PROTAC分子。蛋白质印迹实验表明, 12在低细胞毒性条件下浓度依赖性降解CDK, 并显示出一定的广谱抗病毒活性(murine human cytomegalovirus, MCMV, EC50 = 0.21 ± 0.09 μmol·L-1, CC50 = 1.00 ± 0.22 μmol·L-1; SARS-CoV-2, EC50 = 0.11 ± 0.02 μmol·L-1, CC50 = 64.9 ± 16.2 μmol·L-1)。
3CLpro (3C-like protease, 又称major protease, Mpro) 是冠状病毒中一种重要的非结构蛋白, 在子代病毒的复制和转录中发挥重要作用。2022年, 盘龙药业对3CLpro候选药物PLC-01 (13, 图 9) 运用蛋白降解的新机制设计出了两类PROTAC分子, 这是在冠状病毒领域的首次报道[34, 35]。研究者以不同linker将13分别与CRBN配体沙利度胺以及VHL配体得到6个系列PROTAC分子。荧光共振实验和蛋白质印迹实验显示, 部分PROTAC分子(即14~23, 图 9) 对3CLpro既有抑制活性(IC50 = 50~100 nmol·L-1), 又有良好的降解活性(DC50 = 50~100 nmol·L-1)。
抗体(antibody, Ab) 与抗原(antigen, Ag) 特异性识别并结合是生物医药治疗的基础。根据产生的途径不同, 抗体可分为外源性抗体和内源性抗体。内源性抗体是人类在生活中接触非自身抗原而产生的天然抗体, 存在于人体血液中, 包括IgM和IgG等[36]。人类血清中主要含有抗二硝基苯衍生物(dinitrophenol, DNP) 抗体、抗L-鼠李糖(L-rhamnose, Rha) 抗体、抗α-Gal抗体和醛缩酶抗体(aldolase antibody) 等[37]。近年来研究表明, 把内源性抗体募集到靶细胞表面, 可激活免疫系统识别被感染细胞, 并通过其Fc端介导的免疫机制杀伤靶细胞[38]。ARM正是根据这一概念发展起来的一类新型分子。它是一类双特异性小分子, 由三个结构域组成: 抗体结合端(antibody-binding terminus, ABT)、靶向结合端(target-binding terminus, TBT) 和连接二者的linker (图 10A)[39]。ARM首先介导内源性抗体与致病因子(例如蛋白质、病毒或被感染细胞) 形成三元复合物, 进而招募抗体或不同免疫效应细胞, 最后通过以下几种免疫机制诱导靶细胞的清除(图 10B)[40]。第一, 在补体介导的细胞毒作用(complement-dependent cytotoxicity, CDC) 中, 内源性抗体的Fc端与补体C1q结合, 会在靶细胞表面形成膜攻击复合体(membrane attack complex, MAC), 造成细胞外离子大量内流, 引起靶细胞裂解(包括被感染细胞、肿瘤细胞等)[41]。第二, 内源性抗体的Fc端也可以与免疫细胞的表面受体, 如细胞的Fcγ受体(Fc fragment γ receptor, FcγR) 相互作用, 从而引发免疫反应[42]。第三, 吞噬细胞也可通过抗体依赖性细胞吞噬作用(antibody-dependent cellular phagocytosis, ADCP) 杀伤靶细胞[43]。第四, 在抗体依赖的细胞介导的细胞毒性作用(antibody dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity, ADCC) 中, Fc段通过与效应细胞表面的Fc受体(如FcγRIIIa/CD16) 结合, 介导效应细胞杀伤靶细胞(肿瘤细胞、被感染的细胞、致病性免疫细胞等)[44]。近年来, 基于抗体募集的多特异性结合策略逐渐应用于抗病毒领域。
HIV感染需要病毒包膜(envelope, Env) 和宿主细胞膜之间的融合, 该过程由Env糖蛋白gp120 (glycoprotein120) 和gp41 (glycoprotein41) 介导。gp120负责与细胞表面受体CD4和辅助受体CCR5或CXCR4结合, 跨膜亚基gp41中C端的七肽重复序列区域(C-terminal heptad repeat region, CHR) 与N端七肽重复序列区域(N-terminal heptad repeat region, NHR) 组装成六螺旋束(six-helix bundle, 6HB), 进而介导病毒与宿主细胞之间的膜融合。重要的是, 阻断膜融合过程可有效抑制HIV复制[45, 46]。2009年, Parker等[47]以膜融合抑制剂BMS-378806为先导化合物(24, 图 11), 运用抗体募集策略设计了一种治疗HIV的抗体募集分子ARM-H (25, 图 11)。2524通过linker连接DNP而得。酶联免疫吸附实验(enzyme linked immunosorbent assay, ELISA) 表明, 25结合病毒糖蛋白gp120, 进而抑制与CD4的相互作用(25, IC50 = 8.7 μmol·L-1; 24, IC50 = 1.3 μmol·L-1)。研究者进一步评价了它们对HIV-1进入人MT-2 T细胞的抑制作用(25, EC50 = 6.4 μmol·L-1; 24, EC50 = 0.32 μmol·L-1), 且25未表现出细胞毒性。此外, 25能够浓度依赖性地募集抗DNP抗体, 形成gp120、25和抗DNP抗体三元复合物, 进而激活免疫系统的CDC介导被感染细胞死亡。2014年, 该团队[48]结合药物化学、生物化学和细胞测定分析以及计算化学提供了一种优化的ARM-H模拟物(MT-2 T cell EC50 = 0.013 μmol·L-1, CD4 inhibition IC50 = 0.330 μmol·L-1, Ab recruiting EC50 = 1.12 μmol·L-1, 26, 图 11), 它能够抑制病毒复制(MT-2 T细胞), 并且结合gp120和招募Ab的效力均比25强(MT-2 T cell EC50 = 12 μmol·L-1, CD4 inhibition IC50 = 19.9 μmol·L-1, Ab recruiting EC50 = 37.9 μmol·L-1)。综上, 2526的独特之处在于, 它们代表了一种基于抗体募集的多特异性结合策略, 并通过两种相互增强的机制干扰病毒复制过程——既能阻止病毒进入, 又能靶向表达Env糖蛋白的细胞进行免疫识别和免疫清除。
NA本质上是抗原性的, 可以通过有效的半抗原修饰来增强它们的免疫原性, 继而使机体产生免疫应答以清除被感染细胞。2020年, Liu等[49]通过将NA抑制剂扎那米韦(A/Wisconsin/629-D00015/2009 H1N1 pdm09, KD = 0.3 nmol·L-1; A/Netherlands/22/2003 H3N2, KD = 1.0 nmol·L-1; B/Florida/4/2006 Yamagata Lineage, KD = 2.4 nmol·L-1; B/Brisbane/60/2008 Victoria Lineage, KD = 7.2 nmol·L-1, zanamivir, ZNV, 27, 图 12) 与高免疫原性半抗原DNP结合设计出了扎那米韦-DNP偶联物(zanamivir-DNP conjugate, zan-DNP, 28, 图 12)。SPR实验及共聚焦显微照片显示, 28不仅与NA具有较强的结合力(A/Wisconsin/629-D00015/2009 H1N1 pdm09, KD = 0.8 nmol·L-1; A/Netherlands/22/2003 H3N2, KD = 1.1 nmol·L-1; B/Florida/4/2006 Yamagata Lineage, KD = 21.5 nmol·L-1; B/Brisbane/60/2008 Victoria Lineage, KD = 58.4 nmol·L-1), 还可浓度依赖性地募集抗DNP抗体。它可以抑制甲型和乙型流感病毒的NA, 同时向病毒感染的细胞募集抗DNP抗体, 调动免疫系统的CDC和ADCC攻击病毒或被感染细胞。此外, 28对感染了100倍MLD50病毒的小鼠单剂量给药可根除甲型和乙型流感病毒代表性毒株(a /Puerto Rico/8/1934, H1N1; A/Puerto Rico/8/1934, Reassortant X-31, H3N2; A/California/07/200, H1N1 pdm09; B/Florida/4/2006) 的晚期感染, 并且对严重感染长达3天的小鼠仍有效, 因此该多特异性药物可能成功治疗当前疗法难以治愈的流感病毒感染。
ADC是新一代以大分子为载体的靶向药物, 由Ab和小分子细胞毒药物(cytotoxic drugs) 和连接链构成。它利用抗体的靶向性特异性识别靶细胞表面的抗原, 将细胞毒药物高效地运送至靶细胞内部, 并通过体内多种免疫机制杀伤靶细胞[50]。与ARMs不同, ADC与抗体以共价结合的方式杀伤靶细胞, 其独特的组成方式, 使其药代动力学、药效学以及耐药机制均不同于其他类型的药物。近年来, 抗体药物偶联的策略已逐渐应用于抗病毒药物领域。
辅助受体CCR5是病毒与被感染细胞融合过程中的关键受体。2010年, Gavrilyuk等[51]将CCR5抑制剂Aplaviroc (29, 图 13) 通过linker连接羧醛酶抗体38C2 (aldolase antibody 38C2, 又称mAb 38C2) 设计并合成了38C2-Aplaviroc偶联物(38C2-Aplaviroc, 30, 图 13)。流式细胞术实验与中和测定实验证明, 30可以与HIV、猴免疫缺陷病毒(simian immunodeficiency virus, SIV) 及人猴嵌合免疫缺陷病毒(simian/human immunodeficiency virus, SHIV) 辅助受体CCR5结合, 并能够有效抑制病毒进入靶细胞(HIV-1JR-FL IC50 = 0.57 nmol·L-1; SIVmac239 IC50 = 0.1 nmol·L-1; SHIV162P3 IC50 = 0.89 nmol·L-1)。该研究证明了抗体药物偶联的策略在抗病毒领域的应用潜力。
2013年, Sato等[52]报道了一项基于HIV膜融合抑制剂BMS-378806 (24, 图 11) 和BMS-488043 (31, 图 14) 构建ADC的研究。研究人员合成了两个膜融合抑制剂2431N-酰基-β-内酰胺衍生物32 (图 14) 和33 (IC50 = 67.5 nmol·L-1, 图 14), 二者进一步结合mAb 38C2得到了两个缀合物, 即ADC 34 (图 14) 和35 (IC50 = 128 nmol·L-1, 图 14)。其中, 3234均无显著活性, 但3335能够有效抑制HIV感染。这说明了31具有构建ADC的连接位点, 能够成功偶联抗体并可能促进新型双特异性抗体的开发。
2014年, Asano等[53]在CCR5抑制剂Maraviroc (HIV-1JR-FL IC50 = 1.6 ± 0.25 nmol·L-1, 36, 图 15) 上找到了有效的连接位点, 通过linker将其与mAb 38C2连接, 设计出了Maraviroc的ADC 37 (HIV-1JR-FL IC50 = 19 ± 2.6 nmol·L-1, 图 15) 和38 (HIV-1JR-FL IC50 = 7.7 ± 0.50 nmol·L-1, 图 15)。其中, 36在三唑环处衍生的38不会显著丧失活性。因此, 该研究发现了36的可行结合位点, 并成功运用了抗体药物偶联的多特异性结合策略来发挥抗病毒作用。
此外, 再生元制药公司和Cidara Therapeutics公司研发的两类新型ADC也有望成功用于抗流感药物的开发[54, 55]。综上, 抗体药物偶联物在抗病毒领域具有巨大前景。
随着SARS-CoV-2更具传播性突变体的出现, 开发能够快速适应病毒不断变异的抗病毒药物日益迫切[56]。SARS-CoV-2是一种正链单链RNA病毒, 通过人类血管紧张素转换酶2 (human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, hACE2) 受体进入宿主细胞, 且病毒基因组RNA通过亚基因组mRNA的复制, 实现病毒蛋白的生物合成。研究发现, 小干扰RNA (small interfering RNA, siRNA) 可同时靶向这两种RNA, 实现双重基因沉默[57]。siRNA作为一种核酸药物, 可与多肽、抗体或其他小分子直接连接形成核酸递送分子, 进而改变其体内分布及代谢动力学等性质, 帮助siRNA进入到特定的组织和细胞内[58]。2022年, Traube等[59]报道了靶向SARS-CoV-2化学稳定的siRNA的设计与合成。研究人员在siRNA的3′端整合了一个炔烃部分, 通过Cu(I) 催化的点击化学对siRNA进一步化学修饰。按照这个策略, siRNA可以与宿主细胞受体hACE2配体缀合得到siRNA修饰物, 即siRNA与hACE2结合肽的偶联物(39, 图 16A), 从而实现靶向递送。研究表明, hACE2结合肽偶联的siRNA能够减少3D黏膜纤毛肺微组织中的病毒复制和病毒诱导的细胞凋亡。综上, 通过点击化学将siRNA与受体配体结合的模式有助于特异性递送siRNA, 进而发挥抗病毒作用。
胆固醇在真核细胞膜中含量丰富。胆固醇缀合可以自发地将修饰的核酸和肽插入脂质双分子层并随后被细胞摄取[60]。这种膜靶向策略特别有助于增强NA抑制剂的抗病毒功效, 因为它们会抑制受感染细胞表面的NA活性, 从而阻断后代病毒的释放和传播[61]。2021年, Lv等[62]发现ZNV-胆固醇结合物(40, 图 16B) 是一种长效NA抑制剂, 其对耐药性流感病毒具有强效作用(A/California/07/2009 H1N1, 对被感染小鼠单次给药或多次给药后小鼠100%存活)。与ZNV (t1/2 = 0.3 h, 大鼠) 相比, 40的抗病毒活性和血浆半衰期(t1/2 = 7.6 h, 大鼠) 得到显著改善。40的单剂量给药可保护小鼠免受携带OSV抗性H275Y的野生型或突变型H1N1流感病毒的致命攻击。机制研究证实, 结合物靶向细胞膜并进入宿主细胞, 从而抑制NA功能和后代病毒颗粒的组装。因此, 该研究证明了胆固醇结合可能是改善小分子药物药代动力学和疗效的有效策略。
恩夫韦肽(enfuvirtide, T20) 是靶向CHR的一种多肽衍生类药物, 是目前唯一获得FDA批准的病毒膜融合抑制剂, 已用于HIV-1的联合治疗[63]。然而, 它的抗病毒活性较低, 且已发现部分突变毒株对其具有耐药性, 亟待开发新一代抗病毒膜融合的脂肽抑制剂(HIV fusion-inhibitory lipopeptide)。2022年, Xue等[64]以T20为先导化合物, 运用胆固醇缀合策略开发出了脂肽抑制剂LP-97 (41) 和LP-98 (42, 图 16C), 其在体外和体内都表现出高效且持久的抗病毒活性, IC50值范围为0.28 pmol·L-1至7.31 pmol·L-1。实验结果表明, 使用低剂量42的单一疗法可显著降低病毒载量并维持长期病毒抑制。此外, 42的预给药完全阻断了直肠和阴道内病毒的感染。总之, 胆固醇缀合作为一种有效的HIV治疗或预防策略具有巨大潜力。
人血清白蛋白(human serum albumin, HSA) 是血清中含量最多的蛋白质(人血清中含量为30~50 g·L-1), 它是人体内各种分子的天然转运体[65]。作为人体血液中的蛋白质, 它具有体内稳定、安全无毒、低免疫原性、生物可降解、易于纯化且水溶性较好等优势。小分子药物与HSA的非共价结合可保护自身免受酶促降解和肾脏清除, 从而延长体内半衰期[66]。因此, HSA是一种理想的药物载体, 用于靶向递送和改善药物的药代动力学特征。
用于HIV治疗的膜融合抑制剂T20为肽类药物, 通常在体内半衰期短(t1/2 = 3.46~4.35 h), 需要频繁注射[67]。因此, 利用新策略以开发长效抗HIV肽类药物具有重要意义。以C34 (43, 图 16D) 序列为模板设计的3-马来酰亚胺基丙酸(3-maleimidopropionic acid, MPA) 修饰肽, 即艾博卫泰(albuvirtide, ABT, 44, 图 16D), 2018年作为新型抗HIV肽类药物在中国获批, 其中第13个残基丝氨酸(S) 被赖氨酸(K) 取代, 进而可以在该位置进行单个MPA的修饰。另外两个非靶标结合残基被谷氨酸取代, 以提高溶解度、稳定性和抗病毒活性。结果表明, 44不可逆地与HSA结合并延长其半衰期。44可以与靶序列形成稳定的螺旋结构, 有效阻断6-HB (EC50 = 0.82 μmol·L-1) 和HIV-1 Env (EC50 = 1.27 nmol·L-1) 介导的细胞-细胞膜融合过程。值得注意的是, 44可以抑制各种HIV-1亚型和突变体进入细胞, 且对T20耐药的HIV-1毒株也非常有效[67]。此外, 一项III期临床试验(TALENT研究) 表明, 可注射的长效HIV-1药物44与利托那韦增强的洛匹那韦(LPV/r) 联合使用既安全又有效[68]。因此, 44的发现表明HSA作为一种药物载体可用于开发长效抗病毒药物。
目前研究发现, mRNA、miRNA和长链非编码RNA等与多种疾病的发病机制相关[69]。研究人员常使用反义寡核苷酸(antisense oligonucleotide, ASO) 和siRNA来靶向降解RNA。虽然目前已有多种该类药物(例如inotersen、nusinersen、patisiran等) 在临床应用, 但它们仍存在细胞摄取差、组织特异性递送低(肝和肾除外)、内体逃逸差以及可能产生特异性毒性等问题[70, 71]。因此, 开发靶向RNA又不受寡核苷酸疗法限制的新技术, 是未来开发靶向RNA药物的重中之重。
核糖核酸酶L (ribonuclease L, RNase L) 可切割降解入侵细胞的RNA, 是先天性免疫反应的一部分。它在所有细胞中作为无活性单体以低水平表达, 在病毒感染期间被激活并二聚化以发挥作用, 且该过程具有固有的底物特异性[72]。基于RNase L的生物学功能, 研究人员开发了靶向降解RNA的RIBOTAC技术[73]。RIBOTAC分子由一个与RNA结合的小分子, 一个招募RNase L的小分子及连接二者的linker三部分组成(图 17), 它的功能是将RNase L募集到基因组以产生选择性切割降解的效果[74]。因此, RIBOTAC的靶向降解可以刺激局部免疫反应以清除细胞中的RNA。
RIBOTAC作为一种新型分子, 具有靶向不同类型RNA的潜能, 与ASO和siRNA相比优势在于[75]: ①更好的药代动力学性质: 作为小分子, RIBOTAC相较于ASO和siRNA更易进入组织; ②具有催化特性: RIBOTAC结合并诱导一个RNA降解后, 可以结合另一个RNA, 这样, 低浓度的RIBOTAC就可以实现目标RNA的降解。
2020年, Haniff等[76]基于化合物C5 (KD = 11 nmol·L-1, 45, 图 18A) 设计了一种靶向SARS-CoV-2 RNA基因组功能结构的生物活性小分子C5-RIBOTAC (46, 图 18A)。SARS-CoV-2基因组结构分析显示, 移码元件(frameshifting element, FSE) 中存在结构趋同的位点, 其控制着病毒复制的关键蛋白(pp1a, pp1ab多聚蛋白) 的翻译。研究表明, 45可以结合并稳定FSE, 进而显著抑制SARS-CoV-2 FSE的移码能力。因此, 研究人员以45作为与RNA结合的小分子, 通过linker连接招募RNase L的小分子得到RNA降解剂46。实验结果显示, 基于RIBOTAC的多特异性策略将45的抗病毒活性提高了至少10倍(不同指标评估的综合结果)。机制验证表明, 46通过引起整个SARS-CoV-2 RNA降解而发挥效应, 且降解过程依赖RNase L。综上, 该研究表明RIBOTAC有望成为开发病毒RNA基因组降解剂的新方向。
G-四链体(G-quadruplex) 是SARS-CoV-2 RNA基因组的重要组成部分, β冠状病毒假结(betacoronaviral pseudoknot) 对于SARS-CoV-2复制过程至关重要[74]。鉴于这两种寡核苷酸的关键作用, 2023年Mikutis等[77]分别以靶向G-四链体的PDS (47, KD = 26 nmol·L-1, 图 18B) 和靶向β冠状病毒假结的MTDB (48, KD = 56.1 μmol·L-1, 图 18B) 为先导, 通过PEG链连接RNA降解弹头咪唑基, 设计了两个RIBOTAC 49 (KD = 137 μmol·L-1, 图 18B) 和50 (KD = 16.6 μmol·L-1, 图 18B)。研究表明, 49不仅在体外可以结合并降解G-四链体, 还能够以浓度依赖的方式减少病毒复制(IC50 = 1 μmol·L-1); 同样, 50在体外可以结合并降解其靶RNA, 且在低微摩尔浓度下表现出显著的抗病毒作用。此外, 50能够抑制SARS-CoV-2在小鼠体内的复制。该研究证明了RIBOTAC在体内既耐受又有效, 并具有治疗病毒感染的潜力。
除上述基于多特异性结合的抗病毒药物研究实例外, 还有以下几种新颖的双功能靶向抗病毒小分子化合物。
2019年, Rashad等[78]以gp120蛋白拮抗剂和宿主细胞辅助受体(coreceptor, CoR) 蛋白拮抗剂可以共价结合为基本假设, 设计了可提高抗HIV活性的双功能协同分子LJC240-L4-UM15 (Bal.01, IC50 = 0.359 nmol·L-1, 51, 图 19A), 即将CCR5小分子拮抗剂LJC240和gp120肽三唑拮抗剂UM15共价结合以形成双功能嵌合体。与两种抑制剂的非共价混合物相比, 51保留了单个成分的特异性靶向功能, 同时在抑制不同假病毒的细胞感染方面表现出低至亚纳摩尔的效力(Bal.01, IC50 = 0.359 ± 0.05 nmol·L-1; JRFL, IC50 = 4 ± 0.6 nmol·L-1; YU2, IC50 = 4.8 ± 0.008 nmol·L-1), 这大大高于单个组分的非共价混合物的效力(JRFL, IC50 = 34 ± 3.6 nmol·L-1)。因此, 这项工作表明双功能嵌合体能够参与并协同阻断宿主细胞和病毒膜融合的过程。
化合物BNM-III-170 (Bal.01, IC50 = 0.73 ± 0.04 μmol·L-1, 52, 图 19B) 是一个小分子CD4模拟物, 其能够与HIV-1 Env糖蛋白中的gp120亚基结合。2021年, Gaffney等[79]52与能够和gp41亚基结合的含有三个色氨酸的多肽(Trp3) 偶联, 设计并合成了一类可同时结合gp120和gp41的双功能HIV-1抑制剂BNM-L7-Trp3 (Bal.01, IC50 = 0.58 ± 0.09 μmol·L-1, EC50 = 7.2 ± 0.5 μmol·L-1, 53, 图 19B)。ELISA表明, 单独使用52能够有效抑制病毒对细胞的感染, 而单独使用Trp3则不能起到抑制病毒感染的效果, 且只有二者共价连接形成的53才能够诱导病毒的水解。此外, 分子模拟证明, 52具有嵌入病毒膜结构的倾向, 并协同Trp3对病毒膜结构产生破坏作用, 因此这可能是双功能抑制剂产生非特异性病毒水解效应的潜在原因。最后, 研究发现双功能抑制剂还能有效清除被HIV-1感染的细胞, 从而起到治疗艾滋病的效果。
2021年, Wang等[80]报道了一种HIV-1双功能进入抑制剂, 该分子由哌啶-4-甲酰胺类CCR5拮抗剂TAK-220 (EC50 = 9.2 nmol·L-1, 54, 图 19C) 和靶向gp41 NHR的融合抑制肽C34 (EC50 = 1.2 nmol·L-1, 43, 图 19C) 组成。合成的嵌合体是通过将两个药效载体与聚乙二醇链连接而构建的。其中一个嵌合体CP12TAK (EC50 = 0.03 nmol·L-1, 55, 图 19C) 表现出了异常强大的抗病毒活性, 分别是4354的40倍和306倍。除R5型病毒外, 55还能强烈抑制X4型HIV-1毒株的感染。这些数据表明55作为一种新机制的抗HIV-1药物, 值得进一步开发。同时也表明, 多特异性结合策略有望推广到抗其他Env病毒感染的治疗中。
艾滋病和乙型肝炎等慢性感染性疾病, 以及埃博拉病毒和SARS-CoV-2等新型病毒的出现, 凸显了运用新策略开发高效低毒的抗病毒药物的必要性。多特异性结合策略是对抗致病病毒的有效武器, 本文总结了近年来其在抗病毒领域的应用。PROTAC、ARM、ADC、抗病毒药物递送和RIBOTAC等多特异性结合策略已被用于发现新的药物实体, 以增强抗病毒效力, 解决耐药性问题[81-83]
然而, 这些策略也有一些局限性。PROTAC必须穿过细胞膜才能实现细胞内蛋白质降解, 但大分子量往往伴随着有限的水溶性和细胞渗透性, 导致生物利用度低。同时, RIBOTAC也因其通常具有较大的分子量而面临成药性不足的问题。其次, 内源性抗体种类较少是设计ARM药物的一大难题, ADC药物生产难度大也成为了研发ADC药物的一大壁垒。此外, 在核酸递送策略中, 寡核苷酸由于固有的代谢不稳定性难以进入临床研究, 胆固醇缀合分子口服生物利用度较差以及HSA载药效率低、适用性有限等是实现药物靶向递送亟待解决的问题。
HIV整合酶、HIV RNase H和流感核酸内切酶等金属酶也是一大类抗病毒靶标, 其通常具有膜渗透性差和细胞活性差的缺点[84]。此外, HIV RNase H具有较浅的配体结合位点, 是“不可成药”的靶标。上述缺点均有望运用靶向蛋白降解策略来克服。对于ARM策略, 在先导化合物上定位不同的连接位点进而连接内源性抗体可以增加ARM设计的多样性。此外, 每个HSA分子只能连接少量药物分子, 且载药能力很大程度上受限于药物的理化性质, 但可以将药物包裹在HSA内制备成HSA纳米颗粒, 直到在靶标部位被释放, 从而提高治疗效果。值得期待的是, 多种多特异性结合策略联用, 有望解决其成药性差等问题。例如, PROTAC和RIBOTAC可运用HSA载药系统进行药物递送, 改善药物代谢动力学性质。
考虑到病毒的高度变异性和致病机制的复杂性, DNA编码化学技术[85]、基因组编辑技术[86]、核酸适体技术[87-90]和基于蛋白质自组装的配体[91]有望得到应用, 为开发强效抗病毒药物提供参考。此外, 以抗病毒药物靶标和计算化学(例如三元复合物的预测) 为重点的结构生物学的发展将极大地促进PROTAC抗病毒分子的设计[92-94]。同时, 天然产物具有复杂的结构和多样的药理活性, 为发现新型抗病毒药物提供了丰富资源。例如, Tat蛋白在HIV-1的转录中发挥重要作用, 天然产物雷公藤甲素可作为Tat降解剂通过蛋白酶体途径降低Tat蛋白水平, 对HIV-1复制表现出皮摩尔至纳摩尔级别的抑制活性[95]
将药物化学与生物信息学、人工智能技术相结合, 可对已上市药物进行高通量表型筛选和反向药效团匹配虚拟筛选, 探索新的适应症。此外, 快速药物筛选系统的建立以及可靠的安全性和有效性评价体系也将加速抗病毒药物的开发进程。
随着多特异性结合策略的迅速发展, 更高活性且成药性良好的抗病毒药物将被报道。这将有助于新型抗病毒药物分子的开发, 以应对现有的病毒感染以及新病毒的暴发。
作者贡献: 周洋、徐淑静负责全文的撰写; 丁当、王硕负责文章的修改; 刘新泳、展鹏对论文进行整体的指导和修改。
利益冲突: 所有作者均声明不存在利益冲突。
  • 国家自然科学基金面上项目(82173677)
  • 山东省杰出青年基金(ZR2020JQ31)
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2023年第58卷第8期
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doi: 10.16438/j.0513-4870.2023-0539
  • 接收时间:2023-04-28
  • 首发时间:2025-11-21
  • 出版时间:2023-08-12
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  • 收稿日期:2023-04-28
  • 修回日期:2023-05-27
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国家自然科学基金面上项目(82173677)
山东省杰出青年基金(ZR2020JQ31)
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    山东大学药学院药物化学研究所, 化学生物学教育部重点实验室, 山东 济南 250012

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2种不同金属材料的力学参数

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Genus
种数
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species
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鹅膏菌科Amanitaceae 2 11 5.26 鹅膏菌属 Amanita 10 4.78
小菇科 Mycenaceae 2 12 5.74 丝盖伞属 Inocybe 5 2.39
多孔菌科 Polyporaceae 8 14 6.70 蜡蘑属 Laccaria 5 2.39
红菇科 Russulaceae 3 23 11.00 小皮伞属 Marasmius 6 2.87
小菇属 Mycena 11 5.26
光柄菇属 Pluteus 5 2.39
红菇属 Russula 17 8.13
栓菌属 Trametes 5 2.39
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